Multipath Propagation Tutorial

- summary, tutorial or overview about the essentials of multipath radio

propagation and the ways it affects radio signal transmission.
IN THIS SECTION
Multipath propagation basics
Multipath fading
Rayleigh fading
Multipath propagation is a fact of life in any terrestrial radio scenario. While the direct or line of
sight path is normally the main wanted signal, a radio receiver will receive many signals resulting
from the signal taking a large number of different paths. These paths may be the result of
reflections from buildings, mountains or other reflective surfaces including water, etc. that may be
adjacent to the main path. Additionally other effects such as ionospheric reflections give rise to
multipath propagation as does tropospheric ducting.
The multipath propagation resulting from the variety of signal paths that may exist between the
transmitter and receiver can give rise to interference in a variety of ways including distortion of
the signal, loss of data and multipath fading.
At other times, the variety of signal paths arising from the multipath propagation can be used to
advantage. Schemes such as MIMO use multipath propagation to increase the capacity of the
channels they use. With increasing requirements for spectrum efficiency, the use of multipath
propagation for technologies such as MIMO are able to provide significant improvements in
channel capacity that are much needed.


Multipath propagation basics
Multipath radio signal propagation occurs on all terrestrial radio links. The radio signals not only
travel by the direct line of sight path, but as the transmitted signal does not leave the transmitting
antenna in only the direction of the receiver, but over a range of angles even when a directive
antenna is used. As a result, the transmitted signals spread out from the transmitter and they will
reach other objects: hills, buildings reflective surfaces such as the ground, water, etc. The signals
may reflect of a variety of surfaces and reach the receiving antenna via paths other than the
direct line of sight path.


Multipath fading
Signals are received in a terrestrial environment, i.e. where reflections are present and signals
arrive at the receiver from the transmitter via a variety of paths. The overall signal received is the
sum of all the signals appearing at the antenna. Sometimes these will be in phase with the main
signal and will add to it, increasing its strength. At other times they will interfere with each other.
This will result in the overall signal strength being reduced.
At times there will be changes in the relative path lengths. This could result from either the
transmitter or receiver moving, or any of the objects that provides a reflective surface moving.
This will result in the phases of the signals arriving at the receiver changing, and in turn this will
result in the signal strength varying. It is this that causes the fading that is present on many
signals.
It can also be found that the interference may be flat, i.e. applied to all frequencies equally across
a given channel, or it may be selective, i.e. applying to more to some frequencies across a
channel than others.A more in depth description of multipath fading is given in a page referenced
in the "Related Articles" section on the left hand side of this page below the main menu.


Interference caused by multipath propagation
Multipath propagation can give rise to interference that can reduce the signal to noise ratio and
reduce bit error rates for digital signals. One cause of a degradation of the signal quality is the
multipath fading already described. However there are other ways in which multipath propagation
can degrade the signal and affect its integrity.
One of the ways which is particularly obvious when driving in a car and listening to an FM radio.
At certain points the signal will become distorted and appear to break up. This arises from the
fact that the signal is frequency modulated and at any given time, the frequency of the received
signal provides the instantaneous voltage for the audio output. If multipath propagation occurs,
then two or more signals will appear at the receiver. One is the direct or line of sight signal, and
another is a reflected signal. As these will arrive at different times because of the different path
lengths, they will have different frequencies, caused by the fact that the two signals have been
transmitted by the transmitter at slightly different times. Accordingly when the two signals are
received together, distortion can arise if they have similar signal strength levels.
Another form of multipath propagation interference that arises when digital transmissions are
used is known as Inter Symbol Interference, ISI. This arises when the delay caused by the
extended path length of the reflected signal. If the delay is significant proportion of a symbol, then
the receiver may receive the direct signal which indicates one part of the symbol or one state,
and another signal which is indicating another logical state. If this occurs, then the data can be
corrupted.

How intersymbol interference can be avoided
One way of overcoming this is to transmit the data at a rate the signal is sampled, only when all
the reflections have arrived and the data is stable. This naturally limits the rate at which data can
be transmitted, but ensures that data is not corrupted and the bit error rate is minimised. To
calculate this the delay time needs to be calculated using estimates of the maximum delays that
are likely to be encountered from reflections.
Using the latest signal processing techniques, a variety of methods can be used to overcome the
problems with multipath propagation and the possibilities of interference.


OFDM and multipath propagation
In order to meet the requirements to transmit large amounts of data over a radio channel, it is
necessary to choose the most appropriate form of signal bearer format. One form of signal lends
itself to radio data transmissions in an environment where reflections may be present is
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex, OFDM. An OFDM signal comprises a large number of
carriers, each of which are modulated with a low bit rate data stream. In this way the two
contracting requirements for high data rate transmission, to meet the capacity requirements, and
low bit rate to meet the intersymbol interference requirements can be met.

Note on OFDM:
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) is a form of transmission that uses a large number of close
spaced carriers that are modulated with low rate data. Normally these signals would be expected to interfere with
each other, but by making the signals orthogonal to each other there is no mutual interference. The data to be
transmitted is split across all the carriers to give resilience against selective fading from multi-path effects..
Click on the link for an OFDM tutorial


OFDM is the modulation format that is used for many of today's data transmission formats. The
applications include 802.11n Wi-Fi, LTE (Long Term Evolution for 3G cellular
telecommunications), LTE Advanced (4G), WiMAX and many more. The fact that OFDM is being
widely used demonstrates that it is an ideal format to overcome multipath propagation problems.


MIMO
While multipath propagation creates interference for many radio communications systems, it can
also be used to advantage to provide additional capacity on a given channel. Using a scheme
known as MIMO, multiple input multiple output, it is possible to multiple the data capacity of a
given channel several times by using the multipath propagation that exists.

Note on MIMO:
Two major limitations in communications channels can be multipath interference, and the data throughput
limitations as a result of Shannon's Law. MIMO provides a way of utilising the multiple signal paths that exist
between a transmitter and receiver to significantly improve the data throughput available on a given channel with
its defined bandwidth. By using multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver along with some complex digital
signal processing, MIMO technology enables the system to set up multiple data streams on the same channel,
thereby increasing the data capacity of a channel.
Click on the link for a MIMO tutorial


In view of the advantages that MIMO offers, many current wireless and radio communications
schemes are using it to make far more efficient use of the available spectrum. The disadvantage
to MIMO is that it requires the use of multiple antennas, and with modern portable equipment
such as cell phones being increasingly small, it can be difficult to place tow sufficiently spaced
antennas onto them.
Multipath propagation is an issue for any radio communications system. Ranging from the short
range wireless communications such as Wi-Fi though the cellular and longer range data
schemes such as WiMAX though to VHF links where troposheric propagation may affect the
signal path, through to HF systems using the ionosphere for reflections. In all of these systems,
the effects of multipath propagation can be seen and experienced. Any form of communications,
therefore has to be able to accommodate the effects of the multipath propagation in one way or
another.
By Ian Poole
Multipath Fading
- summary, tutorial or overview about the essentials multipath fading, a
phenomenon that is present on many radio signals, cellular, HF and VHF.
IN THIS SECTION
Multipath propagation basics
Multipath fading
Rayleigh fading
Multipath fading affects most forms of radio communications links in one form or another.
Multipath fading can be detected on many signals across the frequency spectrum from the HF
bands right up to microwaves and beyond. It is experienced not only by short wave radio
communications where signals fade in and out over a period of time, but it is also experienced by
many other forms of radio communications systems including cellular telecommunications and
many other users of the VHF and UHF spectrum.
Multipath fading occurs in any environment where there is multipath propagation and there is
some movement of elements within the radio communications system. This may include the
radio transmitter or receiver position, or in the elements that give rise to the reflections. The
multipath fading can often be relatively deep, i.e. the signals fade completely away, whereas at
other times the fading may not cause the signal to fall below a useable strength.
Multipath fading may also cause distortion to the radio signal. As the various paths that can be
taken by the signals vary in length, the signal transmitted at a particular instance will arrive at the
receiver over a spread of times. This can cause problems with phase distortion and intersymbol
interference when data transmissions are made. As a result, it may be necessary to incorporate
features within the radio communications system that enables the effects of these problems to be
minimised.


Multipath fading basics
Multipath fading is a feature that needs to be taken into account when designing or developing a
radio communications system. In any terrestrial radio communications system, the signal will
reach the receiver not only via the direct path, but also as a result of reflections from objects such
as buildings, hills, ground, water, etc that are adjacent to the main path.
The overall signal at the radio receiver is a summation of the variety of signals being received. As
they all have different path lengths, the signals will add and subtract from the total dependent
upon their relative phases.
At times there will be changes in the relative path lengths. This could result from either the radio
transmitter or receiver moving, or any of the objects that provides a reflective surface moving.
This will result in the phases of the signals arriving at the receiver changing, and in turn this will
result in the signal strength varying as a result of the different way in which the signals will sum
together. It is this that causes the fading that is present on many signals.


Selective and flat fading
Multipath fading can affect radio communications channels in two main ways. This can given the
way in which the effects of the multipath fading are mitigated.
1. Flat fading: This form of multipath fading affects all the frequencies across a given
channel either equally or almost equally. When flat multipath fading is experienced, the
signal will just change in amplitude, rising and falling over a period of time, or with
movement from one position to another.


2. Selective fading: Selective fading occurs when the multipath fading affects different
frequencies across the channel to different degrees. It will mean that the phases and
amplitudes of the signal will vary across the channel. Sometimes relatively deep nulls
may be experienced, and this can give rise to some reception problems. Simply
maintaining the overall amplitude of the received signal will not overcome the effects of
selective fading, and some form of equalization may be needed. Some digital signal
formats, e.g. OFDM are able to spread the data over a wide channel so that only a
portion of the data is lost by any nulls. This can be reconstituted using forward error
correction techniques and in this way it can mitigate the effects of selective multipath
fading.

Selective multipath fading occurs because even though the path length will be change by
the same physical length (e.g. the same number of metres, yards, miles, etc) this
represents a different proportion of a wavelength. Accordingly the phase will change
across the bandwidth used.

Selective fading can occur over many frequencies. It can often be noticed when medium
wave broadcast stations are received in the evening via ground wave and skywave. The
phases of the signals received via the two means of propagation change with time and
this causes the overall received signal to change. As the multipath fading is very
dependent on path length, it is found that it affects the frequencies over even the
bandwidth of an AM broadcast signal to be affected differently and distortion results.

Selective multipath fading is also experienced at higher frequencies, and with high data
rate signals becoming commonplace wider bandwidths are needed. As a result nulls and
peaks may occur across the bandwidth of a single signal.


Cellular multipath fading
Cellular telecommunications is subject to multipath fading. There are a variety of reasons for this.
The first is that the mobile station or user is likely to be moving, and as a result the path lengths
of all the signals being received are changing. The second is that many objects around may also
be moving. Automobiles and even people will cause reflections that will have a significant effect
on the received signal. Accordingly multipath fading has a major bearing on cellular
telecommunications.
Often the multipath fading that affects cellular phones is known as fast fading because it occurs
over a relatively short distance. Slow fading occurs as a cell phone moves behind an obstruction
and the signal slowly fades out.
The fast signal variations caused by multipath fading can be detected even over a short distance.
Assume a frequency of 2 GHz (e.g. a typical approximate frequency value for many 3G phones).
The wavelength can be calculated as:


= c / f
= 3 x 10
8
/ 2 x 10
9

= 0.15 metres
Where:
c = speed of light in metres per second
f = frequency in Hertz
To move from a signal being in phase to a signal being out of phase is equivalent to increasing
the path length by half a wavelength or 0.075m, or 7.5 cms. This example looks at a very
simplified example. In reality the situation is far more complicated with signals being received via
many paths. However it does give an indication of the distances involved to change from an in-
phase to an out of phase situation.


Ionospheric multipath fading
Short wave radio communications is renowned for its fading. Signals that are reflected via the
ionosphere, vary considerably in signal strength. These variations in strength are primarily
caused by multipath fading.
When signals are propagated via the ionosphere it is possible for the energy to be propagated
from the transmitter to the receiver via very many different paths. Simple diagrams show a single
ray or path that the signal takes. In reality the profile of the electron density of the ionosphere (it
is the electron density profile that causes the signals to be refracted) is not smooth and as a
result any signals entering the ionosphere will be scattered and will take a variety of paths to
reach a particular receiver. With changes in the ionosphere causing the path lengths to change,
this will result in the phases changing and the overall summation at the receiver changing. [See
the pages on ionospheric propagation within the Radio Wave Propagation section of this website
for further details of this form of propagation].
The changes in the ionosphere arise from a number of factors. One is that the levels of ionisation
vary, although these changes normally occur relatively slowly, but nevertheless have an effect. In
addition to this there are winds or air movements in the ionosphere. As the levels of ionisation
are not constant, any air movement will cause changes in the profile of the electron density in the
ionosphere. In turn this will affect the path lengths.
Tropospheric multipath fading
Many signals using frequencies at VHF and above are affected by the troposphere. The signal is
refracted as a result of the changes in refractive index occurring, especially within the first
kilometres above the ground. This can cause signals to travel beyond the line of sight. In fact for
broadcast applications a figure of 4/3 of the visual line of sight is used for the radio horizon.
However under some circumstances relatively abrupt changes in refractive index occurring as a
result of weather conditions can cause the distances over which signals travel to be increased.
Signals may then be "ducted" by the ionosphere over distances up to a few hundred kilometres.
[See the pages on tropospheric propagation within the Radio Wave Propagation section of this
website for further details of this form of propagation].
When signals are ducted in this way, they will be subject to multipath fading. Here, heat rising
from the Earth's surface will ensure that the path is always changing and signals will vary in
strength. Typically these changes may be relatively slow with signals falling and rising in strength
over a period of a number of minutes.
Multipath fading is a feature of many radio communications links. Multipath fading occurs as a
result of the many signal paths that are in existence on all terrestrial radio communications links
whether they are used for applications such as cellular telecommunications, mobile radio, or for
HF or VHF radio communications. As such it is necessary to account for multipath fading in the
design of many radio communications systems.
By Ian Poole
Rayleigh Fading
- summary, tutorial or overview about the essentials of Rayleigh fading and
how it applies to radio signal paths where multiple reflections and paths are
available.
IN THIS SECTION
Multipath propagation basics
Multipath fading
Rayleigh fading
Rayleigh fading is the name given to the form of fading that is often experienced in an
environment where there is a large number of reflections present. The Rayleigh fading model
uses a statistical approach to analyse the propagation, and can be used in a number of
environments.
The Rayleigh fading model is normally viewed as a suitable approach to take when analysing
and prediction radio wave propagation performance for areas such as cellular communications in
a well built up urban environment where there are many reflections from buildings, etc.. HF
ionospheric radio wave propagation where reflections (or more exactly refractions) occur at many
points within the ionosphere is also another area where Rayleigh fading model applies well. It is
also appropriate to use the Rayleigh fading model for tropospheric radio propagation because,
again there are many reflection points and the signal may follow a variety of different paths.
The Rayleigh propagation model is most applicable to instances where there are many different
signal paths, none of which is dominant. In this way all the signal paths will vary and can have an
impact on the overall signal at the receiver.


Rayleigh fading basics
The Rayleigh fading model is particularly useful in scenarios where the signal may be considered
to be scattered between the transmitter and receiver. In this form of scenario there is no single
signal path that dominates and a statistical approach is required to the analysis of the overall
nature of the radio communications channel.
Rayleigh fading is a model that can be used to describe the form of fading that occurs when
multipath propagation exists. In any terrestrial environment a radio signal will travel via a number
of different paths from the transmitter to the receiver. The most obvious path is the direct, or line
of sight path.
However there will be very many objects around the direct path. These objects may serve to
reflect, refract, etc the signal. As a result of this, there are many other paths by which the signal
may reach the receiver.
When the signals reach the receiver, the overall signal is a combination of all the signals that
have reached the receiver via the multitude of different paths that are available. These signals
will all sum together, the phase of the signal being important. Dependent upon the way in which
these signals sum together, the signal will vary in strength. If they were all in phase with each
other they would all add together. However this is not normally the case, as some will be in
phase and others out of phase, depending upon the various path lengths, and therefore some
will tend to add to the overall signal, whereas others will subtract.
As there is often movement of the transmitter or the receiver this can cause the path lengths to
change and accordingly the signal level will vary. Additionally if any of the objects being used for
reflection or refraction of any part of the signal moves, then this too will cause variation. This
occurs because some of the path lengths will change and in turn this will mean their relative
phases will change, giving rise to a change in the summation of all the received signals.
The Rayleigh fading model can be used to analyse radio signal propagation on a statistical basis.
It operates best under conditions when there is no dominant signal (e.g. direct line of sight
signal), and in many instances cellular telephones being used in a dense urban environment fall
into this category. Other examples where no dominant path generally exists are for ionospheric
propagation where the signal reaches the receiver via a huge number of individual paths.
Propagation using tropospheric ducting also exhibits the same patterns. Accordingly all these
examples are ideal for the use of the Rayleigh fading or propagation model.
By Ian Poole