GE2022 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

2 MARKS AND 16 MARKS

UNIT III
TQM TOOLS & TECHNIQUES I
The seven traditional tools of quality - New management tools - Six-sigma:
Concepts, methodology, applications to manufacturing, service sector including IT - ench
mar!ing - "eason to #ench mar!, ench mar!ing process - $%&' - Stages, Types(
) %'"*S
1. Give the seven tools of quality?
+areto ,iagram
+rocess $low ,iagram
Cause-and-&ffect ,iagram
Chec! Sheets
-istogram
Control Charts
Scatter ,iagrams
2. Define chec !hee".
' chec! sheet is also called as data collection sheet, tally sheet(
' chec! sheet is a form for systematic data gathering and registering to get a clear
view of the facts(
It is used to !eep trac! of how often something occurs(
The form of the chec! sheet is tailored for situation or application(
#. $hen %n chec !hee" i! &!e' %n' h() "( c(n!"*&c" i".
' chec! sheet is used to indicate the frequency of a certain occurrence(
Construction of chec! sheet:
$ormulate the o#.ective for collecting data(
,ecide which data is necessary
,etermine who and how data will #e analy/ed
,raw a format to record data
Collect and record data pro#lem- wise #y putting tally lines(
Start counting #y tallying on the list: 0,00,000,0000 and 0000 represent the num#ers 1,),2,3
and 4 respectively(
%ar! on the list the total num#er of facts, which were noticed(
+. Li!" "he ",-e! (f chec !hee".
+rocess distri#ution chec! sheet
,efective item chec! sheet
,efect location chec! sheet
,efect factor chec! sheet
.. Define Hi!"(/*%0.
' histogram is a #ar chart5diagram showing a distri#ution of varia#le quantities or
characteristics( It is a graphical display of the frequency distri#ution of the numerical data(
The data are displayed as a series of rectangles of equal width and varying heights(
6. $hen %n Hi!"(/*%0 i! &!e' %n' h() "( c(n!"*&c" i".
' histogram is used to show clearly where the most frequently occurring values
are located and the data is distri#uted(
It is also a tool for determining the maximum process results(
It ena#les the analyst to quic!ly visuali/e the features of a complete set of data(
Construction of -istogram:
'fter the data collection, count the num#er of data values collected(
,etermine the range of the data
"ange6 -ighest value 7 8owest value
,ivide the data values in groups or classes and count the num#er of values in each class(
Now determine the width of the class
9idth of the class6 "ange5 Num#er of classes
,raw a frequency ta#le for all values
Construct a histogram #ased on the frequency ta#le( $or that, mar! the class limits on the
hori/ontal axis and the frequency on the vertical axis(
$inally write the title and num#er of values on the diagram(
1. Li!" "he ",-e! (f Hi!"(/*%0.
ell Shaped -istogram
,ou#le- pea!ed -istogram
+lateau
Com#
Isolated pea!
&dged pea!
S!ewed
Truncated
2. Define CE.
The cause and effect :C&; diagram is a graphical ta#ular chart to list and analy/e the
potential causes of a given pro#lem(
The cause and effect diagram is also called as fish#one diagram #ecause of its appearance
and the Ishi!awa diagram after the man who developed it in 1<32(
The diagram consists of a central stem leading to the effect with multiple #ranches
coming off the stem listing the various groups of possi#le causes of the pro#lem(
3. $hen %n CE i! &!e' %n' h() "( c(n!"*&c" i".
C& diagram has unlimited application in research, manufacturing, mar!eting, office
operations, services and so forth(
To analyse cause and effect relationships(
To facilitates the search for solutions of related pro#lems(
To standardi/e existing and proposed operation and
To educate and train personnel in decision ma!ing and corrective action activities(
C(n!"*&c"i(n (f CE4
,efine the effect :the pro#lem; clearly and concisely(
%ar! the short description of the effect in a #ox( Then draw a line from this #ox towards
left(
8ist down all the possi#le minor and ma.or causes through a #rainstorming session(
%ar! the ma.or causes on the #ranches and minor causes on the su# #ranches of the C&
diagrams(
8oo! for possi#le solutions for these causes(
Introduce the changes(
10. Define 5%*e"( 'i%/*%0.
' +areto diagram is a diagnostic tool commonly used for separating the vital few causes
that account for a dominant share of quality loss(
The +areto diagram is #ased on the +areto principle, which state that a few of the defects
accounts for most of the effects(
+areto analysis is also called as =>5)> rule and as 'C analysis( It means only )>? of
pro#lems :defects; account for =>? of the effects(
This analysis is a method of classifying items, events or activities according to their
relative importance(
11. $hen %n 5%*e"( 'i%/*%0 i! &!e' %n' h() "( c(n!"*&c" i".
+areto diagram can #e used in a wide range of situations where one needs to prioritise pro#lems
#ased on its relative importance( It can #e used as a ris! assessment technique from activity level
to system level(
C(n!"*&c"i(n (f 5%*e"( Di%/*%04
@#tain data, using a chec! sheet or #rainstorm(
'rrange the data in descending order starting from the largest category to smallest(
Calculate the total and percentage of the total that each category represents(
Compute the cumulative percentages(
,raw a #ar chart with two vertical axes( 'long the left vertical axis, mar! the measured
values for each cause, starting from /ero till the total num#er of causes( The right vertical
axis should have the same height and should go from > to 1>>?( This axis displays the
cumulative percentages( 8ist the different !inds of causes along the hori/ontal axis, from
left to right in descending order of frequency or costs(
,raw a #ar a#ove each item whose height represents the num#er for that cause(
+lot a cumulative percentage line(
Now draw a hori/ontal line from =>? :on the right vertical axis; to the left till the point
of intersection with the cumulative line, and then draw a vertical line from this
intersection downwards till the hori/ontal axis( 8eft from this intersection point are the
)>? of causes :the most essential #ottlenec!s; which causes =>? of the damages(
12. Define S"*%"ific%"i(n %n%6,!i!.
Stratification is a method of analysis of data #y grouping it in different ways(
Stratification means segregating a group of measurements, o#servations or any other data
into several su# groups on the #asis of certain characteristics( These data are used for
identifying the influencing factors(
%achines, suppliers, operators, tools, gauges or time dependent sources li!e shifts ,
prepost lunch, start or end of shifts, etc(, are strata with respect to which the study of
variations is conducted for diagnosis and possi#le control5 prevention of variations(
1#. E7-6%in "he !"*%"ific%"i(n %n%6,!i! -*(ce'&*e.
Collect data a#out any pro#lem in product5 defects
Consider potentially significant way of grouping data :stratification; on #asis of factors
experienced
"epeat data through graphic manner reflecting stratification
'nalyse results and try new grouping, if necessary, to get insight into the pro#lem and
ma!e evident the correlation(
1+. $h%" i! % !c%""e* 'i%/*%08
The scatter diagram is a simple graphical device to depict the relationship #etween two
varia#les(
' scatter diagram is composed of a hori/ontal axis containing the measured values of one
varia#le and a vertical axis, representing the measurements of the varia#le(
This diagram displays the paired data as a cloud of points( The density and direction of
the cloud indicate how the two varia#les influence each other(
This diagram cannot prove that one varia#le causes the other, #ut they do indicate the
existence of a relationship as well as the strength of that relationship(
1.. Li!" "he 'iffe*en" ",-e! (f !c%""e* 'i%/*%0 -%""e*n!.
Strong +ositive Correlation: The value of A clearly increases as the value of B
increases(
Strong Negative Correlation: The value of A clearly decreases as the value of B
increases(
9ea! +ositive Correlation: The value of A increases slightly as the value of B
increases(
9ea! Negative Correlation: The value of A decreases slightly as the value of B
increases(
Complex Correlation: The value of A seems to #e related to the value of B, #ut
the "elationship is not easily determined(
No Correlation: there is any demonstrated connection #etween the two varia#les(
16. Gi9e "he -&*-(!e (f !c%""e* 'i%/*%0.
The purpose of the scatter diagram is, therefore, to display what happens to one varia#le when
another varia#le is changed(
This diagram is used to understand, why particular variations occur and how they can #e
controlled(
11. C(n!"*&c" %n !c%""e* 'i%/*%0.
Select varia#les which are related to each other
Collect data
Create scatter diagram
B 'xis cause or independent varia#le
A 'xis &ffect or dependent varia#le
&xamine the shape of cloud of points
,etermine the type and strength of the mutual relationship(
12. Define c(n"*(6 ch%*".
' control chart is a graph that displays data ta!en over time and the variations of this
data( ' control chart illustrates the dynamic performance of the process( This is #ased on a series
of random samples ta!en at regular intervals(
13. Li!" "he ",-e! (f c(n"*(6 ch%*".
Control chart for varia#les 6 for measura#le data eg: time
Control chart for characteristics 6 for quantifia#le data such as num#er of defects
20. $h%" i! "he -&*-(!e (f C(n"*(6 ch%*"8
The purpose of control chart is to identify when the process has gone out of
statistical control, thus signaling the need for some corrective action to #e ta!en(
21. What are the new seven management tools?
i( 'ffinity ,iagram
ii( Interrelationship ,igraph
iii( Tree ,iagram
iv( %atrix ,iagram
v( +rioriti/ation %atrices
vi( +rocess ,ecision +rogram Chart
vii( 'ctivity Networ! diagram
22. Define Affini", 'i%/*%0.
'n affinity diagram is a tool to collect a large amount of ver#al expressions and organi/e
then in according to natural relationship #etween individual items(
This diagram is also referred to as a *C diagram after its inventor Ciro *awa!ita(
This is a special !ind of #rainstorming tool(
2#. $h%" i! "he -&*-(!e (f %ffini", 'i%/*%08
To provide a visual representation of large amount of ideas(
To determine logical priorities(
To extract the large amount of useful information from few or scattered data, or from
unrelated ideas(
To understand and organi/e pro#lems that are not clear(
To create new concepts(
2+. Gi9e "he -*(ce'&*e "( c(n!"*&c" Affini", 'i%/*%0.
Identify the pro#lem and phrase it without #iases
rainstorm ideas and opinions, individually and record on the cards
Sort cards into groups and discard those with no affinity
8a#el the groups and organi/e the cards under then to form chart
'nalyse the results and plan action-points
2.. Define *e6%"i(n!hi- 'i%/*%0.
"elationship diagram is a tool fro finding causes to a pro#lem( The #asic logic #ehind the
tool is the same as those of the cause and effect diagram( This diagram not only clarifies the
relationship #etween cause and effect #ut also #etween the various causes( It is a graphical
representation of all factors in a complicated pro#lem, system or situation(
26. $h%" i! "he -&*-(!e (f *e6%"i(n!hi- 'i%/*%08
To generate a visual representation of the relations #etween an affect and its cause as well as
the inter relationship #etween the different causes of the pro#lem(
This tool can #e used to
Identify !ey pro#lem from a list of important pro#lemsD
Identify the root cause of existing pro#lemsD
Identify !ey factors needed to ma!e a decision(
21. H() "( '*%f" *e6%"i(n!hi- 'i%/*%0.
Identify and decide the effect of the pro#lem( 9rite it in the centre of a #oard and enclose
it in a dar! #ordered rectangle(
Conduct #rainstorming to identify the immediate causes of effect( Note down these
causes in rectangle around the centre dar! rectangle(
Connect these immediate causes to the effect #y connecting the rectangles of the causes
to that of the effect with a line( This line has an arrow pointing towards the effect(
The elements of the rectangle with the most outgoing arrows will indicate the root causes(
Those one with the most incoming arrows will #e !ey outcomes or results(
22. Define "*ee 'i%/*%0.
' tree diagram systematically #rea!s down a topic into its components elements and shows the
logical and sequential lin!s #etween these elements( The tree diagram systematically outlines the
complete spectrum of paths and tas!s that must #e carried out to achieve a goal(
23. Li!" "he &!e! (f "*ee 'i%/*%0.
The purpose of tree diagram is to explore the ways and means to achieve the o#.ective,
develop a list of alternative means and to present them in visual understanda#le form(
It helps to develop a systematic, step #y step, strategy to achieve an o#.ective(
#0. H() "( c(n!"*&c" "*ee 'i%/*%0.
State the pro#lem to #e studied
rainstorm all possi#le causes or methods of addressing the pro#lem(
Identify and list the primary, secondary and tertiary means from #rainstorm
'rrange and rearrange the elements in proper order in #oxes(
#1. Define M%"*i7 'i%/*%0.
' matrix diagram is a tool that is used to systematically organi/e information that must #e
compared on a variety of characteristics in order to ma!e a comparison, selection or choice(
It is a tool which the relations #etween two sets of factors in the form of a ta#le or a matrix(
%atrix diagram, sometimes referred as a Equality ta#leF, is the starting point in #uilding a Ehouse
of qualityF
#2. H() "( '*%f" 0%"*i7 'i%/*%0.
$irst decide on the two sets of factors to #e compared(
+lace the main factors vertically on the left hand side of the matrix and the dependent
factors hori/ontally on top of the matrix(
In the main #ody of the matrix, place appropriate sym#ols at the intersecting square
#oxes denoting the relationship #etween the two factors(
Now score relationships and select most important relationship for analysis(
##. Define 'eci!i(n "*ee.
' +rocess ,ecision +rogramme Chart :+,+C;, also !nown as decision tree, is a planning
tool to outline every conceiva#le and li!ely occurrence in any planning(
The +,+C forces proactive thin!ing on what can go wrong with oneGs plan and what
would one do to overcome the effect of such adverse occurrences(
This tool helps to anticipate undesira#le occurrences and ena#les one to prepare with
plans to neutralise their effect(
#+. Li!" "he &!e! (f 'eci!i(n 'i%/*%0.
The +,+C is useful when one wants to plan all possi#le chains of events that might occur
during a pro.ect(
This tool is particularly used in new product development, #uilding and equipment and
data processing programs(
This tool is widely used in decision ma!ing when the tas! is new, complex and unique(
#.. H() "( c(n!"*&c" 'eci!i(n "*ee.
$irst, prepare a EnormalF flow chart of the process with all expected events as steps in the
chart(
Identify the various possi#ilities of the process not going as per the plan due to any
a#normal occurrences(
9rite these occurrences on the flow chart through #ranching at appropriate locations(
Now identify the ways and means to counter the effect due to a#normal occurrences(
9rite these counter-measures in rectangles connecting the corresponding a#normal
occurrence on one side and the process o#.ective on the other(
#6. Define A**() 'i%/*%0.
'n arrow diagram is a graphic description of the sequential steps that must #e completed #efore
a pro.ect can #e completed( The +&"T :+rogram &valuation and "eview Technique; and C+%
:Critical +ath %ethod; charts are the #est !nown arrow diagram( It is a planning tool that
determines the critical path of a process or a pro.ect(
#1. Gi9e !(0e (f "he &!e! (f A**() 'i%/*%0.
To show the paths to complete a pro.ect(
To find the shortest time possi#le for the pro.ect(
To display graphically simultaneous activities(
This diagram is indispensa#le for long term pro.ects(
#2. H() "( c(n!"*&c" A**() 'i%/*%0.
Identify and list each activity to #e done in the pro.ect(
,etermine the sequence of activities
Construct a networ! reflecting the precedence relationships
9rite the activity time under arrow leading from it(
#3. Define M%"*i7 '%"% An%6,!i! 'i%/*%0.
' matrix data analysis diagram is very much similar to a matrix diagram with a difference
that numerical data is used instead of sym#ols indicating the existence and strength of
relationship( It is the only tool among the ENew Seven %anagement ToolsF which uses
numerical data and produces numerical results(
+0. Gi9e !(0e (f "he &!e! (f M%"*i7 '%"% An%6,!i! 'i%/*%0.
To present numerical data a#out two sets of factors in a matrix form and analyses it to get
numerical output(
This tool is used in E+rincipal Component 'nalysisF where only two characteristics can
#e studied at a time(
This tool is advantageous in studying the parameters of production processes, in
analy/ing mar!et information, in finding lin!s #etween numerical and non-numerical
varia#les and so on(
+1. H() "( c(n!"*&c" M%"*i7 '%"% An%6,!i! 'i%/*%0.
,ecide the two factors whose relations are to #e analysed
Chec! the num#er of individual items in the two factors
+repare a matrix to accommodate all items of the two factors
&nter numerical data in the matrix
'nalyse the final results
42. Defne Six Sigma?
Six-Sigma is a #usiness process that allows organi/ations to drastically improve their
#ottom line #y designing and monitoring every day #usiness activities in ways that minimi/e
waste and resources while increasing customer satisfaction( It is achieved through continuous
process measurement, analysis H improvement(
+#. $*i"e '()n "he !"e-! "( %chie9e !i7 !i/0% !"%"e.
Step1: Identify the process you create or service you provide(
Step): Identify the customers for your product or service and determine what they consider
important(
Step2: Identify your needs to provide the product or service that satisfies the customer(
Step3: ,efine the process for doing the wor!(
Step4: %ista!e-+roof the process and eliminate waste effort(
StepI: &nsure continuous improvement #y measuring, analy/ing and controlling the improved
process(
++. Define :ench0%*in/ %n' /i9e "he (;<ec"i9e! (f :ench0%*in/.
enchmar!ing is the process of determining who is the very #est, who sets the standard, and
what that standard is( enchmar!ing can provide them with data to show what can #e achieved
and how can #e achieved(
O:=ECTI>ES4
It aims at a goal setting process to facilitate comparison with the #est(
It aims at motivating and stimulating company employees towards the goal of continuous
quality improvement(
It aims at external orientation of the company(
It aims at identifying a technological #rea!through(
It aims at searching for industry #est practices(
+.. Li!" "he ",-e! (f :ench0%*in/.
C6%!!ific%"i(n ;%!e' (n "he O;<ec" "( ;e :ench0%*e'
+roduct enchmar!ing
+erformance enchmar!ing
+rocess enchmar!ing
Strategic enchmar!ing
C6%!!ific%"i(n ;%!e' (n "he O*/%ni!%"i(n! %/%in!" )h(0 (ne i! :ench0%*in/
Internal enchmar!ing
Industry enchmar!ing
Competitive enchmar!ing
est-in class enchmar!ing
"elationship enchmar!ing
+6. Li!" "he ;enefi"! %n' -i"f%66! (f :ench0%*in/.
:enefi"!4
Creating a culture that values continuous improvement to achieve excellence(
Sharing the #est practices #etween #enchmar!ing partners
+rioriti/ing the areas that need improvement(
&nhancing creativity #y devaluing the not-invented-here syndrome(
Increasing sensitivity to changes in the external environment(
5i"f%66!4
This is #ased on learning from others, rather than developing new and improved
approaches(
enchmar!ing should not #e a su#stitute for innovation(
It must #e a mere improvement tool(
+1. $h%" i! ?MEA8
$%&': $ailure and &ffect 'nalysis, also !nown as "is! analysis, is a preventive measure to
systematically display the causes, effects and possi#le actions regarding o#served failures(
The o#.ective of $%&' is to anticipate failures and prevent them from occurring( $%&'
prioritises failures and attempts to eliminate their causes(
+2. Li!" "he ",-e! (f ?MEA.
System $%&'
,esign $%&'
+rocess $%&'
Service $%&'
&quipment $%&'
%aintenance $%&'
Concept $%&'
&nvironmental $%&'

+3. Li!" !(0e (f "he ;enefi"! (f ?MEA.
Improve +roduct5 +rocess relia#ility and quality(
Increase customer satisfaction
&arly identification and elimination of potential product5process failure modes(
+rioriti/e +roduct5+rocess deficiencies(
Capture engineering5organi/ation !nowledge
,ocument and trac! the actions ta!en to reduce ris!(
+rovide focus for improved testing and development(
%inimi/e late changes and associated cost(
'ct as catalyst for teamwor! and idea exchange #etween functions(
.0. $h%" %*e "he !"%/e! (f ?MEA 0e"h('(6(/,8
S"%/e14 Specifying +ossi#ilities
a( $unctions #( +ossi#le failure modes c( "oot causes d( &ffects
e( ,etection5+revention
S"%/e24 Juantifying "is!
a( +ro#a#ility of cause #( Severity of effect c( &ffectiveness of control to prevent cause
d( "is! priority num#er
S"%/e#4 Correcting -igh "is! Causes
a( +rioriti/ing wor! #( ,etailed action c( 'ssigning action responsi#ility
d( Chec! points on completion
S"%/e+4 "e-evaluation of "is!
a( "ecalculation of ris! priority num#er
16 MARKS4
1. Explain the Q or S! tools?
Seven tools of quality"
+areto ,iagram
+rocess $low ,iagram
Cause-and-&ffect ,iagram
Chec! Sheets
-istogram
Control Charts
Scatter ,iagrams
Chec !hee"4
' chec! sheet is also called as data collection sheet, tally sheet(
' chec! sheet is a form for systematic data gathering and registering to get a clear
view of the facts(
It is used to !eep trac! of how often something occurs(
The form of the chec! sheet is tailored for situation or application(
' chec! sheet is used to indicate the frequency of a certain occurrence(
C(n!"*&c"i(n (f chec !hee"4
$ormulate the o#.ective for collecting data(
,ecide which data is necessary
,etermine who and how data will #e analy/ed
,raw a format to record data
Collect and record data pro#lem- wise #y putting tally lines(
Start counting #y tallying on the list: 0,00,000,0000 and 0000 represent the num#ers 1,),2,3
and 4 respectively(
%ar! on the list the total num#er of facts, which were noticed(
T,-e! (f chec !hee".
+rocess distri#ution chec! sheet: Ksed to collect on process varia#ility(
,efective item chec! sheet: Intended to specify the variety of defects occurring,
together with their frequency of occurrence(
,efect location chec! sheet: Intended to identify where defects occur on the
product(
,efect factor chec! sheet: used to monitor the input parameters in a process that
might affect the incidence of defects(
Chec Shee" E7%0-6e
The figure #elow shows a chec! sheet used to collect data on
telephone interruptions( The tic! mar!s were added as data was
collected over several wee!s.
Hi!"(/*%04
' histogram is a #ar chart5diagram showing a distri#ution of varia#le quantities or
characteristics( It is a graphical display of the frequency distri#ution of the numerical data(
The data are displayed as a series of rectangles of equal width and varying heights(
' histogram is used to show clearly where the most frequently occurring values
are located and the data is distri#uted(
It is also a tool for determining the maximum process results(
It ena#les the analyst to quic!ly visuali/e the features of a complete set of data(
C(n!"*&c"i(n (f Hi!"(/*%04
'fter the data collection, count the num#er of data values collected(
,etermine the range of the data
"ange6 -ighest value 7 8owest value
,ivide the data values in groups or classes and count the num#er of values in each class(
Now determine the width of the class
9idth of the class6 "ange5 Num#er of classes
,raw a frequency ta#le for all values
Construct a histogram #ased on the frequency ta#le( $or that, mar! the class limits on the
hori/ontal axis and the frequency on the vertical axis(
$inally write the title and num#er of values on the diagram(
T,-e! (f Hi!"(/*%04
ell Shaped -istogram: ' common pattern is the #ell7shaped curve !nown as the
Enormal distri#ution(F In a normal distri#ution, points are as li!ely to occur on
one side of the average as on the other( e aware, however, that other
distri#utions loo! similar to the normal distri#ution( Statistical calculations
must #e used to prove a normal distri#ution(
,ou#le- pea!ed -istogram: The #imodal distri#ution loo!s li!e the #ac! of a two-
humped camel( The outcomes of two processes with different distri#utions are
com#ined in one set of data( $or example, a distri#ution of production data
from a two-shift operation might #e #imodal, if each shift produces a different
distri#ution of results( Stratification often reveals this pro#lem(
+lateau: The plateau might #e called a Emultimodal distri#ution(F Several processes with
normal distri#utions are com#ined( ecause there are many pea!s close
together, the top of the distri#ution resem#les a plateau(
Com#: In a com# distri#ution, the #ars are alternately tall and short( This distri#ution
often results from rounded-off data and5or an incorrectly constructed
histogram( $or example, temperature data rounded off to the nearest >()
degree would show a com# shape if the #ar width for the histogram were >(1
degree(
Isolated pea!: if there is a small, essentially disconnected pea! along with a normal,
symmetrical pea! this is an isolated pea! histogram

&dged pea!: The edge pea! distri#ution loo!s li!e the normal distri#ution except that it
has a large pea! at one tail( Ksually this is caused #y faulty construction of the
histogram, with data lumped together into a group la#eled Egreater thanLF
S!ewed: The s!ewed distri#ution is asymmetrical #ecause a natural limit prevents
outcomes on one side( The distri#utionGs pea! is off center toward the limit
and a tail stretches away from it( $or example, a distri#ution of analyses of a
very pure product would #e s!ewed, #ecause the product cannot #e more than
1>> percent pure( @ther examples of natural limits are holes that cannot #e
smaller than the diameter of the drill #it or call-handling times that cannot #e
less than /ero( These distri#utions are called right 7 or left7s!ewed according
to the direction of the tail(
Truncated: The truncated distri#ution loo!s li!e a normal distri#ution with the tails cut
off( The supplier might #e producing a normal distri#ution of material and
then relying on inspection to separate what is within specification limits from
what is out of spec( The resulting shipments to the customer from inside the
specifications are the heart cut(
C%&!e %n' Effec"4
The cause and effect :C&; diagram is a graphical ta#ular chart to list and analy/e the
potential causes of a given pro#lem(
The cause and effect diagram is also called as fish#one diagram #ecause of its appearance
and the Ishi!awa diagram after the man who developed it in 1<32(
The diagram consists of a central stem leading to the effect with multiple #ranches
coming off the stem listing the various groups of possi#le causes of the pro#lem(
C& diagram has unlimited application in research, manufacturing, mar!eting, office
operations, services and so forth(
To analyse cause and effect relationships(
To facilitates the search for solutions of related pro#lems(
To standardi/e existing and proposed operation and
To educate and train personnel in decision ma!ing and corrective action activities(
C(n!"*&c"i(n (f CE4
,efine the effect :the pro#lem; clearly and concisely(
%ar! the short description of the effect in a #ox( Then draw a line from this #ox
towards left(
8ist down all the possi#le minor and ma.or causes through a #rainstorming session(
%ar! the ma.or causes on the #ranches and minor causes on the su# #ranches of the
C& diagrams(
8oo! for possi#le solutions for these causes(
Introduce the changes(
E7%0-6e
The managing director of a weighing machine company received a num#er of irate
letters, complaining of slow service and a constantly engaged telephone( "ather
surprised, he as!ed his support and mar!eting managers to loo! into it( 9ith two other
people, they first defined the !ey symptom as Mlac! of responsiveness to customersM and
then met to #rainstorm possi#le causes, using a Cause-&ffect ,iagram, as illustrated(
They used the M$our %sM :%anpower, %ethods, %achines and %aterials; as primary cause
areas, and then added secondary cause areas #efore adding actual causes, thus helping to
ensure that all possi#le causes were considered( Causes common to several areas were
flagged with capital letters, and !ey causes to verify and address were circled(
@n further investigation, they found that service visits were not well organi/edD engineers
.ust pic!ed up a pile of calls and did them in order( They consequently set up regions #y
engineer and sorted callsD this significantly reduced traveling time and increased service
turnaround time( They also improved the telephone system and recommended a review of
suppliersM quality procedures(
5%*e"( 'i%/*%04
' +areto diagram is a diagnostic tool commonly used for separating the vital few causes
that account for a dominant share of quality loss(
The +areto diagram is #ased on the +areto principle, which state that a few of the defects
accounts for most of the effects(
+areto analysis is also called as =>5)> rule and as 'C analysis( It means only )>? of
pro#lems :defects; account for =>? of the effects(
This analysis is a method of classifying items, events or activities according to their
relative importance(
+areto diagram can #e used in a wide range of situations where one needs to prioritise
pro#lems #ased on its relative importance( It can #e used as a ris! assessment technique from
activity level to system level(

C(n!"*&c"i(n (f 5%*e"( Di%/*%04
@#tain data, using a chec! sheet or #rainstorm(
'rrange the data in descending order starting from the largest category to smallest(
Calculate the total and percentage of the total that each category represents(
Compute the cumulative percentages(
,raw a #ar chart with two vertical axes( 'long the left vertical axis, mar! the measured
values for each cause, starting from /ero till the total num#er of causes( The right vertical
axis should have the same height and should go from > to 1>>?( This axis displays the
cumulative percentages( 8ist the different !inds of causes along the hori/ontal axis, from
left to right in descending order of frequency or costs(
,raw a #ar a#ove each item whose height represents the num#er for that cause(
+lot a cumulative percentage line(
Now draw a hori/ontal line from =>? :on the right vertical axis; to the left till the point
of intersection with the cumulative line, and then draw a vertical line from this
intersection downwards till the hori/ontal axis( 8eft from this intersection point are the
)>? of causes :the most essential #ottlenec!s; which causes =>? of the damages(
S"*%"ific%"i(n %n%6,!i!4
Stratification is a method of analysis of data #y grouping it in different ways(
Stratification means segregating a group of measurements, o#servations or any other data
into several su# groups on the #asis of certain characteristics( These data are used for
identifying the influencing factors(
%achines, suppliers, operators, tools, gauges or time dependent sources li!e shifts ,
prepost lunch, start or end of shifts, etc(, are strata with respect to which the study of
variations is conducted for diagnosis and possi#le control5 prevention of variations(
S"*%"ific%"i(n %n%6,!i! -*(ce'&*e4
Collect data a#out any pro#lem in product5 defects
Consider potentially significant way of grouping data :stratification; on #asis of factors
experienced
"epeat data through graphic manner reflecting stratification
'nalyse results and try new grouping, if necessary, to get insight into the pro#lem and
ma!e evident the correlation(
Collect data a#out any pro#lem in product5
defects,etc
'nalyse results and try new grouping, if necessary,
to get insight into the pro#lem and ma!e evident
the correlation
"epeat data through graphic manner reflecting
stratification
Consider potentially significant way of grouping
data :stratification; on #asis of factors experienced
Sc%""e* 'i%/*%04
The scatter diagram is a simple graphical device to depict the relationship #etween two
varia#les(
' scatter diagram is composed of a hori/ontal axis containing the measured values of one
varia#le and a vertical axis, representing the measurements of the varia#le(
This diagram displays the paired data as a cloud of points( The density and direction of
the cloud indicate how the two varia#les influence each other(
This diagram cannot prove that one varia#le causes the other, #ut they do indicate the
existence of a relationship as well as the strength of that relationship(
Diffe*en" ",-e! (f !c%""e* 'i%/*%0 -%""e*n!4
Strong +ositive Correlation: The value of A clearly increases as the value of B increases(
Strong Negative Correlation: The value of A clearly decreases as the value of B
increases(
9ea! +ositive Correlation: The value of A increases slightly as the value of B increases(
9ea! Negative Correlation: The value of A decreases slightly as the value of B increases(
Complex Correlation: The value of A seems to #e related to the value of B, #ut the
relationship is not easily determined(
No Correlation: there is any demonstrated connection #etween the two varia#les(
5&*-(!e (f !c%""e* 'i%/*%04
The purpose of the scatter diagram is, therefore, to display what happens to one varia#le when
another varia#le is changed(
This diagram is used to understand, why particular variations occur and how they can #e
controlled(
C(n!"*&c"i(n (f %n !c%""e* 'i%/*%04
Select varia#les which are related to each other
Collect data
Create scatter diagram
B 'xis cause or independent varia#le
A 'xis &ffect or dependent varia#le
&xamine the shape of cloud of points
,etermine the type and strength of the mutual relationship(
C(n"*(6 ch%*"4
' control chart is a graph that displays data ta!en over time and the variations of this
data( ' control chart illustrates the dynamic performance of the process( This is #ased on a series
of random samples ta!en at regular intervals(
T,-e! (f c(n"*(6 ch%*"4
Control chart for varia#les 6 for measura#le data eg: time
Control chart for characteristics 6 for quantifia#le data such as num#er of defects
5&*-(!e (f C(n"*(6 ch%*"4
The purpose of control chart is to identify when the process has gone out of
statistical control, thus signaling the need for some corrective action to #e ta!en(
The general form of control chart:
#. Explain the $ew Seven %anagement &ools?
$ew seven management tools"
i( 'ffinity ,iagram
ii( Interrelationship ,igraph
iii( Tree ,iagram
iv( %atrix ,iagram
v( +rioriti/ation %atrices
vi( +rocess ,ecision +rogram Chart
vii( 'ctivity Networ! diagram
Affini", 'i%/*%04
'n affinity diagram is a tool to collect a large amount of ver#al expressions and organi/e
then in according to natural relationship #etween individual items(
This diagram is also referred to as a *C diagram after its inventor Ciro *awa!ita(
This is a special !ind of #rainstorming tool(
5&*-(!e (f %ffini", 'i%/*%04
To provide a visual representation of large amount of ideas(
To determine logical priorities(
To extract the large amount of useful information from few or scattered data, or from
unrelated ideas(
To understand and organi/e pro#lems that is not clear(
To create new concepts(
5*(ce'&*e "( c(n!"*&c" Affini", 'i%/*%04
Identify the pro#lem and phrase it without #iases
rainstorm ideas and opinions, individually and record on the cards
Sort cards into groups and discard those with no affinity
8a#el the groups and organi/e the cards under then to form chart
'nalyse the results and plan action-points
Re6%"i(n!hi- 'i%/*%04
"elationship diagram is a tool fro finding causes to a pro#lem( The #asic logic #ehind the
tool is the same as those of the cause and effect diagram( This diagram not only clarifies the
relationship #etween cause and effect #ut also #etween the various causes( It is a graphical
representation of all factors in a complicated pro#lem, system or situation(
5&*-(!e (f *e6%"i(n!hi- 'i%/*%04
To generate a visual representation of the relations #etween an affect and its cause as well as
the inter relationship #etween the different causes of the pro#lem(
This tool can #e used to
Identify !ey pro#lem from a list of important pro#lemsD
Identify the root cause of existing pro#lemsD
Identify !ey factors needed to ma!e a decision(
D*%f"in/ *e6%"i(n!hi- 'i%/*%04
Identify and decide the effect of the pro#lem( 9rite it in the centre of a #oard and enclose
it in a dar! #ordered rectangle(
Conduct #rainstorming to identify the immediate causes of effect( Note down these
causes in rectangle around the centre dar! rectangle(
Connect these immediate causes to the effect #y connecting the rectangles of the causes
to that of the effect with a line( This line has an arrow pointing towards the effect(
The elements of the rectangle with the most outgoing arrows will indicate the root causes(
Those one with the most incoming arrows will #e !ey outcomes or results(
T*ee 'i%/*%04
' tree diagram systematically #rea!s down a topic into its components elements and shows the
logical and sequential lin!s #etween these elements( The tree diagram systematically outlines the
complete spectrum of paths and tas!s that must #e carried out to achieve a goal(
U!e! (f "*ee 'i%/*%04
The purpose of tree diagram is to explore the ways and means to achieve the o#.ective,
develop a list of alternative means and to present them in visual understanda#le form(
It helps to develop a systematic, step #y step, strategy to achieve an o#.ective(
C(n!"*&c"i(n (f "*ee 'i%/*%0.
State the pro#lem to #e studied
rainstorm all possi#le causes or methods of addressing the pro#lem(
Identify and list the primary, secondary and tertiary means from #rainstorm
'rrange and rearrange the elements in proper order in #oxes(
M%"*i7 'i%/*%04
' matrix diagram is a tool that is used to systematically organi/e information that must #e
compared on a variety of characteristics in order to ma!e a comparison, selection or choice(
It is a tool which the relations #etween two sets of factors in the form of a ta#le or a matrix(
%atrix diagram, sometimes referred as a Equality ta#leF, is the starting point in #uilding a Ehouse
of qualityF
D*%f"in/ 0%"*i7 'i%/*%0.
$irst decide on the two sets of factors to #e compared(
+lace the main factors vertically on the left hand side of the matrix and the dependent
factors hori/ontally on top of the matrix(
In the main #ody of the matrix, place appropriate sym#ols at the intersecting square
#oxes denoting the relationship #etween the two factors(
Now score relationships and select most important relationship for analysis(
Deci!i(n "*ee4
' +rocess ,ecision +rogramme Chart :+,+C;, also !nown as decision tree, is a planning
tool to outline every conceiva#le and li!ely occurrence in any planning(
The +,+C forces proactive thin!ing on what can go wrong with oneGs plan and what
would one do to overcome the effect of such adverse occurrences(
This tool helps to anticipate undesira#le occurrences and ena#les one to prepare with
plans to neutralise their effect(
U!e! (f 'eci!i(n "*ee4
The +,+C is useful when one wants to plan all possi#le chains of events that might occur
during a pro.ect(
This tool is particularly used in new product development, #uilding and equipment and
data processing programs(
This tool is widely used in decision ma!ing when the tas! is new, complex and unique(
C(n!"*&c"i(n (f 'eci!i(n "*ee4
$irst, prepare a EnormalF flow chart of the process with all expected events as steps in the
chart(
Identify the various possi#ilities of the process not going as per the plan due to any
a#normal occurrences(
9rite these occurrences on the flow chart through #ranching at appropriate locations(
Now identify the ways and means to counter the effect due to a#normal occurrences(
9rite these counter-measures in rectangles connecting the corresponding a#normal
occurrence on one side and the process o#.ective on the other(
A**() 'i%/*%04
'n arrow diagram is a graphic description of the sequential steps that must #e completed #efore
a pro.ect can #e completed( The +&"T :+rogram &valuation and "eview Technique; and C+%
:Critical +ath %ethod; charts are the #est !nown arrow diagram( It is a planning tool that
determines the critical path of a process or a pro.ect(
U!e! (f A**() 'i%/*%04
To show the paths to complete a pro.ect(
To find the shortest time possi#le for the pro.ect(
To display graphically simultaneous activities(
This diagram is indispensa#le for long term pro.ects(
C(n!"*&c"i(n (f A**() 'i%/*%04
Identify and list each activity to #e done in the pro.ect(
,etermine the sequence of activities
Construct a networ! reflecting the precedence relationships
9rite the activity time under arrow leading from it(
M%"*i7 '%"% An%6,!i! 'i%/*%04
' matrix data analysis diagram is very much similar to a matrix diagram with a difference
that numerical data is used instead of sym#ols indicating the existence and strength of
relationship( It is the only tool among the ENew Seven %anagement ToolsF which uses
numerical data and produces numerical results(
U!e! (f M%"*i7 '%"% An%6,!i! 'i%/*%04
To present numerical data a#out two sets of factors in a matrix form and analyses it to get
numerical output(
This tool is used in E+rincipal Component 'nalysisF where only two characteristics can
#e studied at a time(
This tool is advantageous in studying the parameters of production processes, in
analy/ing mar!et information, in finding lin!s #etween numerical and non-numerical
varia#les and so on(
C(n!"*&c"i(n (f M%"*i7 '%"% An%6,!i! 'i%/*%04
,ecide the two factors whose relations are to #e analysed
Chec! the num#er of individual items in the two factors
+repare a matrix to accommodate all items of the two factors
&nter numerical data in the matrix
'nalyse the final results
'. Explain the (on(epts of Six Sigma?
Six Sigma"
Six-Sigma is a #usiness process that allows organi/ations to drastically improve their
#ottom line #y designing and monitoring every day #usiness activities in ways that minimi/e
waste and resources while increasing customer satisfaction( It is achieved through continuous
process measurement, analysis H improvement(
S"e-! "( %chie9e !i7 !i/0% !"%"e4
Step1: Identify the process you create or service you provide(
Step): Identify the customers for your product or service and determine what they consider
important(
Step2: Identify your needs to provide the product or service that satisfies the customer(
Step3: ,efine the process for doing the wor!(
Step4: %ista!e-+roof the process and eliminate waste effort(
StepI: &nsure continuous improvement #y measuring, analy/ing and controlling the improved
process(
). Explain the *en(h mar+ing !ro(ess an, reasons to *en(hmar+?
:ench0%*in/ 4
enchmar!ing is the process of determining who is the very #est, who sets the standard, and
what that standard is( enchmar!ing can provide them with data to show what can #e achieved
and how can #e achieved(
O;<ec"i9e!4
It aims at a goal setting process to facilitate comparison with the #est(
It aims at motivating and stimulating company employees towards the goal of continuous
quality improvement(
It aims at external orientation of the company(
It aims at identifying a technological #rea!through(
It aims at searching for industry #est practices(
T,-e! (f :ench0%*in/4
C6%!!ific%"i(n ;%!e' (n "he O;<ec" "( ;e :ench0%*e'
+roduct enchmar!ing
+erformance enchmar!ing
+rocess enchmar!ing
Strategic enchmar!ing
C6%!!ific%"i(n ;%!e' (n "he O*/%ni!%"i(n! %/%in!" )h(0 (ne i! :ench0%*in/
Internal enchmar!ing
Industry enchmar!ing
Competitive enchmar!ing
est-in class enchmar!ing
"elationship enchmar!ing
:enefi"! (f :ench0%*in/4
Creating a culture that values continuous improvement to achieve excellence(
Sharing the #est practices #etween #enchmar!ing partners
+rioriti/ing the areas that need improvement(
&nhancing creativity #y devaluing the not-invented-here syndrome(
Increasing sensitivity to changes in the external environment(
5i"f%66! (f :ench0%*in/4
This is #ased on learning from others, rather than developing new and improved
approaches(
enchmar!ing should not #e a su#stitute for innovation(
It must #e a mere improvement tool(
-. What is .%E/? Explain the stages of .%E/?
?MEA4
$%&': $ailure and &ffect 'nalysis, also !nown as "is! analysis, is a preventive measure to
systematically display the causes, effects and possi#le actions regarding o#served failures(
The o#.ective of $%&' is to anticipate failures and prevent them from occurring( $%&'
prioritises failures and attempts to eliminate their causes(
T,-e! (f ?MEA4
System $%&'
,esign $%&'
+rocess $%&'
Service $%&'
&quipment $%&'
%aintenance $%&'
Concept $%&'
&nvironmental $%&'
:enefi"! (f ?MEA4
Improve +roduct5 +rocess relia#ility and quality(
Increase customer satisfaction
&arly identification and elimination of potential product5process failure modes(
+rioriti/e +roduct5+rocess deficiencies(
Capture engineering5organi/ation !nowledge
,ocument and trac! the actions ta!en to reduce ris!(
+rovide focus for improved testing and development(
%inimi/e late changes and associated cost(
'ct as catalyst for teamwor! and idea exchange #etween functions(
S"%/e! (f ?MEA 0e"h('(6(/,4
S"%/e14 Specifying +ossi#ilities
a( $unctions #( +ossi#le failure modes c( "oot causes d( &ffects
e( ,etection5+revention
S"%/e24 Juantifying "is!
a( +ro#a#ility of cause #( Severity of effect c( &ffectiveness of control to prevent cause
d( "is! priority num#er
S"%/e#4 Correcting -igh "is! Causes
a( +rioriti/ing wor! #( ,etailed action c( 'ssigning action responsi#ility
d( Chec! points on completion
S"%/e+4 "e-evaluation of "is!
a( "ecalculation of ris! priority num#er