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Sources of Electrical Energy
Hydro-electric Power Plant
Thermal Power Plant
Nuclear Power Plant
Solar Power Plant
Wind Power Plant
Control system diagramming
Boilers
Co-generation
HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT
20% of the total world power is generated using Hydro
power plants.
Hydrology Science which deals with rainfall and run-off.
Hydrological Cycle the evaporation of water from the
surfaces of the river and oceans and its precipitation of the
earth.
Hydrograph graph showing discharge of flowing water
with respect to time for a specific period. Unit - m
3
/sec, km
2
-
cm/hr or day-second-metre.
Classification
1. According to availability of Head
Low head Plants(below 30m)
Medium head Plants(30 to 60m)
High head Plants(above 100m)
2. According to Nature of Load
Base load Plants
Peak load plants
3. According to quantity of water available
Run-off River Plant without Pondage
Run-off river Plant with Pondage.
Pump storage Plants
Mini & Micro-Hydal Plants
Components used in Hydro-Electric Power Plant
Reservoir
Dam
Trash rack
Forebay
Surge tank
Penstock
Spill way
Power House
Prime movers
Draft tube

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Operation of Hydro Electric Power Plant
Thermal Power Plant
Schematic of thermal power plant
Circuits
Coal and Ash circuit
Air and Gas circuit
Feed Water and Steam circuit
Cooling Water circuit

The general layout of thermal power plant
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Thermal Power Plant
Thermal Power Plant
Circuits
1. Coal and Ash Circuit
Coal handling equipment- Coal from storage to boiler.
Ash handling system- ash to ash storage
2.Air and Gas Circuit
Forced draft or induced draft or both.
Dust from the air is removed.
Exhaust gases carries sufficient amount of heat, passed
through air-heater, then to dust collector, passed to
atmosphere through chimney.

Coal Handling System
Unit system
Central or Bin system
Generated steam is fed to the prime mover to generate
power.
Steam coming out of prime mover is condensed and fed to
the boiler.
The condensate is heated in the feed-heater using steam
tapped from different points of the turbine.
Feed water from external sources is supplied to compensate
the loss.
This is passed through the purifying plant to reduce the
dissolved salts to an accepted level.

3. Feed water and Steam Circuit
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4. Cooling water circuit
Open system Quantity of water required to condense the
steam is considerably large and it is taken either from lake,
river or sea.
Closed system the water coming out from the condenser
is cooled either in cooling pond or cooling tower.
General Layout of Ash Handling and Dust
Collection System

Draft

To supply required quantity of air for combustion and
remove the burnt products from the system

The difference of pressure required to maintain the
constant flow of air and to discharge the gases through
the chimney to atmosphere is known as draft

Types
Forced Draft
Induced draft
Induced Draft
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Forced Draft
Return Bend Economiser
Tubular Air Preheater
SOLAR POWER PLANT
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Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either
directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated
solar power (CSP) or to split water and create hydrogen fuel using
techniques of artificial photosynthesis.

Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and
tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small
beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the
photoelectric effect.

Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed
in the 1980s, and the 354 MW SEGS CSP installation is the largest
solar power plant in the world and is located in the Mojave Desert
of California.

Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station
(150 MW) and the Andasol solar power station (100 MW), both in
Spain. The 97 MW Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant in Canada, is
the worlds largest photovoltaic plant.
SOLAR POWER PLANT SOLAR POWER PLANT
Principle

Solar energy is collected by large parabolic collectors.

Used to heat water.

Feed water is heated in two stages to produce steam,
which in turn runs the turbine.

Alternators coupled with the turbine produces the required
electrical energy.

Steam is condensed and feedwater is returned to boiler for
reuse.

1. Flat Plate Collector
Expose the dark surface to solar radiation so that the
radiation is suitably absorbed.
Collector should have high absorption and low emissivity.
Consists of an absorber plate on which the solar radiation
falls after coming through transparent covers.
Absorbed radiation is partly transferred to the liquid
flowing through the fixed tubes.
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Solar Air Heater
Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrating Solar Collector
Consists of concentrator and a receiver.
Concentrator- mirror reflector having thee shape of a cylindrical
parabola..
It focuses the sun light to its axis where it is absorbed on the surface
of the absorber tube and transferred to flowing liquid.
Tracking- concentrator has to be rotated so that sun rays always be
focused on to the absorber.
Fluid temperatures up to 300C can be achieved.
Paraboloid Concentrating Collector
Generation of higher working temperature is possible.
Requires two axis tracking so that the sun is in line with the
focus and vertex of the paraboloid.
Sensible Heat Storage
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STEAM TURBINE
Low Temperature Solar Power Plant
High Temperature Solar Power Plant
Liquid sodium cooling medium, Working temperature 480 C to 540 C,
Capacity 500kW
Photo Voltaic Power Generation
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Nuclear Power Plant
Electricity was generated for the first time ever by a nuclear reactor
on December 20, 1951 at the EBR-I experimental station near Arco,
Idaho in the United States.

On June 27, 1954, the world's first nuclear power plant to generate
electricity for a power grid started operations at Obninsk, USSR.

The world's first commercial scale power station, Calder Hall in
England opened in October 17, 1956.
[2]

The energy released by splitting the nuclei of Uranium
is converted to heat energy of steam.
Energy of 1Kg of Uranium = 20 X 106 KW-hr of heat
energy = burning 2000 tons of high grade coal.

Classification




1. On the basis of Neutron
energy
a) Fast reactors
b) Thermal reactors
2. On the basis of Fuel used
a) Natural fuel.
b) Enriched Uranium.
3. On the basis of moderator used.
a) Water moderated.
b) Heavy water moderated.
c) Graphite moderated.
d) Beryllium moderated.
4. On the basis of coolant used.
a) Water cooled reactor.
b) Gas cooled reactor.
c) Liquid metal cooled reactors.
d) Organic liquid cooled
reactors.
Pressurized water reactor Nuclear Power Plant
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Boiling Water reactor Nuclear Power Plant
Components used in Nuclear reactor

1. Reactor core
Core is the main part in which nuclear reaction takes place
and heat energy is released.
Consists of large no. of fuel tubes in which nuclear fuel is
placed in the form of Uranium or Plutonium rods.
Shaped either cubical or cylindrical to facilitate the coolant
circulation through the core.

2. Moderator
Chain reaction produce fast moving neutron which do not
effectively cause fission of U
235
and try to escape from reactor.
Moderator used to reduce the neutron speed to a critical value
that increases the chances of fission.
This is done by colliding them with material having light weight
nucleus so that on collision it does not absorb the neutron but
scatters them.
Graphite, heavy water and Beryllium
3. Coolant system
To remove heat produced due to chain reaction and
transfer this heat to the feed water for running the steam
turbine.

4. Control system
Energy produced due to chain reaction in the core is
enormous which need a suitable control, otherwise the
entire core and surrounding structure may melt destroying
everything followed by radioactive pollution.
Control rods of cadmium or boron accommodated in the
core which can be raised or lowered .it absorbs neutrons
Divided into 3 categories namely Safety rods, coarse and
fine regulation

5. Reactor vessel
Container housing the core, moderator, reflector thermal
shielding and control rods
Strong enough to withstand high temperatures
6. Reflector
To minimize the leakage of neutrons
Reflect back unused neutrons in to the core for improving
the neutron economy of the reactor.

7. Biological shield
To prevent passage of radiation, such as high neutron
fluxes, alpha, beta ad gamma rays and fission fragments
Provide safe working conditions for operating personnel.

8. Instrumentation.
Control and safety auxiliaries are provided to measure
population of neutron.
In case of excessive neutron population , it shuts down the
reactor.
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WIND POWER PLANT
The difference in temperature gradients induce the circulation of
air from one zone to another.
Roughly 10 million MW of energy are continuously available in the
wind.
But power generation on large scale using wind is not so successful
so far.

CLASSIFICATION
1. Based on axis
a) Horizontal axis machines.
b) Vertical axis machines.
2. According to size
a) Small size machines(upto 2kW)
b) Medium size machines.(2 to 100kW)
c) Large size machines.(100kW and above)
i. Single generator at single site.
ii. Multiple generators



3. Type of output
a) DC output
i. DC generator
ii. Alternator rectifier
b) AC Output
i. Variable frequency, variable or constant voltage AC.
ii. Constant frequency, variable or constant voltage AC.
4. According to the rotational speed of the aero
turbines.
a) Constant speed and variable pitch blades.
b) Nearly constant speed with fixed pitch blades.
c) Variable speed with fixed pitch blades.
i. Field modulated system.
ii. Double output indication generator.
iii. AC-DC-Ac link.
iv. AC commutator generator.
v. Variable speed constant frequency generating systems.
5. As per the utilization of output.
a) Battery storage.
b) Direct conversion to an electro magnetic energy
converter.
c) Thermal potential.
d) Inter convention with conventional electric utility guides.
Structure of Wind Electric Generating Station
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Anemometer:
Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data
to the controller.
Blades:
Most turbines have either two or three blades. Wind
blowing over the blades causes the blades to "lift" and
rotate.
Brake:
A disc brake, which can be applied mechanically,
electrically, or hydraulically to stop the rotor in
emergencies.
Controller:
The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of
abut 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) and shuts off the
machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at
wind speeds above about 55 mph because they might be
damaged by the high winds.
Gear box:
Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft
and increase the rotational speeds from about 30 to 60
rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1000 to 1800 rpm, the
rotational speed required by most generators to produce
electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the
wind turbine and engineers are exploring "direct-drive"
generators that operate at lower rotational speeds and don't
need gear boxes.
Generator:
Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces
60-cycle AC electricity.
High-speed shaft:
Drives the generator.
Low-speed shaft:
The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60
Rotations per minute.
Nacelle:
The nacelle sits atop the tower and contains the gear box,
low- and high-speed shafts, generator, controller, and brake.
Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to land on.
Pitch:
Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to control the
rotor speed and keep the rotor from turning in winds that are
too high or too low to produce electricity.
Rotor:
The blades and the hub together are called the rotor.
Tower:
Towers are made from tubular steel (shown here), concrete,
or steel lattice. Because wind speed increases with height,
taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and
generate more electricity.
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Wind direction:
This is an "upwind" turbine, so-called because it operates
facing into the wind. Other turbines are designed to run
"downwind," facing away from the wind.
Wind vane:
Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw
drive to orient the turbine properly with respect to the
wind.
Yaw drive:
Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used
to keep the rotor facing into the wind as the wind
direction changes. Downwind turbines don't require a
yaw drive, the wind blows the rotor downwind.
Yaw motor:
Powers the yaw drive.
Basic components of wind electric system.
Importance of measurement and instrumentation in
power plant
Furnish accurate information for guidance to safe,
continuous and proper plant operation.
Helps to direct its operation so as to achieve the best
performance and furnish data for calculation so that
results may be compared from time to time.
Used to check the internal condition of the equipment
and indicate when and where maintenance or repair is
needed.
The functions of instruments to be performed for.
Operating guidance.
Performance calculation.
Maintenance or repair guidance.
Economical supervision.
Pressure and temperature measurement of steam and feed
water.
Flow measurement.
Drum level measurement.
CO2 indication.
Air flow recording.
Flue gas analyzer.
Electrical parameter indication.


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Control system diagramming
A piping and instrumentation diagram/drawing (P&ID) is defined by the
Institute of Instrumentation and Control as follows:
A diagram which shows the interconnection of process equipment and
the instrumentation used to control the process. In the process
industry, a standard set of symbols is used to prepare drawings of
processes. The instrument symbols used in these drawings are
generally based on Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society
(ISA) Standard S5.1.
The primary schematic drawing used for laying out a process control
installation.
maintenance and modification of the process that it describes. It
is critical to demonstrate the physical sequence of equipment
and systems, as well as how these systems connect.
During the design stage, the diagram also provides the basis for
the development of system control schemes, allowing for
further safety and operational investigations, such as the hazard
and operability study (HAZOP).

For processing facilities, it is a pictorial representation of
Key piping and instrument details
Control and shutdown schemes
Safety and regulatory requirements and
Basic start up and operational information
List of P&ID items
Instrumentation and designations
Mechanical equipment with names and numbers
All valves and their identifications
Process piping, sizes and identification
Miscellanea - vents, drains, special fittings, sampling lines,
reducers, increasers and swagers
Permanent start-up and flush lines
Flow directions
Interconnections references
Control inputs and outputs, interlocks
Interfaces for class changes
Computer control system input
ISA Control Diagramming System
General Instrument or Function Symbols
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SAMA Control Diagramming System
Boilers types
1. Lamont Boiler
2. Benson Boiler

Lamont Boiler

The Lamont boiler is like a big Doble F boiler which has a
large helical furnace wall and helical coils top and
bottom.

The furnace is large and the water in the coils is force
circulated at more than 5 times full boiler output.

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This is one of the high pressure watertube boilers
working on forced circulation.
The circulation is maintained by a centrifugal pump
driven by a steam turbine using the steam from the
boiler.
Due to forced circulation, the rate of heat transfer and
evaporative capacity of the boiler are increased.
The boiler is highly suitable for a power plant.
Water is circulated through the evaporator tubes.
Hot gases from the furnace or the combustion chamber
heat the water and evaporate into steam.
Wet steam will come to the steam space in the steam
water drum. In the superheated tubes, the moisture
from the wet steam is removed and also the
temperature is considerably raised.
In the economiser, the feed water is heated by
means of waste gases before going to the chimney.
Due to the feed water being heated thermal stress
is reduced in various parts of the boiler.
Due to the use of heat in the waste gases, the
thermal efficiency is further increased.
The thickness of the drum and pipes should be
more due to high pressure.
In the furnace wall pipes are used to increase the
capacity of the boiler and also to cool the furnace
wall.
The boiler has the usual mountings such as water
gauge, pr gauge, safety valves, blow off valve.
Advantages
Very high heat transfer rates safely available,
large reserve capacity due to water in vertical
drum, simple control systems adequate with
safety.
Forced circulation until drum runs dry (a pressure
differential safety switch on the circulation pump
can shut off fire)
Low carbon inexpensive lightweight thinwall
tubing can be used with complete safety, large
firebox allows for 45-50% of all heat transfer to
be absorbed in fire box by radiation.
This allows less spiral coil stacks needed for
complete heat transfer and lower blower
horsepower for convective heat transfer.
1. Lamont Boiler
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2. Benson Boiler 3. Once through Boilers
Piping and Instrumentation Diagram of Boiler CO-GENERATION SYSTEM
Combined production of two forms of useful energy
from the same fuel.
Sequential in nature, because the exhaust of one system
is used as input for producing the next form of energy.
High pressure steam is used for generating the power
and the exhaust steam is used in manufacturing processes.
Efficiency is as high as 85% in cogeneration system as
compared to 40% in steam power plant.
Types of co-generation
1.Topping cycle.
2.Bottoming cycle.
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Topping cycle & bottoming cycle
Shaft power is first developed, exhaust is used
for supplying thermal energy.
Often used when temperature and pressure for
a given process are relatively low.
Reduction in overall energy costs. i.e. minimal
operation and maintenance cost and high reliability
of the components can lead to an overall positive
cash flow.
Energy saving of 0.3kg/kWh is possible using
cogeneration.
Capital cost will be reduced from Rs 2
crore/MW to 1 crore/MW.
Nearly 2000MW cogeneration potential has
been identified in Indian industry.
Topping cycle
Bottoming cycle
Combined cycle system
To increase the overall efficiency of the gas turbine cycle as
the efficiency of basic gas turbine cycle is considerably
low(20% 25%)
Basic gas turbine cycle
Combined Cycle Plant
Air Pre-heater arrangement
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Cogeneration arrangement