Wireless Lans

Download as docx, pdf, or txt
Download as docx, pdf, or txt
You are on page 1of 42

24

Wireless Local Area Networks


24.1 Introduction
Wireless technology is an alternative to wired technology, which is commonly used for
connecting devices in wireless mode. Wireless local area networks (WLANs) transfer data
through the air using radio waves instead of cables. The key advantages of the wireless LAN
are that it eliminates the laying of cables and wiring cost, and that it accommodates mobile
PC workstations. WLANs use the industrial scientific and medical (ISM) frequency bands
900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, and 5 GHz, for wireless LAN products and they need not obtain license
to operate in this band. Wireless networks are standardized by IEEE. Under IEEE 802
committee, the wireless LAN and metropolitan area network (MAN) standards are
developed. The first wireless network standard was created by IEEE in 1997 and had been
named as 802.11. It uses 2.4 GHz frequency and the supported maximum network bandwidth
is 2 Mbps. Later, IEEE 802.11b was created in July 1999 and the supported network
bandwidth is 11 Mbps. The 802.11b uses radio frequency (2.4 GHz) as same as the original
802.11 standard.
Wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi) is a generic term that refers to the IEEE 802.11 communications
standard for WLANs. Wi-Fi is used to connect computers to communicate each other, to the
wired network, and to the Internet.
An updated version of the original 802.11 standard was created and called 802.11a. Due to its
higher cost, 802.11a is usually found on business networks whereas 802.11b better serves the
home market. 802.11g was created to combine the best of both 802.11a and 802.11b and
supports network bandwidth up to 54 Mbps. 802.11n is the newest IEEE standard in the
802.11 family. It improves on 802.11g in the amount of bandwidth by using multiple wireless
signals and antennas instead of one. This technology is called multiple-input multiple-output
(MIMO). It will also operate on the 2.4 GHz band.
The IEEE 802.11 standard is relating to physical (PHY) and medium access control (MAC)
layer. There is only one standard for MAC layer, but different standards have been proposed
for the PHY layer. The standard defines several different modulation methods: infrared,
directsequence spread spectrum (DSSS), frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS),
orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), and also defines three different PHY
layer technologies: IEEE 802.11a, IEEE 802.11b, and IEEE 802.11g.
Wired Ethernets offer data rates of 100 Mbps, and the performance gap between wired and
wireless LANs is likely to increase over time without additional spectrum allocation. Despite
the big data rate differences, wireless LANs are becoming the preferred Internet access
method due to their convenience and freedom from wires.
For better understanding of how 802.11 and its variants (802.11a, IEEE 802.11b (Wi-Fi),
IEEE 802.11g, and IEEE 802.11n) work, it is important to understand the basic building
blocks and technologies used in the standards. The 802.11 architecture, wireless topologies,
highperformance radio LANs (HIPERLANs), wireless personal area network (WPAN)
standards, and wireless local loop (WLL) technology are further discussed in this chapter.
24.2 Advantages and disadvantages of wireless local area network
The following are some specific advantages of wireless LANs over wired LANs:
Mobility: Wireless LANs support mobility. This improves the real-time access to
information even when the user is moving from one place to another within the range
of an access point (AP).
Different topologies: Different wireless networks are configured in two different
modes: ad-hoc mode and infrastructure mode.
Ad-hoc mode provides peer-to-peer communication between wireless devices.
Infrastructure mode provides communication between wireless device and a central
node, which in turn can communicate with wired nodes on that LAN. In wired LAN,
Ethernet cables must be run from each computer to another computer or to the central
device. It can be time-consuming and difficult to run cables under the floor or through
walls, especially when computers are placed in different rooms.
Flexible architecture: It is easier to add or remove workstations.
Cost effective: Although the initial investment required for wireless local area network
(WLAN) hardware can be similar to the cost of wired LAN hardware, installation
expenses can be significantly lower.
The following are the disadvantages of WLANs:
Less security: Wireless LANs are less secure than wired LANs, because wireless
communication signals travel through the air and can easily be intercepted by others
using the same frequency band and by multipath fading. Automatic repeat request
(ARQ) and forward error-correction (FEC) techniques are used to increase
reliability.
Low data rates: The data transfer rate decreases with increase in the number of
devices.
Need for energy efficient: In mobile applications, battery power is a scarce resource.
Therefore, the devices must be designed to be energy efficient.
Limited coverage: Devices will only operate at a limited distance from an AP, with
the distance determined by the standard used and buildings and other obstacles
between the AP and the user.
24.3 WLAN topologies
Wireless network topology is the configuration in which a mobile terminal (MT)
communicates with another. WLANs can be built with either of the following topologies:
Peer-to-peer (ad-hoc) topology
Infrastructure topology
24.3.1 Ad-hoc network topology
Ad-hoc or peer-to-peer network topology applies to reconfigurable networks that can operate
without need for a fixed infrastructure. This is the easiest WLAN mode to configure and
requires the least hardware.
An ad-hoc mode WLAN is comprised of two or more computers communicating directly with
each other using wireless network cards.
The ad-hoc network topology is shown in Figure 24.1. These networks are primarily used by
the military and also in a few commercial applications for voice and data transmission.
Multi-hop ad-hoc networks: In some ad-hoc networking applications, where users may be
distributed over a wide area, a given user terminal may be able to reach only a portion of the
other users in the network due to transmitter signal power limitations. In this situation, user
terminals will have to cooperate in carrying messages across the network between widely
separated stations. Networks designed to function this way are called multi-hop ad-hoc
networks. In an ad-hoc multi-hop network, each terminal should be aware of the
neighbouring terminals in its coverage range.
24.3.2 Infrastructure network topology
In the infrastructure topology, there is a fixed (wired) infrastructure that supports
communication between MTs and between MTs and fixed terminals.
The infrastructure networks are often designed for large coverage areas and multiple base
station or AP operations. In this WLAN mode, a hardware or software AP is configured as
part of the WLAN design. This AP then provides connectivity for all of the systems on the
WLAN. The wireless network card on each computer is configured to use a specific AP to
connect to a specific WLAN and all traffic to other computers on the WLAN is directed
through the AP.


Figure 24.1 Ad-hoc network topology


Figure 24.2 Infrastructure network topology
Access point: The AP is a wireless LAN transceiver or base station that can connect one or
many wireless devices simultaneously to the Internet.
The AP coordinates transmission and reception from multiple wireless devices within a
specific range; the range and number of devices depend on the wireless standard being used
and vendors product. In infrastructure mode, there may be multiple APs to cover a large area
or only a single AP for a small area such as a single home or small building. Figure 24.2
shows the basic operation of an infrastructure network with a single AP.
All standardized cellular mobile telephone and wireless data systems use an infrastructure
network topology to serve MTs operating within the coverage area of any base station.
Infrastructure topology uses APs to bridge traffic onto a wired (Ethernet or token ring) or a
wireless backbone.
24.3.3 Comparison of ad-hoc and infrastructure network topologies
Ad-hoc mode WLANs are very easy to configure and do not require a great deal of effort to
set up. Whereas infrastructure mode WLANs are slightly more difficult to set up than ad-hoc-
mode WLANs.
In ad-hoc or peer-to-peer single-hop networks, expansion is always limited to the coverage of
the radio transmitter and receiver. In multi-hop ad-hoc networks, as the number of terminals
increases, the potential coverage of the network is increased. However, the traffic handling
capacity of the network remains the same. To connect an ad-hoc network to the backbone of
a wired network, one needs to use proxy server with a wireless connection as a member of the
ad-hoc network. In practice, all terminals supporting ad-hoc networking operate in a dual
mode that also supports the infrastructure operation. Wireless infrastructure networks are
inherently scalable. To scale up with a wireless infrastructure network, the number of base
stations or APs is increased to expand the coverage area or to increase the capacity while
using the same available spectrum. Therefore, for wide area coverage and for applications
with variable traffic loads, infrastructure networks are always used.
Flexibility
Operation of infrastructure networks requires deployment of a network infrastructure which
is very often time-consuming and expensive. Ad-hoc networks are inherently flexible and can
be set up instantly. Therefore, ad-hoc networks are always used for temporary applications
where flexibility is of prime importance.
Controllability
To coordinate proper operation of a radio network, one need to centrally control certain
features such as time synchronization, transmitted power of the mobile stations operating in a
certain area, and so on. In an infrastructure network, all these features are naturally
implemented in the base station or AP. In an ad-hoc network, implementation of these
features requires more complicated structures demanding changes in all terminals.
Routing complexity
In multi-hop peer-to-peer networks, each terminal should be able to route messages to other
terminals. This compatibility requires each terminal to monitor the existence of other
terminals and be able to connect to those available in the immediate neighbourhood. For this,
there is a need for a routing algorithm that directs information to the next appropriate
terminal. Implementation of these features adds to the complexity of the terminal and the
network operation. In infrastructure and peer-to-peer single-hop ad-hoc networks, this
problem does not exist.
Reliability
Infrastructure networks are single failure point networks. If the base station or AP fails, the
entire communications network is destroyed. This problem does not exist in ad-hoc peer-to-
peer configurations.
24.4 Introduction to wireless local area network standard IEEE 802.11
The IEEE 802.11 is an international standard that describes WLAN characteristics. The Wi-
Fi corresponds to the certification name issued by the Wi-Fi Alliance group. The IEEE
802.11 standard ensures the compatibility between the hardware devices.
Wi-Fi provides high-speed connections to laptops, desktop computers, and personal digital
assistants (PDAs) located within a radius of 2050 m for indoor and 100 m for outdoor
communication applications. Wi-Fi providers started providing the Internet APs in public
locations such as train stations, airports, and hotels with wireless networks. These Internet
access areas are referred to as Wi-Fi hotspots.
The 802.11 is a specific standard that defines the MAC and PHY layers of a WLAN. The
original 802.11 standard is a MAC standard plus a low data rate PHY which supports only 1
and 2 Mbps data rates. This first version of the standard operates at the 2.4 GHz ISM
(industrial, scientific, and medical) band and allows the vendors to choose between a direct-
sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) and a frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
implementations. As mentioned above, 802.11b is a PHY extension to the original 802.11
standard. It also operates at the 2.40 GHz band and allows for higher data rates of 5.5 and 11
Mbps. It uses a technique known as complementary code keying (CCK).
The 802.11a is another PHY extension to the 802.11 standard. It operates at the 5 GHz
unlicensed band and allows for data rates of 654 Mbps. It uses a technique known as
orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM).
The 802.11g was the next extension to the 802.11 standard. It operates at the 2.4 GHz ISM
band and allows for data rates ranging from 1 to 54 Mbps. The 1 and 2 Mbps rates are
operated in the DSSS mode whereas the 5.5 and 11 Mbps rates are operated in CCK mode. In
addition, rates at 654 Mbps are operated in OFDM mode. The 802.11g standard borrows the
OFDM technique and data rates from the 802.11a standard but operates at the 2.4 GHz ISM
band. It can therefore operate at very high data rates while being backward compatible with
the 802.11b standard.
In addition to these standards, which have already been approved, the 802.11 committee has
working groups to evolve and enhance the standard.
All three versions share the same MAC layer that uses carrier sense multiple access with
collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) for contention data, a request-to-send/clear-to-send
(RTS/CTS) mechanism to accommodate the hidden terminal problem, and an optional
mechanism called point coordination function (PCF) to support time-bounded applications.
The 802.11 standard supports both infrastructure WLANs connection through an AP (AP)
and ad-hoc operation allowing peer-to-peer communication between terminals.
Compared with wired LANs, WLANs operate in a difficult medium for communication, and
they need to support mobility and security. The wireless medium has serious bandwidth
limitations and frequency regulations. It suffers from time and location dependent multi-path
fading. It is subject to other interference from other WLANs, as well as other radio and non-
radio devices operating in the vicinity of a WLAN. Wireless standards need to have
provisions to support mobility that is not shared in the other LAN standards. The IEEE
802.11 body had to examine connection management, link reliability management, and power
management none of which were concerns for the 802 standards. In addition, WLANs have
no PHY boundaries, and they overlap with each other, and therefore a standard is needed to
define provisions for security of the links.
24.4.1 IEEE 802.11 architecture
The architecture comprises of the station, AP, wireless medium, basic service set (BSS),
distribution system (DS), and extended service set (ESS). The architecture also includes
station services and distribution services.
Station: The component mobile, portable, or stationary that connects to the wireless
medium in a network is referred to as station. All stations are equipped with wireless
network interface controllers (WNICs) and consist of MAC and PHY.
BSS: The BSS is a set of all stations that can communicate with each other. There are
three types of BSS:
o Independent BSS (IBSS)
o Infrastructure BSS
o Extended service set (ESS)


Figure 24.3 Independent basic service set (IBSS)

I ndependent BSS: An IBSS is an ad-hoc network that contains no APs, which means they
cannot connect to any other BSS. As its name implies, ad-hoc networks are temporary in
nature, which are typically created and maintained as needed without prior administrative
arrangement. Ad-hoc networks can be formed anywhere spontaneously and can be disbanded
after a limited period of time. All the mobile stations in an IBSS can communicate directly
with others. This does not mean that every mobile station communicates with every other
mobile station, but they are all part of the same IBSS. The mobile stations must be in direct
communication range to communicate with each other. The IBSS is shown in Figure 24.3.
I nfrastructure BSS: A base station with an AP is called an infrastructure BSS or simply
referred to as BSS (Figure 24.4). In an infrastructure BSS, all mobile stations communicate
with the AP. The AP provides connection to both the wired LAN, if any, and the local relay
functions for the BSS. Each mobile station must communicate with other mobile stations
through the AP. Every BSS has an identification (ID) called the BSSID, which is the MAC
address of the AP servicing the BSS. The infrastructure mode BSS is shown in Figure 24.5.


Figure 24.4 Infrastructure BSS


Figure 24.5 Infrastructure mode BSS

Extended service set (ESS): ESS is referred to as a set of one or more BSS interconnected by
a distribution system (DS). DS is a system that connects a set of BSSs. In ESS, traffic always
flows via AP as shown in Figure 24.6. This concept of DS increases network coverage. Each
ESS has an ID called the SSID which is a 32 byte (maximum) character string. ESS
configurations consist of multiple BSS cells that can be linked by either wired or wireless
backbones. IEEE 802.11 supports ESS configurations in which multiple cells use the same
channel and also use different channels to boost aggregate throughput. Communications
received by an AP from the DS are transmitted to the BSS to be received by the destination
mobile station. An ESS can also provide gateway access for wireless users into a wired
network.


Figure 24.6 Extended service set (ESS) with wireless distribution system

The entire network in the ESS looks like an IBSS to the logical link control (LLC) layer. This
means that stations within the ESS can communicate or even move between BSSs
transparently to the LLC.
IEEE 802.11 architecture and services
The IEEE 802.11 architecture specifies nine services. These services are divided into two
groups: station services and distribution services. There are four station services and five
distribution services.
1. Station Services
Services that are common to all stations are referred to as station services. The four
station services are authentication, de-authentication, privacy, and data delivery. The
authentication and de-authentication services allow only the authorized users to use
the network. The authentication service provides the identity of one station to another.
So a station without the identity is not allowed to use WLAN services. The de-
authentication service is used to eliminate a previously authorized user from accessing
the services of the network. The privacy service of IEEE 802.11 protects the data only
as it traverses the wireless medium. It is not designed to provide complete protection
of data between applications running over a mixed network. Data delivery services
ensure that data are transported reliably over the wireless medium. This service
provides reliable delivery of data frames from the MAC in one station to the MAC in
one or more other stations, with minimal duplication and reordering of frames.
2. Distribution Services
These services are also known as the DS services (DSS). There are five different
services, and these services are provided across a DS. The five distribution services
are association, disassociation, distribution, integration with wired network like
LANs, and re-association. These services allow the users to move freely within an
ESS and allow an IEEE 802.11 WLAN to connect with the wired LAN infrastructure.
The distribution services determine how to forward frames within the IEEE 802.11
WLAN and also how to deliver frames from one IEEE 802.11 WLAN to network
destinations outside of the WLAN.
The wireless station uses the association and disassociation services to gain access
and remove access to WLAN services. The association service is used to make a
logical connection between a mobile station and an AP. Each station must become
associated with an AP before it is allowed to send data through the AP onto the DS.
The connection is necessary in order for the DS to know where and how to deliver
data to the mobile station. The mobile station invokes the association service once and
only once, typically when the station enters the WLAN.
The disassociation service is used either to force a mobile station to eliminate an
association with an AP or for a mobile station to inform an AP that it no longer
requires the services of the WLAN. When a station becomes disassociated, it must
begin a new association by invoking the association service. An AP may force a
station or stations to disassociate because of resource restraints, the AP is shutting
down or being removed from the network for a variety of reasons. When a mobile
station is aware that it will no longer require the services of an AP, it may invoke the
disassociation service to notify the AP that the logical connection to the services of
the AP from this mobile station is no longer required.
The re-association service enables a station to change its current association with an
AP. The re-association service is similar to the association service, with the exception
that it includes information about the AP with which a mobile station has been
previously associated. A mobile station will use the re-association service repeatedly
as it moves throughout the ESS, loses contact with the AP with which it is associated,
and needs to become associated with a new AP. By using the re-association service, a
mobile station provides information to the AP to which it will be associated and
information pertaining to the AP from which it will be disassociated. This allows the
newly associated AP to contact the previously associated AP to obtain frames that
may be waiting there for delivery to the mobile station as well as other information
that may be relevant to the new association. The mobile station always initiates re-
association.
Distributionis the primary service used by an 802.11 station. A station uses the
distribution service every time it sends MAC frames across the DS. The distribution
service provides the distribution with only enough information to determine the
proper destination BSS for the MAC frame. The three association services (i.e.
association, re-association, and disassociation) provide the necessary information for
the distribution service to operate. Distribution within the DS does not necessarily
involve any additional features outside of the association services, though a station
must be associated with an AP for the distribution service to forward frames properly.
The integration service connects the 802.11 WLAN to other LANs, including one or
more wired LANs or IEEE 802.11 WLANs. The integration service translates 802.11
frames-to-frames that may traverse another network, as well as translates frames from
other networks to frames that may be delivered by an 802.11 WLAN.
IEEE 802.11 family and its standards
The open system interconnection (OSI) reference model is a seven-layer model for the
functions that occur in a communication process. Each layer performs a number of related
functions in the communications process. The same model applies to both source and the
destination of the information and the layers are paired.
The layers at the same level in the protocol stack are referred to as peer processes. The PHY
connection between two layers of the protocol stacks occurs at the PHY layer. At each of the
remaining layers, there is a virtual connection between peers. The protocol at nth layer
communicates with a peer at the same level. The dashed line in the figure indicates an
example in which layers of network layer on one side communicates with the network layer
on the other side (Figure 24.7).
The 802.11 is a specific standard that defines the MAC and PHY layers of a bottom two
levels of the ISO model (Figure 24.8). These two layers are explained briefly in the following
paragraphs.
PHY layer: This layer provides a PHY mechanism for transmitting binary bits between any
pair of nodes. The module for performing this function is called a modem.
The key resource of WLAN is the radio spectrum. At the PHY layer the emphasis is on
modulation, source coding, channel coding, and detection techniques to maximize the use of
the radio spectrum.
Data link layer: This layer performs error detection and correction in order to provide a
reliable error free link to higher layers. The role of the data link layer is more complicated
when multiple nodes share the same media for transmission/reception. The component of the
data link layer that controls multiple access communications is the MAC sublayer. The MAC
allows frames to be sent over the shared media without undue interference from other nodes.
At the link layer, the emphasis is on how spectrum is shared, in either time, frequency, area,
or angular direction.


Figure 24.7 OSI reference model


Figure 24.8 802.11 standard focuses on the bottom two levels of the ISO model: PHY and
MAC

The original 802.11 standard is a MAC standard plus a low data rate PHY which supports
only 1 and 2 Mbps data rates. This first version of the standard operates at the 2.4 GHz ISM
band and allows the vendors to choose between a DSSS and a FHSS implementations. The
802.11b is a PHY extension to the original 802.11 standard. It also operates at the 2.40 GHz
band and allows for higher data rates of 5.5 and 11 Mbps. It uses a technique known as
complementary code keying (CCK).
The 802.11a is another PHY extension to the 802.11 standard. It operates at the 5 GHz
unlicensed national infrastructure for information (UNII) band and allows for data rates of 6
54 Mbps. It uses a technique known as orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM).
The 802.11g was the next extension to the 802.11b standard. It operates at the 2.4 GHz ISM
band and allows for data rates ranging from 1 to 54 Mbps. The 1 and 2 Mbps rates are
operated in the DSSS mode, whereas the 5.5 and 11 Mbps rates are operated in CCK mode.
In addition, rates at 654 Mbps are operated in OFDM mode. The 802.11g standard borrows
the OFDM technique and data rates from the 802.11a standard but operates at the 2.4 GHz
ISM band. It can therefore operate at very high data rates while being backward compatible
with the 802.11b standard. In addition to these standards, which have already been approved,
the 802.11 committee has working groups to evolve and enhance the standard.
802.11 a and g standards
The frequency standards used in IEEE 802.11b, Bluetooth, and IEEE 802.11a are shown in
the Table 24.1.
The three commonly known versions of the 802.11 PHY are 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g.
As described earlier, the 802.11a and 802.11g standards offer much higher speed than
802.11b. However, the advent of 802.11a and 802.11g will not necessarily result in the
demise of 802.11b in the immediate future. There are applications that would require the
lowest power consumption and/or the lowest system cost, and in such cases a stand-alone
802.11b solution may still be the best solution in the immediate future. On the other hand,
most system vendors have migrated to 802.11g solutions, which are backward compatible
with 802.11b and allow the higher data rates.
As an alternative to 802.11b and 802.11g, if the operator requires a higher data rate, higher
user density, and network capacity, he or she would have to choose 802.11a because of the
availability of a much wider spectrum at the 5 GHz band and the higher data rates offered by
802.11a.
For longer ranges and higher data rate applications, the operator would probably choose
802.11g. The 802.11g offers the added benefit of being backward compatible with 802.11b,
which has the largest existing base. In terms of data rate, the 802.11b and 802.11g have an
advantage, with rates up to 54 Mbps. In terms of range of operation, the 802.11b and 802.11g
have the advantage because they operate at the lower frequency of 2.4 GHz. Since typically
propagation losses are lower at lower frequencies, 802.11b and 802.11g systems would be
able to operate over longer distances as compared to their 802.11a counterpart for a given
transmit power and receiver sensitivity.
The free-space loss for cases in which the receiver-to-transmitter distance is much larger than
the wavelength is given by the relation



Table 24.1 Comparison of physical characteristics of various data network standards
operating in ISM bands


where
L is the propagation loss
d is the distance between the transmitter and the receiver
is the wavelength of the radio-frequency (RF) signal
f is the frequency of the signal and c is the speed of light
Antenna gains, absorption losses, reflective losses, and several other factors are not
considered in the Equation (24.1).
For example, at a distance of 10 m in free space and with the assumptions listed above, a
802.11g system operating at 2.4 GHz would experience 60 dB of propagation attenuation,
whereas an 802.11a system operating at 5.8 GHz would experience 68 dB of propagation
losses.
From a spectrum availability point of view, the 802.11a has several hundreds of megahertz of
bandwidth available to it (although the exact frequencies would depend on the country of
operation). In most countries, on the other hand, there is not more than 100 MHz available for
users in the 802.11b or 802.11g bands.
From a power consumption point of view, 802.11b would win against the other standards.
This is because it utilizes the simplest modulation technique among the three and therefore
does not require a high-performance radio front-end or a sophisticated signal processing
baseband. In particular, an 802.11b modulated signal has a small peak to average ratio, and
therefore one can use higher efficiency (but lower linearity) power amplifiers on the transmit
side.
From a system cost point of view, currently 802.11b offers the lowest system cost. However,
the difference in the cost between 802.11g systems and 802.11b systems has been reducing
quickly, and today most users are willing to pay slightly higher cost for 802.11g system for
the significant gains in throughput.
Other IEEE 802.11 standards
802.11e: Tasked to improve quality of service (QOS). The inclusion of a QOS protocol is
essential for tasks that require low latency such as VOIP.
802.11i: Tasked to improve encryption. A reliable and hard-to-break encryption technique is
essential for the wide adoption of WLAN by the enterprise customer.
802.11f: Would allow for an inter access protocol for easy communication between APs.
802.11h: Allows for dynamic frequency selection (DFS), and transmit power control. By
utilizing DFS, interference between various users would be reduced, and therefore
the effective capacity of the cell and therefore the network would increase. Further,
by utilizing transmit power control, the minimum required transmit power would be
utilized in communication between the APs and the mobile units. This would also
reduce co-channel interference and therefore increase the network capacity.
802.11n: Increases the maximum raw data rate from 54 Mbps to 600 Mbps using multiple-
input multiple-output (MIMO). MIMO is a technology which uses multiple
antennas to coherently resolve more information than possible using a single
antenna. One way it provides this is through spatial division multiplexing (SDM).
SDM spatially multiplexes multiple independent data streams, transferred
simultaneously within one spectral channel of bandwidth. MIMO SDM can
significantly increase data throughput as the number of resolved spatial data streams
is increased. Each spatial stream requires a discrete antenna at both the transmitter
and the receiver. In addition, MIMO technology requires a separate radio-frequency
(RF) chain and analogue-to-digital converter for each MIMO antenna which
translates to higher implementation costs compared to non-MIMO systems.
The IEEE 802.11 standard defines two bottom layers in the open systems interconnect (OSI)
model, namely the MAC layer and the PHY layer. The MAC layer controls and regulates the
access to the shared wireless medium using specified channel access mechanisms and the
PHY layer manages the transmission of data between the AP and the client.
Example problem 24.1
Consider an IEEE 802.11a WLAN system in which OFDM baseband modulation scheme is
used. The OFDM system has 52 subcarriers out of which four subcarriers are used as pilot
subcarriers and the remaining as data subcarriers. OFDM symbol duration including guard
interval for ISI mitigation is 4 s. If the system uses three-fourth of the FEC code rate and
64-QAM carrier modulation scheme then show that the achievable transmission data rate is
54 Mbps.
Solution
Given data:
Total number of subcarriers in OFDM system = 52
Number of subcarriers used as pilot subcarriers = 4
FEC code rate =
Type of carrier modulation used = 64 QAM
OFDM data symbol duration = 4 s
Number of data subcarriers = 52 4 = 48 subcarriers
As 64-level or 26-QAM technique corresponds to 6 bits per symbol, then
Number of data bits transmitted per OFDM symbol = 6 48
Number of data bits transmitted per OFDM symbol = 216 bits
Transmission data rate = 216 bits / 4 s
Hence, transmission data rate = 54 Mbps
24.4.2 IEEE 802.11 physical layer
The PHY layer is the interface between the MAC and wireless media that provides
transmission and reception of data frames over a shared wireless medium. The IEEE 802.11
standard defines four different transmission techniques with four different PHY
implementations as follows:
Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM)
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
Infrared (IR)
Narrow band microwave LANs


Figure 24.9 OSI model for IEEE 802.11 WLAN

Note that diffuse infrared and FHSS have received little attention in the market. For this
reason, we will focus on the more popular interfaces based on DSSS and OFDM, used under
the IEEE 802.11a/b/g specifications. The PHY layer is divided into two sub-layers:
Physical layer convergence procedure (PLCP)
Physical medium dependent (PMD)
The PLCP sublayer minimizes the dependence of the MAC layer on the PMD sublayer by
mapping MAC protocol data unit (MPDU) into a frame format suitable for transmission by
the PMD (Figure 24.9). Under the direction of the PLCP, the PMD provides actual
transmission and reception of PHY entities between two STAs through the wireless medium.
To provide this service, the PMD interfaces directly with the air medium and provides
modulation and demodulation of the frame transmissions. The PLCP and PMD communicate
using service primitives to govern the transmission and reception functions.
Functions of PHY layer
Provides a frame exchange between the MAC and PHY under the control of the PLCP
sublayer.
PHY uses signal carrier and spread spectrum modulation to transmit data frames over
the media under the control of the PMD sublayer.
PHY layer provides a carrier sense indication back to the MAC to verify activity on
the media.
Spread spectrum LAN
Spread spectrum is a type of modulation that spreads the data transmission across the
available frequency band, in excess of the minimum bandwidth required to send the
information. Spreading the data cross the frequency spectrum makes the signal resistant to
noise, interference, and eavesdropping. Spread spectrum modulation schemes are commonly
used with personal communication devices such as digital cellular phones as well as with
WLANs.
The spread-spectrum signals are distributed over a wide range of frequencies and then
collected onto their original frequency at the receiver. Just as they are unlikely to be
intercepted by a military opponent, so are they unlikely to interfere with other signals
intended for business and consumer users even though the signals are transmitted on the same
frequencies.
Most wireless LAN systems use spread-spectrum technology, a wideband RF technique
developed by the military for use in reliable, secure, mission-critical communications
systems. Spread-spectrum is designed to trade-off bandwidth efficiency for reliability,
integrity, and security. In other words, more bandwidth is consumed than in the case of
narrowband transmission, but the trade-off produces a signal that is, in effect, louder and thus
easier to detect, provided that the receiver knows the parameters of the spread-spectrum
signal being broadcast. If a receiver is not tuned to the right frequency, a spread-spectrum
signal looks like background noise. There are two types of spread spectrum radio: frequency
hopping and direct sequence.
Spread-spectrum radio communications is also used in the military, because it resists
jamming and is hard for an enemy to intercept, and is now on the verge of potentially
explosive commercial development.
Applications for commercial spread spectrum range from wireless LANs (computer-to-
computer local area networks), to integrated barcode scanner/palmtop computer/radio modem
devices for warehousing, to digital dispatch, to digital cellular telephone communications, to
information society city/area/state or country wide networks for passing faxes, computer
data, e-mail, or multimedia data.
Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) PHY
In the DSSS PHY, data transmission over the media is controlled by the PMD sublayer as
directed by the PLCP sublayer. The DSSS PMD takes the binary bits of information from the
PLCP protocol data unit (PPDU) and transforms them into RF signals for the wireless media
by using carrier modulation and DSSS techniques.
PMD transmitter and receiver: Figures 24.10 and 24.11 shows the PMD transmitter
and receiver. All information bits transmitted by the DSSS PMD are scrambled using
a self-synchronizing 7-bit polynomial. An 11-bit Barker code (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
1, 1, 1) is used for spreading. In the transmitter, the 11-bit Barker code is applied
to a modulo-2 adder together with each of the information bits in the PPDU. The
output of the modulo-2 adder results in a signal with a data rate that is 10 times higher
than the information rate. The result in the frequency domain is a signal that is spread
over a wide bandwidth at a reduced RF power level. Every station in the IEEE 802.11
network uses the same 11-bit sequence. At the receiver, the DSSS signal is convolved
with the same 11-bit Barker code and correlated.
DSSS PLCP Sublayer: The PPDU is unique to the DSSS PHY layer. The PPDU frame
consists of a PLCP preamble, PLCP header, and MPDU as shown in Figure 24.12.
The receiver uses the PLCP preamble to acquire the incoming signal and synchronize
the demodulator. The PLCP header contains information about MPDU from the
sending DSSS PHY. The PLCP preamble and the PLCP header are always
transmitted at 1 Mbps using differential binary phase-shift keying (DBPSK), and the
MPDU can be sent at 1 Mbps DBPSK or 2 Mbps differential quadrature phase-shift
keying (DQPSK), depending upon the content in the signal field of the PLCP header.
Sync: This field is 128 bits (symbols) in length and contains a string of 1s which are
scrambled prior to transmission. The receiver uses this field to acquire the incoming
signal and synchronize the receivers carrier tracking and timing prior to receiving the
start of frame delimiter (SFD).
Start of frame delimiter (SFD): This field is always 1111001110100000 (F3A0 hex)
and defines the beginning of a frame.
Signal: This field identifies the data rate of the 802.11 frame, with its binary value
equal to the data rate divided by 100 kbps. For example, the field contains the value of
00001010 (0A hex) for 1 Mbps DBPSK, 00010100 (14 hex) for 2 Mbps DQPSK, and
so on. The PLCP fields, however, are always sent at the lowest rate, which is 1 Mbps.
This ensures that the receiver initially uses the correct demodulation mechanism,
which changes with different data rates.
Service: This field is always set to 00000000 (00 hex), and the 802.11 standard
reserves it for future use.
Length: This field represents the number of microseconds that it takes to transmit the
contents of the PPDU, and the MAC layer uses this information to determine the end
of the frame.
CRC: In order to detect possible errors in the PHY layer header, the standard defines
this field for containing 16-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC) result. The receiver
performs the calculation on the incoming signal, service and length fields, and
compares the results against the transmitted value. If an error is detected, the
receivers MAC makes the decision if incoming PPDU should be terminated. CRC is
also known as frame check sequence (FCS).
DSSS operating channels and transmit power requirements: Each DSSS PHY channel
occupies 22 MHz of bandwidth, and the spectral shape of the channel represents a
filtered sinX/X function. The DS channel transmit mask in IEEE 802.11 specifies that
spectral products be filtered to 30 dBm from the centre frequency and all other
products be filtered to 50 dBm. This allows for three non-interfering channels
spaced 25 MHz apart in the 2.4 GHz frequency band (see Figure 24.12). In addition to
frequency and bandwidth allocations, transmit power is a key parameter that is
regulated worldwide. The maximum allowable radiated emissions for the DSSS PHY
varies from region-to-region. Today in market wireless products have selected 100
mW as the nominal RF transmit power level.


Figure 24.10 DSSS PMD transmitter


Figure 24.11 DSSS PMD receiver

At the end portion of the PPDU, the MPDU is embedded. This field contains a 32-bit CRC,
which protects the information in the PLCP service data unit (PSDU).


Figure 24.12 DSSS PHY PLCP preamble, header and MPDU


Figure 24.13 Graphical representation of Wi-Fi channels in 2.4 GHz band
The 802.11 divide each of the above-described bands into channels, analogously to how radio
and TV broadcast bands are subdivided but with greater channel width and overlap. The
2.40002.4835 GHz band is divided into 13 channels each of width 22 MHz but spaced only
5 MHz apart, with channel 1 centred on 2.412 GHz and 13 on 2.472 GHz to which Japan
adds a 14th channel 12 MHz above channel 13. This is shown in Figure 24.13.
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) PHY
Frequency-hopping utilizes a set of narrow channels and hops through all of them in a
predetermined sequence. For example, the 2.4 GHz frequency band is divided into 70
channels of 1 MHz each. Every 20 to 400 ms the system hops to a new channel following a
predetermined cyclic pattern.
The 802.11 FHSS PHY uses the 2.4 GHz RF band, operating with at 1 or 2 Mbps data rate. In
FHSS PHY, data transmission over the media is controlled by the FHSS PMD sublayer as
directed by the FHSS PLCP sublayer. The FHSS PMD takes the binary bits of information
from the whitened PSDU and transforms them into RF signals for the wireless media by
using carrier modulation and FHSS techniques.
FHSS PLCP sublayer: The PLCP preamble, PLCP header, and PSDU make up the
PPDU as shown in the Figure 24.14.

The PLCP preamble and PLCP header are unique to the FHSS PHY. The PLCP preamble is
used to acquire the incoming signal and synchronize the receivers demodulator. The PLCP
preamble and PLCP header are transmitted at 1 Mbps rate.
Synchronization: This field contains a string of alternating 0s and 1s patterns and is
used by the receiver to synchronize the receivers packet timing and correct for
frequency offsets.
Start frame delimiter (SFD): This field contains information marking the start of a
PSDU. A common SFD is specified for all IEEE 802.11 FHSS radios using the
following bit pattern: 0000110010111101.
PLCP_PDU length word (PLW): This field specifies the length of the PSDU in octets
and is used by the MAC to detect the end of a PPDU frame.
PLCP signalling field (PSF): The PSF identifies the data rate of the whitened PSDU
ranging from 1 Mbps to 4.5 Mbps in increments of 0.5 Mbps. The PLCP preamble
and header are transmitted at the basic rate, 1 Mbps. The optional data rate for the
whitened PSDU is 2 Mbps.
Header error check (HEC): This field contains the results of a calculated FCS from
the sending station. The calculation is performed prior to data whitening. The CCIT
CRC-16 error detection algorithm is used to protect the PSF and PLW fields. The
MAC makes the determination of the correct reception of PPDU frame by looking
FCS which is embedded at the end of the PSDU portion of the PPDU.
FHSS modulation: The 1997 version of IEEE 802.11 uses two-level Gaussian
frequency-shift key (GFSK) in the FHSS PMD to transmit the PSDU at the basic rate
of 1 Mbps. The PLCP preamble and PLCP header are always transmitted at 1 Mbps.
However, four-level GFSK is an optional modulation method defined in the standard
that enables the whitened PSDU to be transmitted at a higher rate. The value
contained in the PSF field of the PLCP header is used to determine the data rate of the
PSDU.
FHSS channel hopping: A set of hop sequences are defined in IEEE 802.11 for use in
the 2.4 GHz frequency band. The channels are evenly spaced across the band over a
span 83.5 MHz. Hop channels differs from country to country. Channel hopping is
controlled by the FHSS PMD. The FHSS PMD transmits the whitened PSDU by
hopping from channel-to-channel in a pseudorandom fashion using one of the
hopping sequences.


Figure 24.14 FHSS PHY PLCP preamble, header and PSDU

GFSK is a modulation technique used by the FHSS PMD, which deviates (shifts) the
frequency either side of the carrier hop frequency depending on if the binary symbol from the
PSDU is either 1 or 0. A bandwidth bit period (BT) = 0.5 is used. The changes in the
frequency represents symbols containing PSDU information. For two-level GFSK, a binary 1
represents the upper deviation frequency from the hopped carrier, and a binary 0 represents
the lower deviation frequency. The deviation frequency (f
d
) shall be greater than 110 KHz for
IEEE 802.11 FHSS radios. The carrier frequency deviation is given by the following:
Binary 1 = F
c
+ f
d
Carrier-hopped frequency plus the upper deviated frequency.
Binary 0 = F
c
f
d
Carrier-hopped frequency minus the lower deviated frequency
Four-level GFSK is similar to two-level GFSK and used to achieve a data rate of 2 Mbps in
the same occupied frequency bandwidth. The modulator combines two binary bits from the
whitened PSDU and encodes them into symbol pairs (10, 11, 01, 00). The symbol pairs
generate four frequency deviations from the hopped carrier frequency, two upper and two
lower. The symbol pairs are transmitted at 1 Mbps, and for each bit sent, the resulting data
rate is 2 Mbps.
Infrared (IR) PHY
The infrared PHY utilizes infrared light to transmit binary data either at 1 Mbps (basic access
rate) or 2 Mbps (enhanced access rate) using a specific modulation technique for each. For 1
Mbps, the infrared PHY uses a 16-pulse-position modulation (PPM). The 1 Mbps version
employs pulseposition modulation with 16-PPM and the 2 Mbps version uses 4-PPM.
Infrared LANs typically use the wavelength band between 780 and 950 nm, which is
somewhere between the visible spectrum of light and microwaves. This is due to the ready
availability of inexpensive, reliable system components. The infrared signals from a
transceiverequipped mobile or desktop computer go to a similarly equipped LAN access
node, which translates the infrared signals into electrical signals suitable for transmission
over the network in standard LAN formats. A line-of-sight connection is needed between
transmitters and receivers because infrared will not penetrate walls or windows.
Infrared standards
Infrared products for computer connectivity conform to the standards developed by the
Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an industry consortium. The IrDA Serial Infrared Data
Link Standard (IrDA-SIR) was developed with the following advantages in mind:
Low-cost implementation: No special or proprietary hardware is required. The standard was
developed to make use of components costing only a few dollars per device. With integrated
chips that include IrDA functionality, the use of common opto-electronic components adds
less than a dollar to the cost of components.
Low-power requirements: IrDA-SIR is designed to be power efficient so that it will not be a
drain on the batteries of portable devices like notebook computers, PDAs, mobile phones, and
other handheld devices. The use of directed IR, rather than diffuse IR, results in very low
power consumption when transmitting.
Directed, point-to-point connectivity: The use of a directed IR beam avoids unintentional
spilling of the transmitted data to nearby devices. However, the angular spread of the IR
beam does not require the user to align the handheld device perfectly at the target device to
achieve an IR link.
High-noise immunity: IrDA-SIR is specified to achieve bit error rates of better than 1 in 10 at
ranges of up to 1 m, while still providing a high level of noise immunity within a typical
office environment illuminated with fluorescent light, as well as in environments with full
sunlight.
Optimized for data transfers: IrDA-SIR is a half-duplex system with the maximum universal
asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART)-based data rate of 115.2 kbps. Because the design
can be driven by a standard UART, its data rate can be easily programmed from software to a
lower data rate to match with slower devices. Of note is that version 2.0 of the IrDA-SIR
specification also defines non-UART environments.
The IrDA-SIR PHY hardware is very simple. It consists of an encoder/decoder (which
performs the IR transmit encoder and IR receiver decoder) and the IR transducer (which
consists of the output driver and IR emitter for transmitting and the receiver/detector). The
encoder/decoder interfaces to the UART, which most computers already have.
Narrow band microwave LANs
Narrow band microwave LANs use microwave RF band for signal transmission, with
relatively narrow bandwidth. This band is wise enough to accommodate the signal. Most of
the microwave LAN products use the licensed microwave band but some of the LAN
products use the ISM band.
Licensed Narrow Band Microwave LANs
Microwave narrow band radio frequencies usable for voice, data, and video
transmission are licensed and coordinated within specific geographic areas to avoid
potential interference between the systems.
A narrow band scheme makes use of the cell configuration where adjacent cells use
non-overlapping frequency bands within the overall 18 GHz band. The advantage of
the licensed narrow band microwave LAN is it provides inference free
communication.
Unlicensed Narrow Band Microwave LANs: The unlicensed narrow band microwave
LANs use unlicensed ISM spectrum. These LAN products work at 10 Mbps in the 5.8
GHz and makes use of the peer-to-peer configuration. These LAN products
automatically elect one node as the dynamic master based on parameter such as
location, interference, and signal strength. The identity of the master can
automatically change as the conditions change. The LAN also includes a dynamic
relay function, which allows each station to act as a repeater to move the data between
the stations that are out of reach of each other.
Example problem 24.2
IEEE 802.11 WLAN system operates at 2 Mbps. Determine the data transfer time of a 20 kb
file.
Solution
Given data: Transmission data rate = 2 Mbps or 2,000 kbps
Size of a file to be transferred = 20 kb
Using 1 byte = 8 bits, size of the file = 20 8 = 160 kB
Therefore, data-transfer time = 160 kB / 2,000 kbps
Hence, data-transfer time = 80 ms
Example problem 24.3
The IEEE 802.11 WLAN system operates at 2 Mbps data transmission rate. Compute the size
of the file transferred in 16 s.
Solution
Given data: Transmission data rate = 2 Mbps or 2,000 kbps
Data transfer time = 16 seconds
Therefore, size of a file transferred = 2 Mbps 16 s
Hence, size of a file transferred = 32 Mb or 4 MB (megabytes)
24.5 IEEE 802.11 medium access control
The MAC is a sublayer of the data link layer specified in the seven-layer OSI model (Layer
2). It provides addressing and channel access control mechanisms that make it possible for
several terminals or network nodes to communicate within a multi-point network, typically a
local area network (LAN) or metropolitan area network (MAN). Each node in an 802.11
network is identified by its MAC address (exactly the same as Ethernet, a 6 byte [48 bit]
value). Receiving nodes recognize their MAC address.
The functions of MAC layer are as follows:
It provide a reliable data delivery service to the users of the MAC over wireless media
through a frame exchange protocol
It controls the access to the shared wireless medium through two different access
mechanisms
1. The basic access mechanism called the distributed coordination function
(DCF)
2. The centrally controlled access mechanism called the point coordination
function (PCF)
It protects the data delivered by nodes connecting to the network. The 802.11
provides a privacy service called wireless equivalent privacy (WEP), which encrypts
the data sent over the wireless medium.
24.5.1 MAC frame exchange protocol
The IEEE 802.11 implements a frame exchange protocol to allow the source of a frame to
determine when the frame has been successfully received at the destination. The minimal
MAC frame exchange protocol consists of two frames, a frame sent from the source to the
destination and an acknowledgement from the destination that the frame was received
correctly. The frame and its acknowledgement are an atomic unit of the MAC protocol and
they cannot be interrupted by the transmission from any other station.
According to the rules of the basic access mechanism, the source will attempt to transmit the
frame again, if it does not receive the acknowledgment. This happens when the destination
does not send the acknowledgement due to errors in the original frame or due to the
corruption of acknowledgement. This retransmission of frames by the source effectively
increases the bandwidth consumption.
24.5.2 Hidden node problem
If any node is not able to communicate directly with every other node in WLAN, then that
node is termed as hidden node. In wireless networking, the hidden node problem or hidden
terminal problem occurs when a node is visible from a wireless AP, but not from other nodes
communicating with that AP. This leads to difficulties in media access control.
To explain the hidden node problem in wireless networks, let us consider the three nodes A,
B, and C shown in Figure 24.15. Node A can communicate only with node B and node B can
communicate with nodes A and C and node C can communicate only with node B.
Assume that node A is sending data to node B. In the middle of this transmission, node C also
has data to send to node B. However, node C is out of the range of A and transmissions from
A cannot reach C. Therefore, C thinks that the medium is free and sends its data to node B,
which results in a collision at B because this node is receiving data from both A and C. In this
case, we say that the nodes A and C are hidden from each other with respect to B. Hidden
nodes can reduce the capacity of the network because of the possibility of collision. The
solution to the hidden node problem is the use of the handshake frames request-to-send (RTS)
and clear-to-send (CTS).


Figure 24.15 Hidden node problem

The source sends a RTS to the destination. The destination returns CTS to the source. Each of
these frames contains information that allows other stations receiving them to be notified of
the upcoming frame transmission and to delay any transmissions of their own. The RTS and
CTS frames serve to announce the impending transmission from the source to destination to
all stations in the neighbourhood of both the source and the destination. When the source
receives the CTS from the destination the real frame is send to the destination. If that frame is
correctly received at the destination, the destination will return an acknowledgment,
completing the frame exchange protocol. Depending on the configuration of a station and its
determination of local conditions, a station may choose when to use the RTS and CTS
frames.
The four frames in this exchange are also an atomic unit of the MAC protocol. They cannot
be interrupted by the transmissions of other stations. If this frame exchange fails at any point,
the state of the exchange and the information carried in each of the frames allows the stations
that have received these frames to recover and regain control of the medium in a minimal
amount of time. A station in the neighbourhood of the source station receiving the RTS frame
will delay any transmissions of its own until it receives the frame announced by the RTS. If
the announced frame is not detected, the station may use the medium. Similarly, a station in
the neighbourhood of the destination receiving the CTS frame will delay any transmissions of
its own until it receives the acknowledgement frame. If the acknowledgement frame is not
detected, the station may use the medium. In the source station, a failure of the frame
exchange protocol causes the frame to be retransmitted.
24.5.3 Retry counters
There are two retry counters associated with every frame the MAC attempts to transmit: a
short retry counter and a long retry counter. There is also a lifetime timer associated with
every frame the MAC attempts to transmit. Between these counters and the timer, the MAC
may determine that it is no longer worthwhile to continue attempting to transmit a particular
frame. When the MAC makes that determination, it may cancel the frames transmission and
discard the frame. If a frame is cancelled, the MAC indicates this to the MAC user, through
the MAC service interface.
The retry counters limit the number of times a single frame may be retransmitted. There are
two counters so that the network designer may choose to allow more or fewer retries to
shorter frames, as compared to longer frames.
RTS/CTS is not a complete solution and may decrease throughput even further.
The other methods that can be employed to solve hidden node problem are as follows:
Increase transmitting power from the nodes
Use omni-directional antennas
Remove obstacles
Move the node
Use protocol enhancement software
Use antenna diversity
24.5.4 Frame formats
The IEEE 802.11 MAC accepts MSDUs from higher layers in the protocol stack for the
purpose of reliable sending of those MSDUs to the equivalent layer of the protocol stack in
another station. To accomplish this task, MAC adds information to the MSDU in the form of
headers and trailers to create a MPDU. The MPDU is then passed to the PHY layer to be sent
over the wireless medium to the other stations. In addition, MAC may fragment MSDUs into
several frames, increasing the probability of each individual frame being delivered
successfully. The header and trailer information, combined with the information received as
the MSDU, is referred to as the MAC frame. This frame contains, among other things,
addressing information, IEEE 802.11-specific protocol information, information for setting
the network allocation vector (NAV), and a FCS for verifying the integrity of the frame.
The IEEE 802.11 MAC frame format is shown in Figure 24.16. The frame begins with a
MAC header. The start of the header is the frame control field. A field that contains the
duration information for the NAV or a short identifier follows it. Three addressing fields
follow that field. The next field contains frame sequence information. The final field of the
MAC header is the fourth address field. Following MAC header is the frame body. The frame
body contains the MSDU from the higher layer protocols. The final field in the MAC frame
is the FCS.
Frame Control: The frame control field is a 16-bit field that comprises the
information the MAC requires to interpret all the subsequent fields of the MAC
header. The frame control field is as shown in Figure 24.17. The subfields of the
frame control field are protocol version, frame type and subtype, To DS, From DS,
more fragments, retry, power management, more data, wired equivalent privacy
(WEP), and order.


Figure 24.16 IEEE 802.11 MAC FRAME format


Figure 24.17 Frame control field

The subfields of the frame control field are described below.
1. Protocol version: This subfield is 2 bits in length and is used to identify the version of
the IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol used to construct the frame. This field is set to zero in
the current version of the standard. If the protocol version indicates that the frame was
constructed by a version of the IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol that the station does not
understand, the station must discard the frame and not generate any response on the
medium or any indication to higher layer protocols that the frame was received.
2. Frame type and subtype: Identifies the function of the frame and which other MAC
header fields are present in the frame. There are three frame types: control, data, and
management. The fourth frame type is reserved. Within each frame type there are
several subtypes.
3. To DS and From DS subfields: To DS subfield is 1 bit length. It is used only in data
type frames to indicate that the frame is destined for the DS. It will be set in every
data frame sent from a mobile station to the AP. This bit is zero in all other types of
frames.
The From DS subfield is a single bit in length. It is also used only in data type frames
to indicate that the frame is being sent from the DS. This bit will be set in every data
frame sent from the AP to a mobile station and is zero in all other types of frames.
When both subfields are zero, the frame is a direct communication between two
mobile stations. When the To DS subfield is one and the From DS subfield is zero, the
frame is a transmission from a mobile station to an AP. When the To DS subfield is
zero and the From DS subfield is one, the frame is a transmission from the AP to a
mobile station. When both the subfields are one, it is used for a special case where an
IEEE 802.11 WLAN is being used as the DS, that is the frame is being sent from one
AP to another, over the wireless medium.
4. More fragments subfield: This subfield is a single bit in length. This subfield is used
to indicate that this frame is not the last fragment of a data or management frame that
has been fragmented. This subfield is zero in the last fragment of a data or
management frame that has been fragmented, in all control frames, and in any data or
management frame that is not fragmented.
5. Retry subfield: This subfield is a single bit in length. It is used to indicate whether a
data or management frame is being transmitted for the first time or if it a
retransmission. When this subfield is zero, the frame is being sent for the first time.
When this subfield is one, the frame is a retransmission.
6. Power management subfield: This subfield is a single bit in length. A mobile station
uses the power management subfield to announce its power management state. A zero
in this subfield indicates that the station is in the active mode and will be available for
future communication. A one in this subfield indicates that the station will be entering
the power management mode and will not be available for future communication. The
station may not change its power management state until it has completed a successful
frame exchange.
7. More data subfield: This subfield is a single bit in length. The AP uses this subfield to
indicate to a mobile station that there is at least one frame buffered at the AP for the
mobile station. When this subfield is one, there is at least one frame buffered at the
AP for the mobile station. When this subfield is zero, there are no frames buffered at
the AP for the mobile station. In multicast frames, the AP may also set this subfield to
one to indicate that there are more multicast frames buffered at the AP.
8. WEP subfield: The WEP subfield is a single bit in length. When set to one, it indicates
that the frame body of the MAC frame has been encrypted using the WEP algorithm.
This subfield may be set to one only in data frames and management frames of
subtype authentication. It is zero in all other frame types and subtypes.
9. Order subfield: This subfield is a single bit in length. When set to one, this subfield
indicates that the content of the data frame was provided to the MAC with a request
for strictly ordered service. This subfield provides information to the AP and DS to
allow this service to be delivered.
o Duration/ID field: The duration/ID field is 16 bits in length. It alternately
contains duration information for updating the NAV or a short ID, called the
association ID, used by a mobile station to retrieve frames that are buffered for
it at the AP. When bit 15 of the field is zero, the value in bits 140 represent
the remaining duration of a frame exchange. This value is used to update the
NAV, preventing a station receiving this field from beginning a transmission
that might cause corruption of the ongoing transmission.
o Address fields: The MAC frame format contains four address fields. The
address format (48 bit) normally used to identify the source and destination
MAC addresses contained in a frame.
Source address: The source address (SA) is the address of the MAC
that originated the frame. This address is always an individual address.
This address does not always match the address in the TA field
because of the indirection that is performed by the DS of an WLAN. It
is the SA field that should be used to identify the source of a frame
when indicating a frame has been received to higher layer protocols.
Destination address: The destination address (DA) is the address of the
final destination to which the frame is sent. This address may be either
an individual or group address. This address does not always match the
address in the RA field because of the indirection that is performed by
the DS.
An IEEE 48-bit address comprises three fields: a single-bit individual/group field, a single-
bit universal/local field, and a 46-bit address field. The individual/group field defines
whether the address is that of a single MAC or a group of MACs. When the individual/group
field is set to one, the remainder of the address is that of a group. If, in addition, all of the
remaining bits in the address are set to one, the group is the broadcast group and includes all
stations. When the individual/group bit is zero, the remainder of the address identifies a
single MAC. The universal/local field defines whether the address is administered globally or
locally by the IEEE. When the universal/local field is zero, the address is a globally
administered address and should be unique. When the universal/local field is set to one, the
address is locally administered and may not be unique.
In addition to the SA and DA, IEEE Standard 802.111997 defines three additional address
types: the transmitter address (TA), the receiver address (RA), and the BSS identifier
(BSSID).
BSS identifier: The BSSID is a unique identifier for a particular BSS of an IEEE
802.11 WLAN. Its format is identical to that of an IEEE 48-bit address. In an
infrastructure BSS, the BSSID is the MAC address of the AP. Using the MAC
address of the AP for the BSSID ensures that the BSSID will be unique and also
simplifies the address processing in the AP. In an IBSS, the BSSID is a locally
administered, individual address that is generated randomly by the station that starts
the IBSS. The generation of this address from a random number provides some
assurance that the address will be unique. However, there is a finite probability that
the address generated is not unique. In both infrastructure and IBSSs, the BSSID must
be an individual address.
Transmitter address: The TA is the address of the MAC that transmitted the frame
onto the wireless medium. This address is always an individual address. The TA is
used by stations receiving a frame to identify the station to which any responses in the
MAC frame exchange protocol will be sent.
Receiver address: The RA is the address of the MAC to which the frame is sent over
the wireless medium. This address may be either an individual or group address.
Sequence control field: The sequence control field is a 16-bit field comprising of two
subfields: sequence number subfield and fragment number subfield. The subfields are
a 4-bit fragment number and a 12-bit sequence number. This field is used to allow a
receiving station to eliminate duplicate received frames.
o Sequence number subfield: The sequence number subfield contains a 12-bit
number assigned sequentially by the sending station to each MSDU. This
sequence number is incremented after each assignment and wraps back to zero
when incremented from 4,095. The sequence number for a particular MSDU is
transmitted in every data frame associated with the MSDU. It is constant over
all transmissions and retransmissions of the MSDU. If the MSDU is
fragmented, the sequence number of the MSDU is sent with each frame
containing a fragment of the MSDU.
o Fragment number subfield: The fragment number subfield contains a 4-bit
number assigned to each fragment of an MSDU. The first, or only, fragment of
an MSDU is assigned a fragment number of zero. Each successive fragment is
assigned a sequentially incremented fragment number. The fragment number
is constant in all transmissions or retransmissions of a particular fragment.
Frame body field: The frame body field contains the information specific to the
particular data or management frames. This field is variable in length. It may be as
long as 2,304 bytes, without WEP encryption, or 2,312 bytes, when the frame body is
encrypted using WEP. The value of 2,304 bytes as the maximum length of this field
was chosen to allow an application to send 2,048 byte pieces of information, which
can then be encapsulated by as many as 256 bytes of upper layer protocol headers and
trailers.
Cyclic redundancy check: The CRC (also known as FCS) frame is 32 bits in length. It
contains the result of applying the CCITT CRC-32 polynomial to the MAC header
and frame body. The CRC-32 polynomial is represented by the following equation:
G(x) = x
32
+ x
26
+ x
23
+ x
22
+ x
16
+ x
12
+ x
11
+ x
10
+ x
8
+ x
7
+ x
5
+ x
4
+ x
2
+ x +1 (24.2)
This is the same polynomial used in other IEEE 802 LAN standards.
24.5.5 Overview of MAC
The IEEE 802.11 MAC supplies the functionality required to provide a reliable delivery
mechanism for user data over noisy, unreliable wireless media. In order to allow multiple
users to access a common channel, the IEEE 802.11 standard has defined two different access
mechanisms: the basic access mechanism called the distributed coordination function (DCF)
and a centrally controlled access mechanism called the PCF. The basic access mechanism is
CSMA/CA with binary exponential backoff.
In this mechanism, when a station listens to the medium before beginning its own
transmission and detects an existing transmission in progress, the listening station enters a
deferral period determined by the binary exponential backoff algorithm. It will also increment
the appropriate retry counter associated with the frame. The binary exponential backoff
mechanism chooses a random number which represents the amount of time that must elapse
while there are not any transmissions, that is the medium is idle before the listening station
may attempt to begin its transmission again. The random number resulting from this
algorithm is uniformly distributed in a range, called the contention window, the size of which
doubles with every attempt to transmit that is deferred until a maximum size is reached for
the range. Once a transmission is successfully transmitted, the range is reduced to its
minimum value for the next transmission. Both the minimum and maximum values for the
contention window range are fixed for a particular PHY.
In order to avoid collisions, the IEEE 802.11 MAC implements a NAV which is a virtual
carrier sensing mechanism that indicates to a station the amount of time that remains before
the medium will become available. By examining the NAV, a station may avoid transmitting,
even when the medium does not appear to be carrying a transmission by the PHY carrier
sense. By combining the virtual carrier sensing mechanism with the PHY carrier sensing
mechanism, the MAC implements the collision avoidance portion of the CSMA/CA access
mechanism.
24.5.6 IEEE 802.11 MAC layer DCF operation
When the MAC receives a request to transmit a frame, a check is made by the PHY and
virtual carrier sensing mechanisms. If both mechanisms indicate that the medium is not in use
for an interval of Distributed Inter-Frame Space (DIFS), the MAC may begin transmission to
the frame. If either the PHY or virtual carrier sense mechanisms indicate that the medium is
in use during the DIFS interval, the MAC will select a backoff interval using the binary
exponential backoff mechanism and increment the appropriate retry counter. The MAC will
decrement the backoff value each time the medium is detected to be idle by both the PHY
and virtual carrier sense mechanisms for an interval of one slot time. Once the backoff
interval has expired, the MAC begins the transmission. If the transmission is not successful,
that is the acknowledgement is not received, a collision is considered to have occurred. In this
case, the contention window is doubled, a new backoff interval is selected, and the backoff
countdown is begun, again. This process will continue until the transmission is successful or
it is cancelled. Short inter-frame spacing is used to separate transmission belonging to a
single dialogue. Each frame in IEEE 802.11 is composed of additional delay created by inter-
frame spacing and backoff period. The IEEE 802.11b MAC layer CSMA/CA operation is
shown in Figure 24.18.
24.5.7 Point coordination function
The original 802.11 MAC defines another coordination function called the PCF. This is
available only in infrastructure mode, where stations are connected to the network through
an AP. A point coordinator (PC) located at AP controls the PCF.
The PCF uses a virtual carrier-sense mechanism aided by an access priority mechanism. The
PCF shall distribute information within Beacon management frames to gain control of the
medium by setting the NAV in STAs (Stations). In addition, all frame transmissions under
the PCF may use an inter-frame space (IFS) that is smaller than the IFS for frames
transmitted via the DCF. The use of a smaller IFS implies that point-coordinated traffic shall
have priority access to the medium over STAs in overlapping BSSs operating under the DCF
access method. The access priority provided by a PCF may be utilized to create a contention-
free (CF) access method. The PC controls the frame transmissions of the STAs so as to
eliminate contention for a limited period of time.


Figure 24.18 The IEEE 802.11b MAC layer CSMA/CA operation
24.6 Comparison of IEEE 802.11 a, b, g, and n standards
Table 24.2 gives the comparison of IEEE 802.11a, b, g, and n standards in terms of
frequency, bandwidth, data rate, modulation, and range.

Table 24.2 Comparison of 802.11 protocols

24.7 Wireless PANs
A wireless personal area network (WPAN) is a network for interconnecting devices centred
around an individual persons workspace in which the connections are wireless. These
might include a mobile phone, a laptop computer, pagers, PDAs, and a personal stereo. There
are many potential advantages of these devices being able to communicate to each other,
especially without wires.
Typically, a WPAN uses Bluetooth technology, which was used as the basis for a new
standard, IEEE802.15. Bluetooth technology has been adopted as the IEEE 802.15.1 WPAN
standards which are commercially available in numerous devices ranging from cell phones,
PDAs, laptops to wireless mouses, and cameras.
For example, today it is possible to link the laptop to a mobile phone through a cable
connector and to wirelessly link into a remote data network to retrieve e-mails or perform
other actions. It permits communication within about 10 m, which enables the use of low
power, low cost, and extremely small-sized devices.
The concept of personal area networks (PANs) is that if each of these devices had a short-
range communications tool built into them, they could exchange information without wires
and without any intervention from the user. For example, the laptop, which was ostensibly in
sleep mode, stored in a briefcase, could periodically talk to the cell phone clipped to the
users belt and ask it to check for e-mails. The cellular phone could retrieve these and send
them to the laptop over the short-range link. The laptop could then store them so that when
the user turned the computer on, all the e-mails would be available on the computer. As the
user performs actions such as sending e-mails, the computer would talk with the mobile
phone and request transmission of these to the data network.
The key concept in WPAN technology is known as plugging in. When any two WPAN-
equipped devices come into close proximity (within several metres of each other) or within a
few kilometres of a central server, they can communicate as if connected by a cable. Another
important feature is the ability of each device to lock out other devices selectively, preventing
needless interference or unauthorized access to information. The proposed operating
frequencies for WPAN are around 2.4 GHz in digital modes. The objective is to facilitate
seamless operation among home or business devices and systems. Every device in a WPAN
will be able to plug in to any other device in the same WPAN, provided they are within PHY
range of one another. In addition, WPANs will be interconnected worldwide.
See Chapters 25 and 27 for detailed description of IEEE 802.15.4 Low-Rate WPAN and IEEE
802.15.1 WPAN/Bluetooth technology, respectively.
The IEEE 802.15 standards is a family of protocols to address the needs of WPAN at
different data rates in 2.4 GHz ISM band, same as defined in IEEE 802.11 WLAN standards.
So far, three IEEE 802.15 protocols (IEEE 802.15.1, IEEE 802.15.3, and IEEE 802.15.4)
have been developed based on data rates, technology, frequency band, channel access
scheme, modulation scheme, and technology used. They are referred to as Bluetooth, high-
rate WPAN, and low-rate WPAN. Table 24.3 summarizes the major parameters of these three
WPANs.
24.7.1 WPAN applications
The IEEE 802.15/WPAN technology applications are given below:
WPANs are used to replace cables between a computer and its peripheral devices.
WPANs can be used for transmitting images, digitized music, and other data.
WPAN, popularly known as Bluetooth technology, is an extremely short-range
wireless network, formed around the personal operating space of a wireless terminal
with built-in Bluetooth device.
Bluetooth is the only WPAN technology which is commercially available and is an
essential component in a series of devices ranging from laptops to wireless mouses to
cameras and cell phones.
With the help of Bluetooth technology, ad-hoc wireless piconets can be formed,
which are local area networks with a very limited coverage (about 10 m) and without
the need for an infrastructure, offering asynchronous data, and synchronous voice
services at data rate of 1 Mbps.
Bluetooth also provides a universal bridge to existing data networks and a mechanism
to form small private mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs).
WPANs help in the interworking of wireless technologies to create heterogeneous
wireless networks. For instance, WPANs and WLANs will enable an extension of
devices without direct cellular access to 3G cellular systems.

Table 24.3 Major parameters of these three WPANs

24.8 Hiper LAN
The need for mobile broadband communications has increased rapidly in recent years placing
new demands for the WLANs. The requirements of mobile broadband communication
include support for QOS, security, handover, and increased throughput. To meet these
requirements,
the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) has come up with HI gh
Performance Radio LAN (HIPERLAN), which is an alternative for the IEEE 802.11 WLAN
standards.
The HIPERLAN standards provide features and capabilities similar to those of the
IEEE802.11 WLAN standards. In HYPERLAN, there are a number of base stations, and
devices can communicate either with the base station or directly with each other. The base
stations, or APs, can automatically configure their frequency so that there is no need for
manual frequency assignment.
The HIPERLAN standard family has four different versions: HIPERLAN/1, HIPERLAN/2,
HIPERACCESS, and HIPERLINK.
HIPERLAN/1 provides communications up to 20 Mbps in the 5 GHz range of the RF
spectrum. HIPERLAN/2 operates up to 54 Mbps in the same RF band. HIPERLAN/2 is
compatible with 3G WLAN systems for sending and receiving data, images, voice
communications, and intends to accommodate ATM as well as IP-type access with QOS
support. HIPERLAN/2 has the potential, and is intended, for worldwide implementation in
conjunction with similar systems in the 5 GHz RF band.
24.8.1 Wireless asynchronous transfer mode
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is one of the leading technologies in fixed high-capacity
networks. In most situations, ATM is implemented in optical fibre links, cables, or fixed
microwave point-to-point links. The concept of wireless asynchronous transfer mode relates
to the extension of ATM services to other scenarios through the use of wireless transmission
and features mobility. It includes the wireless mobile ATM, which is the basis for providing
services in the order of tens of megabits per second to mobile users, satellite ATM (where the
large delays are significant), and WLANs.
24.8.2 HIPERLAN/1
HIPERLAN/1 is mainly designed to work without the need of any infrastructure. Two nodes
may exchange data directly, without any interaction from a wired (or radio-based)
infrastructure. Thus, the simplest HIPERLAN/1 consists of two nodes. Further, if two
HIPERLAN/1 nodes are not in radio contact with each other, they may use a third node
which must forward messages between the two communicating nodes. Figure 24.19 shows
the overall system architecture of an ad-hoc HIPERLAN/1.
A multi-hub topology is considered to allow overlay of two HIPERLANs to extend the
communication beyond the radio range of a single node. There are two overlapping
HIPERLANs, A and B, and the node 4 acts as a bridge between the two. Each node is
designated either as a forwarder (F) node or a non-forwarder (NF) node. In Figure 24.19,
nodes 1, 4, and 6 are forwarder nodes and these have forwarding connections.


Figure 24.19 HIPERLAN/1 ad-hoc system architecture

A forwarder node retransmits the received packet to other nodes in its neighbourhood, if the
packet is not meant for it. Nodes 2, 3, and 5 are non-forwarder nodes, which simply accept
the packet that is meant for it. Each non-forwarder node should select at least one of its
neighbour nodes as a forwarder node. Inter-HIPERLAN forwarding needs mutual agreement
and cooperation and should exchange regular update messages to support proper routing and
maintenance.
24.8.3 HIPERLAN/2
HIPERLAN/2 has a very high-transmission rate up to 54 Mbps. This is achieved by making
use of a modularization method called orthogonal frequency digital multiplexing (OFDM).
HIPERLAN/2 connections are time-division multiplexed and connection-oriented, either
bidirectional point-to-point or unidirectional point-to-multipoint connections. There is also a
dedicated broadcast channel through which the traffic from an AP reaches all terminals.
The HIPERLAN/2 APs have a built-in support for automatic transmission frequency
allocation within the APs coverage area. This is performed by the DFS function. This
network supports authentication and encryption. Both the AP and the MT can authenticate
each other to ensure authorized access to the network or to a valid network operator. In
HIPERLAN, each communicating host or a node is given a HIPERLAN ID (HID) and a node
ID (NID). The combination of these two IDs uniquely identifies any station, and restricts the
way it can connect to other HIPERLAN nodes. All nodes with the same HID can
communicate with each other using a dynamic routing mechanism denoted intra-HIPERLAN
forwarding.
The support for handover enables mobility of MTs. The handover scheme is MT initiated,
that is the MT uses the AP with the best signal as measured for instance by signal-to-noise
ratio, and as the user moves around, all established connections move to the AP with the best
radio transmission performance, while the MT stays associated to the HIPERLAN/2 network.
The HIPERLAN/2 architecture is easily adapted and integrated with a variety of fixed
networks. All applications running over a fixed infrastructure can also run over a
HIPERLAN/2 network.
The power save mechanism in HIPERLAN/2 is based on MT-initiated negotiation of sleep
periods. The MT requests the AP for a low power state and a specific sleep period. At the
expiration of the sleep period, the MT searches for a wake up indication from the AP, and in
the absence of that sleeps the next period, and so forth. The MT receives any pending data as
the sleep period expires. Different sleep periods are supported depending on the
requirements.
24.8.4 Comparison of various WLAN technologies
Table 24.4 provides a comparison between HIPERLAN2 and the IEEE 802.11 variants.
24.9 Wireless local loop
Wireless local loop (WLL) is a system that connects subscribers to the local telephone station
wirelessly. The other names of WLL are radio in the loop or fixed-radio access. The detailed
description of wireless local loop is described in Section 27.8.

Table 24.4 A Comparison bet]ween different WLAN technologies

24.10 Summary
A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a local area network (LAN) without wires. The key
advantages of the wireless LAN are that it eliminates the laying of cables and wiring
cost, and that it accommodates mobile PC workstations. The 802.11 is a specific
standard that defines the MAC and PHY layers of a WLAN.
The basic multiple access control (MAC) used in IEEE 802 is carrier sense multiple
access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA).
Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) is a generic term that refers to the IEEE 802.11
communications standard for wireless LANs. Wi-Fi network connects computers to
each other, to the Internet, and to the wired network.
The IEEE 802.11 standard defines two bottom layers in the OSI model, namely the
MAC layer and the PHY layer. The MAC layer controls and regulates the access to
the shared wireless medium using specified channel access mechanisms and the PHY
layer manages the transmission of data between the AP and the client.
Wireless LANs support mobility. Wi-Fi networks can be configured in two different
ways: ad-hoc mode allows wireless devices to communicate in peer-to-peer mode
with each other. Infrastructure mode allows wireless devices to communicate with a
central node that in turn can communicate with wired nodes on that LAN. Ad-hoc
mode WLANs are very easy to configure and do not require a great deal of effort to
set up.
Access point (AP) The AP is a wireless LAN transceiver or base station that can
connect one or many wireless devices simultaneously to the Internet. The AP also
serves as the WLAN hub that functions as a bridge and relay point between wireless
terminals and the existing wired LAN.
Wireless LANs are less secure than wired LANs and the data transfer rate decreases
with increase in number of devices.
BSS is a group of wireless terminals controlled by a single coordination function
provided by an AP.
ESS is a group of one or more interconnected BSSs and integrated IEEE 802 wired
LANs that appear as a single BSS to the LLC layer at any wireless terminal associated
with one of these BSSs.
Infrastructure networks are single-failure-point networks. If the base station or AP
fails, the entire communications network is destroyed.
This first version of the standard (IEEE 802.11) operates at the 2.4 GHz ISM band
which supports only 1 and 2 Mbps data rates using DBPSK and DQPSK. 802.11b is a
PHY extension to the original 802.11 standard. It also operates at the 2.40 GHz band
and allows for higher data rates of 5.5 and 11 Mbps using CCK.
The 802.11a is another PHY extension to the 802.11 standard and uses OFDM
technique. It operates at 5 GHz unlicensed band and allows for data rates of 654
Mbps.
The 802.11g was the next extension to the 802.11b standard. It operates at the 2.4
GHz ISM band and allows for data rates ranging from 1 to 20 Mbps. It also uses
OFDM technique.
HIPERLAN2 offers the potential of much higher data rate transmission than 802.11.
PHY transmission can take place at up to 54 Mbps, resulting in a user data rate after
error correction and other overheads of 25 Mbps. The air interface used for this is
OFDM, which segments the incoming data stream into a number of subsidiary
streams and transmits them on subchannels. This avoids some of the problems
associated with intersymbol interference when wideband transmissions are utilized.
Review questions
1. Compare the salient features, advantages, and disadvantages of WLANs and wired
LAN technologies.
2. Explain various WLAN topologies with neat diagrams.
3. Compare ad-hoc and infrastructure mode WLAN topologies.
4. Write short notes on IEEE 802.11 WLANs.
5. Explain the architecture of IEEE 802.11 WLAN.
6. What is BSS and ESS with respect to WLANs?
7. List various IEEE 802.11 standards and the modulation techniques used in each
standard.
8. Write short notes on IEEE 802.11b, IEEE 802.11a, and IEEE 802.11g standards.
9. Give the functions of PLCP and PMD sublayers of PHY layer.
10. Write short notes on DSSS PHY.
11. Give the frame format of PPDU in DSSS PHY.
12. Write short notes on FHSS PHY.
13. Give the frame format of PPDU in FHSS PHY.
14. Give the functions of MAC layer.
15. Explain the hidden node problem in WLANs.
16. Write short notes on retry counters.
17. Give the IEEE 802.11 MAC frame format and describe each subfield.
18. Explain the IEEE 802.11 MAC DCF and PCF operation.
19. Explain the IEEE 802.11b MAC layer CSMA/CA operation.
20. Compare IEEE 802.11802.11a, b, g, and n standards.
21. The IEEE 802.11 WLAN system operates at 2 Mbps. Determine the data transfer time
of a 40 kB file (Ans: 0.16 s)
22. The IEEE 802.11 WLAN system operates at 2 Mbps data transmission rate. Compute
the size of the file transferred in 32 s (Ans: 64 MB or 8 MB).
23. Consider an IEEE 802.11a WLAN system in which OFDM baseband modulation
scheme is used. The OFDM system has 52 subcarriers out of which eight subcarriers
are used as pilot subcarriers. Find the data subcarriers. OFDM symbol duration
including guard interval for ISI mitigation is 4 s. If the system uses FEC code rate
and 64 QAM carrier modulation scheme, find the number of data bits transmitted per
OFDM symbol and approximate transmission data rate. (Ans: 44 subcarriers. Number
of subcarriers = 44, number of data bits transmitted per OFDM symbol = 198,
transmission data rate 49.5 Mbps 50 Mbps)
Objective type questions and answers
1. The Wi-Fi technology is specified in
1. IEEE 802.11 WLAN standards
2. IEEE 802.11a WLAN standards
3. EEE 802.11b WLAN standards
4. IEEE 802.11g WLAN standards
2. The size of a file transferred in 8 s in the IEEE 802.11 WLAN system operating at 2
Mbps data transmission rate is
1. 2 MB
2. 4 MB
3. 16 MB
4. 32 MB
3. The data transfer time for a fixed size file

in the IEEE 802.11 WLAN system


operating at 2 Mbps as compared to that of at 1 Mbps.
1. increases by ten times
2. increases by two times
3. decreases by two times
4. decreases by ten times
4. Quality of service in a mobile network is affected by
1. transmission errors and the quality of audio received
2. network connectivity, effective bandwidth availability, connection reliability,
and data loss probability
3. atmospheric conditions and the number of simultaneous active mobile users
4. network load and the data lost per second
5. IEEE 802.15.1 WPAN standard uses

technique for separation of piconets


1. DSSS
2. OFDM
3. FHSS-TDMA
4. FHSS-CDMA
6. The WiMAX technology uses multicarrier OFDMA scheme in 211 GHz band, to
achieve transmission data rates of
1. 11 Mbps
2. 54 Mbps
3. 155 Mbps
4. 2 Gbps
7. Bluetooth technology has been adopted as the IEEE

standards.
1. 802.11b
2. 802.15.1
3. 802.15.3
4. 802.16a
8. The

are installed as an add-on unit with the wireless terminals to provide


wireless communications.
1. access points
2. wireless access interface cards
3. distribution systems
4. BSSs
9. The service set that does not contain access point is
1. independent BSS
2. infrastructure BSS
3. extended service Set ESS
4. none of the above
10. The blanket that have high concentration of users is referred as
1. access point
2. distribution spots
3. hot spots
4. none of the above
11. The bridge between the wireless LAN and the wired LAN is provided by
1. basic service set (BSS)
2. distribution system (DS)
3. access point (AP)
4. extended service set (ESS)
12. Wi-Fi networks can be configured in
1. ad-hoc mode
2. infrastructure mode
3. both a & b
4. neither a nor b
13. The interference between the MAC and wireless media is
1. physical layer
2. implementation layer
3. application layer
4. none of the above
14. Errors in physical layer header are detected using
1. frame check sequence
2. frame delimiter
3. sync bits
4. none of the above
15. The physical layer provides
1. frame exchange between MAC and PHY
2. transmits data frames over media
3. carrier sense indication back to the MAC
4. all the above
16. IEEE802.11a uses the modulation technique
1. DSSS
2. OFDM
3. both a & b
4. neither a nor b
Answers: 1.(c), 2. (a), 3. (b), 4. (b), 5. (d), 6. (c), 7. (b), 8. (b), 9. (a), 10. (c), 11. (c), 12. (c),
13. (a), 14. (a), 15. (d), 16. (b).
Open book questions
1. What is the difference between an access point and a portal?
2. What are the requirements of IEEE 802.11 wireless standards?
3. Describe how the ad-hoc networks are useful in day-today applications.
4. Why are multiple access points installed in a building?
5. Write about mobile ad-hoc network.
6. What are the interdependent layers of the IrDA protocol?
7. Tabulate the physical-layer characteristics of IEEE 802.11 family of standards.
8. What is key difference in the ad-hoc and infrastructure topologies of WLANS?
9. Explain the characteristics of HIPERLAN.
Further reading
G. Bianchi, IEEE 802.11 saturation throughput analysis, IEEE Comm. Letters V2, N12,
December 1998.
G. Bianchi, Performance analysis of the IEEE 802.11 distributed coordination function,
IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 535547, March
2000.
IEEE Standard for Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and PHY Layer (PHY)
specifications, IEEE 802.11b, 1999.
Prasant Mohapatra, J. Li, Chao Gui, QoS in mobile ad-hoc networks, IEEE Wireless
Communication, pp. 4452, June 2003.
Ruopeng Wang, Jie Zhang and Xiangyi Zou, Performance analysis and optimization of
IEEE 802.11 DCF with constant contention window, ISECS International colloquium on
CCCM, pp. 407411, 2008.
X. Shugong, T. Saadawi, Does the IEEE MAC protocol work well in multi-hop wireless ad-
hoc networks? IEEE Communications Magazine, pp. 130137, June 2001.

You might also like