Annals of UVAN 1981 1983

THE ANNALS OF THE UKRAINIAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES IN THE U.S., INC.
VOLUME XV 1981-1983NUMBER 39-40

S T U D I E S I N
U K R A I N I A N
L I N G U I S T I C S
IN HONOR OF GEORGE Y. SHEVELOV
EDITED BY JACOB P. HURSKY
S T U D I E S I N
U K R A I N I A N L I N G U I S T I C S
George Y. Shevelov
THE ANNALS OF THE UKRAINIAN ACADEMY OF ARTS
AND SCIENCES IN THE U.S., INC.
VOLUME XV 1981-1983 NUMBER 39-40
S T U D I E S I N
U K R A I N I A N
L I N G U I S T I C S
in honor of
G E OR G E Y. S HE VE L OV
Edited by
J ACOB P. HURSKY
Published by
THE UKRAINIAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
IN THE U. S., Inc.
The Annals o f the Ukrainian Academy o f Arts
and Sciences in the U. S. are published by the
Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the
U. S., Inc.
a d v i s o r y COMMITTEE: Oleksander Ohloblyn, Past President o f the Ukrain
ian Academy o f Arts and Sciences in the U. S.; J ohn Fizer, Rutgers
University; Omeljan Pritsak, Harvard University; J ohn S. Reshetar, J r.,
University o f Washington; I hor Sevenko, Harvard University.
c o m m i t t e e o n p u b l i c a t i o n s : George Y. Shevelov, President o f the
Academy, 1979 to date; Y aroslav Bilinsky, University o f Delaware;
Lubov Drashevska; Oleh S. Fedyshyn, Staten Island College CUNY;
J acob P. Hursky, Syracuse University; I. S. Koropeckyj, Temple Uni
versity; William Omelchenko, Hunter College CUNY.
v o l u m e e d i t o r : J acob P. Hursky, Syracuse University.
All correspondence, orders, and remittances should be addressed to The
Annals o f the Ukrainian Academy o f Arts and Sciences in the U. S.,
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Price of this volume: $30.00.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 59-33060
All rights reserved.
1985 The Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S.
ISSN 0503-1001
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Vo l u me XV, 1981-1983
N u mb e r 39-40
CONTENTS
F o r e w o r d , by J acob P. Hursky ............................. ........................................9
A Bibliography of the Publications of George Y. Shevelov
(1969-1983) ..................................................................................................... 13
J a c o b P. H u r s k y
Ikavism and Markedness in Ukrainian Diminutives ................................27
C h r i s t i n a Y. Be t h i n
What is Ukrainian in the Multilayered Speech of the J ugoslav
Rusini? ..............................................................................................................39
H e n r i k Bi r n b a u m
Computer-Assisted Tallying and the Present State of o, e :
Alternations in Ukrainian Nouns ............................................................. 49
D a n B. C h o py k
Feofan Prokopovi and the Duxovnyj Reglament ..................................61
Ca r i n D a v i d s s o n
Le mythe de lallongement compensatoire en ukrainien ............................
P a u l Ga r d e
Towards a Typology of Lexical Innovations in Canadian Ukrainian .. .83
I r a i d a Ge r u s - T a r n a w e c k a
Bieszczady! Beskidy, a Vestige of the Germanic Bastarnians in the
Toponymy of the Carpathians ............................................................... 103
Z b i g n i e w Go b
Le verbe thme dorigine franaise dans lukrainien contemporain .. 109
Y a r o s l a v H a r c h u n
Die ukrainische Sprache im Poajiver Druck Ksika lekarstw
koskich aus dem J ahre 1778 ............................................................... 121
O l e x a H o r b a t s c h
The Language of Bolgarski Heirmologia of the Seventeenth-
Eighteenth Centuries from the Manjava Velykyj Skyt Monastery
in Galicia ..................................................................................................... .137
J a c o b P. H u r s k y
Zum sprachlichen Erbe des 17. J ahrhunderts aus der Ukraine im
Russischen ................................................................................................... 153
G e r t a H t t l - F o l t e r
Deverbal Suffixless Masculine Nouns in Modern Ukrainian ...............165
W a s y l J a s z c z u n
The Musical Terminology of Mikoaj Dilecki: Some Observations___185
H e n r y Le e m i n g
Der Zusammenhang zwischen dem Phonem Jat und den Nasal
vokalen in der Entwicklung des slavischen Vokalismus ...................199
F r a n t i e k V c l a v M a r e S
The Numeral as an Inflectional Word Class in Modern Ukrainian ... 207
J iRf M a r v a n
A Thirteenth-Century Ukrainian Church Slavonic Text
in Latin Letters ...........................................................................................219
R o b e r t C. M a t h i e s e n
Na Ukrajini: A Prepositional Phrase .........................................................231
P e t r o O d a r c h e n k o
On Basic Color Terms in Early Slavic and U kraini an............................243
M. S. P r i e s t l y
Ukrainian kori benefit ........................................................................... 253
O m e l j a n P r i t s a k
Turkic and Slavic Surnames in -uk ( - u k ) .................................................259
J a r o s l a v . R u d n y c k y j
Zum Problem des anlautenden ch- im Slavischen ..................................267
H e r b e r t S c h e l e s n i k e r
Ukr. dbaty Revisited .....................................................................................279
A l e x a n d e r M. S c h e n k e r
Relics of Ukrainian-Polish Contact: Four Cases of Epenthetic - /- ____289
G e r a l d S t o n e
The Name of the Lemkos and of Their Territory......................................301
Bo h d a n S t r u m i n s k y
Linguistic Innovation and the Living Language in Oles Honcars
Sobor (Nouns and Adjectives) ..................................................................309
V i c t o r S w o b o d a
Slav. *bystrica in Appellativa und Namen .................................................325
J r g e n U d o l ph
Les notions de parme et de parmme (Contribution la
grammaire des proverbes) ..........................................................................337
J a c q u e s V e y r e n c
Formal and Semantic Parameters of Derived Verbs in Ukrainian ... .343
P a u l W e x l e r
The Codification of a Nonexistent Phrase:
in the St. George Gramota..........................................................................359
D e a n S. W o r t h
The Boundaries of Transformational Translation ..................................369
O l e h Z u j e w s k y j
Foreword
This volume has been prepared to honor Professor George Y. She-
velov, an eminent scholar, teacher, colleague, and a good friend, on his
seventy-fifth birthday. His wide and manifold scholarly and teaching
activity over the last fifty years is a significant contribution to Ukrainian
and Slavic linguistics as well as to Ukrainian liteiary studies and literary
criticism.
Born on December 17, 1908, into a cultured middle-class family, Pro
fessor Shevelov was brought up in standard modern Russian and
Ukrainian. In his home he had contact with French and German which
his parents knew well. He received his secondary and university educa
tion in Kharkiv, where in 1939 he earned the degree of Kandydat filolo-
hinyx nauk with his thesis, Spostereennja nad movoju suasnoji
poeziji, written under Leonyd Bulaxovskyjs direction. In 1949, he
earned his Ph.D. degree in Slavic Philology at the Ukrainian Free Uni
versity in Munich, Germany.
Professor Shevelovs academic career began at the School of J ournal
ism (1931-1935) and at the Ukrainian Institute of J ournalism (1933-
1939) in Kharkiv, where he was first Instructor, later Docent of Ukrain
ian Language and Literature. In 1939, he was appointed Docent of
Slavic Linguistics at the University of Kharkiv, where he taught until
1943. From 1941, he simultaneously held a Chair in the Department of
Ukrainian Philology. In 1943, due to the worsening conditions of the
war, he left Kharkiv for Lviv and then for Munich. In 1946, he was
appointed Associate Professor of Slavic Philology at the Ukrainian Free
University, where he taught until 1949. From 1950 to 1952, Professor
Shevelov held the position of Lecturer in Russian and Ukrainian at the
University of Lund, Sweden, and from 1952 to 1954, a similar position
at Harvard University. In 1954, he was appointed Associate Professor
of Slavic Philology at Columbia University, New York, where, after
having been promoted to Professor in 1958, he taught until he retired in
1977 with the title of Professor Emeritus.
Professor Shevelov was Visiting Professor at the University of Cali
10 THE ANNAL S OF THE UKRAI NI AN ACADEMY
fornia, Berkely, in the summer of 1959, at the University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, in the summer of 1965, and at the University of California,
Los Angeles, in the summer of 1970.
Since 1952, Professor Shevelov has lectured widely throughout the
United States (at Yale, Harvard, Cornell, Pennsylvania State Univer
sity, University of Pennsylvania, University of California in Berkeley,
University of California at Los Angeles, Stanford, Syracuse, Brown,
New Y ork State University at Buffalo, Oakland, University of Michi
gan, Ohio State University, and at the University of Pittsburgh), Can
ada (at the University of Toronto, the University of Manitoba, and at
the University of Alberta), and Europe (at the Universities of Helsinki,
Stockholm, Uppsala, Gothenburg, Lund, Vienna, Berlin, Cologne,
Munich, Paris, Aix-en-Provence, Copenhagen, and Oslo).
Among the many distinguished grants and fellowships he has received
are awards from the Guggenheim Foundation (1959), the American
Council of Learned Societies (1964, 1967), the National Endowment for
the Humanities (1974), and the Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies
(1977).
In 1971, Professor Shevelov was presented a volume of essays in
Slavic linguistics and literary studies in honor of the occasion of his
sixtieth birthday. The authors represented in this volume were his
former students, colleagues, and personal friends.
Professor Shevelov has received the honorary degree of Doctor of
Letters from the University of Alberta (May 31, 1983) and the Philo-
sophiae Doctor honoris causa degree from the University of Lund (May
25, 1984). He has also served as President of the Ukrainian Academy of
Arts and Sciences in the United States from 1959 to 1961 and from 1979
to present.
Professor Shevelov has been a very productive scholar. His scholarly
publications cover, within Slavistics, a wide variety of subjects: phonol
ogy, morphology, syntax, lexicography, etymology, literary languages,
onomastics, stylistics a.o., approached both synchronically and histori
cally. Besides his studies on Slavic as a whole he has devoted special
studies to Old Church Slavonic, Belorussian, Polish, Russian, Slovak
Czech, Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian, and above all Ukrainian. His
awareness of the problems of methodology led him to several articles in
FOREWORD 11
general linguistics. Starting in the 1950s, his works increasingly centered
on problems of the historical phonology of Slavic languages, especially
Ukrainian, culminating in the publication of his book, A Historical
Phonology o f the Ukrainian Language (1979). In this book a new con
cept of the history of that language was presented and many problems
found new solutions based on ample factual data. Since the develop
ment of Ukrainian has been taken here not in isolation and not exclu
sively in the framework of Eastern Slavic but in a broad context of all
the coterritorial and adjacent languages, the book has bearing also on
the history of those languages. As a reviewer put it: Sorgfltige
Bercksichtigung des urkundlichen Materials, umfassende Kenntnis
der dialektalen Erscheinungen, ausfhrliche Darstellung der innerukr.
Verhltnissen und der Parallelen in verwandten und benachbarten
Sprachen zeigen sich auf Schritt und Tritt... Eiie hervorragende, bei
spielhafte Arbeit, die unsere Kenntnis ber das Ukrainische auf eine
neue, solide Grundlage gestellt hat. Die Slavistik und Indogermanistik
wird von diesem Werk noch lange profitieren.*
In addition to his success in teaching, lecturing, researching, writing,
and publishing, Professor Shevelov has also distinguished himself by his
human qualities. In his relations with others, and especially with stu
dents and younger scholars, he has endeared himself to all by his integ
rity, his kindness, his willingness to help, his discernment, and his
patience. For these qualities, all who know Professor Shevelov and
especially those who have had the opportunity to work with him hold
him in the highest esteem and share a common feeling of indebtedness
toward him.
On behalf of the authors and readers of this volume we take pleasure
in congratulating Professor Shevelov on the occasion of his seventy-fifth
birthday and in extending to him their warmest wishes for many more
years of good health and for a continued active retirement.
, !
* Jrgen U dolph, Indogermanische Forschungen 88 ( 983), pp. 365, 370.
In compiling this volume we would like to thank all the contributors
for their papers, as well as for their patience during the long editorial
work.
J acob P. Hursky
Syracuse University
A Bibliography of the Publications of
G eorge Y. S hevelov
(1969 1983)
compiled by
J ACOB P. HURSKY
The present bibliography continues and supplements the earlier bibli
ography of the publications of George Y. Shevelov (409 items), Bibli-
ohrafija prac prof. d-ra J urija Sevelova (1934-1968), which I compiled
in 1968 on the occasion of his 60th birthday and which was published in
Symbolae in honorem Georgii Y. Shevelov (Munich, 1971), pp. 7-35. It
is organized in two sections: I. Published Works and II. Editorial Work.
Entries in the bibliography comprise the years 1969-1983. Under each
year items in section I are listed alphabetically by title in the following
order: books, articles, reviews, obituaries, notices, and miscellaneous
publications. Where deemed necessary, additional information is given:
contents, references to reprints or translations. I tems in section II are
listed alphabetically.
I. Published Works
1969
1. (with J ohn J . Chew, J r.), Open Syllable Languages and Their Evo
lution: Common Slavic and J apanese, Word, 25:1-3, pp. 252-274.
[Reprinted in no. 11, pp. 15-34.]
2. Poeti i to on... Un gallicisme syntaxique clans littrature ukrai
nienne de la fin du XVIIIe, dbut du XIXesicle, Revue des tudes
slaves, 48, pp. 156-158.
3. The Vicissitudes of a Syntactic Construction in Eastern Slavic
(Impersonal sentences in -no, -to with the acc sg of object),
Scando-Slavica, 15, pp. 171-186.
[A sequel to item 358 in the bibliography of 1971].
4. Rik vydannja druhyj, [Review of Movoznavstvo. Orhan viddilu
literatury, movy i mystectvoznavstva Akademiji nauk Ukrajinskoji
RSR. Holovnyj redaktor I.K. Bilodid (Kiev, 1968), nos. 1-6] , Su-
asnis , 8(104) (Munich), pp. 58-70.
5. Moji pryhody v Radjanskomu Sojuzi, Sucasnist\ 2 (98) (Munich),
pp. 54-66.
1970
6. Potebnja Oleksander, Encyklopedija Ukrajinoznavstva, II, 6 (Pa
risNew York), pp. 2279-2280.
7. Praruska mova, ibid, pp. 2311-2312.
8. Praslovjanska mova, ibid., p. 2312.
9. Zum Problem des ukrainischen Anteils an der Bildung der russi
schen Schriftsprache Ende des 18. J ahrhunderts, Wiener slavis-
tisches Jahrbuch, 16, pp. 5-33.
10. [Review of] Rosijsko-ukrajinskyj slovnyk, 3 vols., by Akademija
Nauk Ukrajinskoji RSR (Kiev, 1968), in: Slavic Review, 29:2, pp.
360-362.
1971
11. Teasers and Appeasers. Essays and Studies on Themes of Slavic
Philology ( -Forum Slavicum, 32) (Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag),
336 pp.
12. [Review of] Vasyl Niniovskyj, Ukrainian Reverse Dictionary (Mu
nichEdmonton, 1969), in: The Slavic and East European Jour
nal, 15:3, pp. 356-358.
13. Kirova, 4. Kilka uvah pro movu, movoznavstvo Movoznavstvo,
pro pererubanu navpil dytynu, pro hraiv na flejti i lycariv jeryky,
pro sebe i svojix koleg i koleg ta ini ei, Suasnis , 6 (126)
(Munich), pp. 38-55.
1972
14. A Disturbance in the Protein, [A slightly abridged translation of
J urij Serechs (George Y. Shevelovs) article, Bilok joho zaburen-
BI BL I OGRAPHY OF PUBL I CATI ONS 15
nja, which appeared in Ukrajinska literaturna hazeta, 3:9 (27)
(Munich, 1957)], in: Valerian Pidmohylny, A Little Touch o f Drama
( = Ukrainian Classics in Translation, ed. by George S. N. Luckyj,
no. 1) (Littleton, Colorado: Ukrainian Academic Press), pp. 9-16.
15. Leonid Vasilev and His Work, in: Leonid Vasilev, Trudy po isto-
rii russkogo ukrainskogo jazykov, ed. and with introduction by
George Y. Shevelov ( = Slavische Propylen, 94) (Munich: Wilhelm
Fink Verlag), pp. vii-xxxiv.
16. Moravizmy v Izbornyku 1076 roku? Ukrajinskyj istoryk, 3-4 (35-
36) (New Y orkMunich), pp. 85-91.
17. [Review of] Akty sela Odrexovy (Kiev, 1970), in: Recenzija, 2:2
(Cambridge, Mass.), pp. 44-57.
18. Rjadky pro druha, [On Hryhory Kostiuks 70th Birthday], Novi
dni, 273 (Toronto), pp. 4-5.
1973
19. (with Olexa Horbatsch), Semantyka, Encyklopedija Ukrajino-
znavstva, II, 7(Paris New York), p. 2746.
20. Boris O. Unbegaun, 1898-1973, Slavic Review, 32:2, pp. 446-448.
Cf. no. 25.
1974
21. Belorussian versus Ukrainian: Delimitation of Texts before A.D.
1569, The Journal o f Byelorussian Studies, 3:2 (London), pp.
145-156.
Cf. no. 28.
22. The Reflexes of *dj in Ukrainian, Topics in Slavic Phonology, ed.
by D.J . Koubourlis (Cambridge, Mass.), pp. 223-234.
23. Vprovadujuy evenka. Vstupn slovo na Sevcenkivskij konfe-
renciji Ukrajinskoji Vilnoji Akademiji Nauk u Nju-J orku, Novi
dni, 293 (Toronto), pp. 1-2.
24. (J urij erech [George Y. Shevelov]), Kartagena naoji provincij-
nosty musy buty zrujnovana, Plastovyj ljax, 2 (41) (Toronto),
pp. 5-17; 3(42), pp. 3-14.
[Reprinted from Dumky proty teiji. Publicystyka ([Neu Ulm],
1948).]
16 THE ANNAL S OF THE UK RAI NI AN ACADEMY
25. Boris O. Unbegaun, September 4, 1898 March 4, 1973, Rus
sian Linguistics, 1(Dordrecht, Holland), pp. 215-223.
Cf. no. 20.
1975
26. (J urij erech [George Y. Shevelov]), Halyyna v formuvanni novoji
ukrajinskoji literaturnoji movy ([Edmonton]: Department of Slavic
Languages, The University of Alberta, s.a.), 8+156 pp.
[Reprint of (1) J urij erech, Halyyna v formuvanni novoji ukra
j i nsko j i literaturnoji movy (Munich, 1949), and (2) J urij Sevelov,
ernihivyna v formuvanni novoji ukrajinskoji literaturnoji mo
vy, Zbirnyk na posanu Zenona Kuzeli, ZNT, CLXIX (1962), pp.
252-264.]
27. The Gospel of Reims and the History of the Serbo-Croatian Lan
guage, Xenia Slavica. Papers presented to Gojko Ruii on the
occasion of his seventy-fifth birthday, ed. by Rado L. Lencek and
Boris O. Unbegaun ( =Slavistic Printings and Reprintings, 279)
(The Hague: Mouton), pp. 185-194.
28. The Literary Languages of the Ukraine in the Fifteenth and Six
teenth Centuries and the Delimitation of Ukrainian and Belorussian
Texts, Minutes o f the Seminar in Ukrainian Studies Held at Har
vard University, 5(Cambridge, Mass.), pp. 74-76.
Cf. no. 21.
29. Mojsej I vanaFranka, Novi dni, 301 (Toronto), pp. 3-7; 302, pp.
2-7.
[Reprinted from: Ivan Franko, Mojsej (New York, 1968), pp. 7-10,
105-129.]
30. On Lexical Polonisms in Literary Ukrainian, For Wiktor Wein-
traub: Essays in Polish Literature, Language, and History. Pre
sented on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday, ed. by Victor
Erlich, Roman J akobson, Czeslaw Milosz, Riccardo Picchio, Alex
ander M. Schenker, and Edward Stankiewicz ( =Slavistic Printings
and Reprintings, 312) (The Hague: Mouton), pp. 449-463.
31. Pro samvydav na inomu kontynenti., pro nenavys, pro novitnju
poeziju pro ini ei naciji, [Review of Oleksander Smotry,
Viri, vols. 1-4 (n.p., Sam vydav, 1974-1975)], Suasnis , 9 (177)
BI BL I OGRAPHY OF PUBL I CATI ONS
17
1976
32. On the Problem of the Participation of y and in the Loss of Jers,
Junoslovenski filolog, 32 (Belgrade), pp. 121-141.
33. Simovy Vasyl, Encyklopedija Ukrajinoznavstva, II, 8 (Paris
New York), pp. 2840-2841.
34. Slovjanski movy, ibid., p. 2910.
35. Some Remarks on Written Records as a Source of Evidence for
the Historical Phonology of the Middle Ukrainian Language (1569-
1720), The Jubilee Collection o f the Ukrainian Free Academy o f
Sciences in Canada (Winnipeg), pp. 170-180.
36. Starocerkovnoslovjanska mova, Encyklopedija Ukrajinoznavstva,
II, 8 (ParisNew York), pp. 3033-3034.
37. Stjahnennja, ibid, p. 3088.
38. Synjavskyj Oleksa, ibid., pp. 2819-2820.
39. Note, Lingua, 38 (Haarlem), pp. 357-358.
40. Pered skljankoju vody, Svoboda, 204 (J ersey City, 23 October),
pp. 2-3.
1977
41. Istorija Rusov oyma movoznavcja, Zbirnyk na poanu prof.
d-ra Oleksandra Ohloblyna. Ukrajinska Vilna Akademija Nauk u
SS, Naukovyj zbirnyk, vol. I ll (New York), pp. 465-482.
42. Jesmi I am and Some Verbal Endings in Slavic, Papers in Slavic
Philology, 1. In Honor of J ames Ferrell, ed. by Benjamin A. Stolz
(Ann Arbor), pp. 249-257.
43. Language Planning and Unplanning in the Ukraine, The Lan
guages and Literatures o f the Non-Russian Peoples o f the Soviet
Union. Papers and Proceedings o f the Ten th Annual Conference,
McMaster University, ed. by George Thomas (Hamilton), pp.
236-267.
44. On the Chronology of h and the New g in Ukrainian, Harvard
Ukrainian Studies, 1:2, pp. 137-152.
45. On the History of a Sound That Has No History (Fi n the Ukrain
ian Language), Slovansko jezikoslovje. Nahtigalov Zbornik, ed.
Franc J akopin (Ljubljana), pp. 419-432.
46. [Review of] Hans Rothe,ed., Die lteste ostsiawische Kunstdichtung
1575-1647. Erster Halbband (Bausteine zur Geschichte der Literatur
bei den Slawen 7,1) (Giessen: Wilhelm Schmitz), in: Slavic and East
European Journal, 21:3, pp. 427-429.
47. Porohy i zaporija, Suasnist, 9 (201) (Munich), pp. 70-92.
[On the ideology of Soviet dissidents and of the Ukrainian emigres.]
1978
48. (Yury erech [George Y. Shevelov]), Druha erha. Literatura. Teatr.
Ideolohiji ([New York]: Suasnis), 392 pp.
49. Omega in the Codex Hankenstein. A Hitherto Unnoticed Episode
in the Ukrainian Development o > i, Studia linguistica Alexandro
Vasilii filio Issatschenko a collegis amicisque oblata (Lisse: The
Peter De Ridder Press), pp. 369-386.
50. On the So-Called Signature of Queen Ann of France (1063), Lin
guistic and Literary Studies in Honor o f Archibald A. Hill, IV (The
Hague: Mouton), pp. 249-256.
For reprint, cf. no. 51.
51. On the So-Called Signature of Queen Ann of France (1063), Stu
dia Ucrainica, 1 ( =University of Ottawa Ukrainian Studies, 3)
(Ottawa), pp. 57-63.
[Reprint of no. 50.]
52. Zur Chronologie der Entstehung der ukrainischen Dialekte im
Lichte der historischen Phonologie, Zeitschrift f r slavische Philo
logie, 40:2, pp. 285-310.
53. (with Petro Marenko), Oleksander Semenenko, 27 serpnja 1898
1ervnja 1978, Suasnis , 11 (215) (Munich), pp. 68-76.
54. Poezija plastynoho obrazu, Tvoris Jara Slavutya. Statti j
recenziji, ed. Volodymyr yla (Edmonton: Slavuta), pp. 218-220.
[Reprinted from as, 22 (36) (Frth), 8J une 1946.]
55. Pro pamflety Mykoly Xvylovoho, Suasnis , 2 (206) (Munich),
pp. 17-59.
For reprint, cf. no. 102.
56. Vidnajdennja domu, [Review of Kateryna Horba, Mij slid na
vodi (Munich: Suasnis, 1976)], Suasnis , 6 (210) (Munich), pp.
20-27.
57. Buduvaty vyzvolnu koncepciju Ukrajiny, Koordynator. Visti
Ukrajinskoji kooperatyvnoji rady Kanady, 7:1-2 (Toronto), pp. 5-6.
19
1979
58. A Historical Phonology o f the Ukrainian Linguage ( =Historical
Phonology of the Slavic Languages, IV. Ukrainian, ed. by George
Y. Shevelov) (Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universittsverlag), vi +809
pp.
59. Why in Ukrainian sVozy Tears but zelenyj Green, while in Rus
sian sljozy and zeljonyp. An Unresolved Problem of Ukrainian His
torical Phonology, The Slavonic and East European Review, 57:1,
pp. 1-15.
60. Novitnja svitova literatura, vid Sevenka poata, [Remarks on:
Vadym Skuratovskyj, evenko v konteksti svitovoji literatury,
Vsesvit, 3 (Kiev, 1978), pp. 184-189], Suasnis , 3 (219) (Munich),
pp. 34-41.
61. Reflections of a Linguist on Ukrainian History, Journal o f
Ukrainian Graduate Studies, 6 (Toronto), pp. 62-69.
62. [Review o] Slavica Hierosolymitana. Slavic Studies of the Hebrew
University, vols. I-II, in: The Russian Review, 38:2, pp. 266-268.
63. Zustri z Berezolem: Edinburg, 1979, Suasnis , 11 (227) (Mu
nich), pp. 76-82.
64. yttja v Rejkjaviku (abo nezalenis i o zavtra?), Suasnist\
7-8 (223-[224]) (Munich), pp. 170-180.
65. 325: Las Goyescas de Kiev, Suasnis , 6 (222) (Munich), pp.
59-66.
66. (RMt [George Y. Shevelov]), Na Sostij..., [Annotation on S. Dj.
Raskovics paper, Ways and Crossways of Our Ukrainian Studies
and Ukrainian Literature in Translation (in Serbian), delivered at
the Sixth International Conference of Literary Translators, August
1977, Tetovo, Macedonia; published in est megunarodna sredba
na literaturnitepreveduvaci. Pridonesot na prevodot za razvojot na
nacionalnata knievnost (Tetovo, 1978)], Suasnis -& (223-(224))
(Munich), p. 238.
1980
67. Ukrainian, The Slavic Literary Languages: Formation and De
velopment, ed. by Alexander M. Schenker and Edward Stankiewicz
( =Yale Russian and East European Publications, no. 1) (New
20
THE ANNAL S OF THE UKRAI NI AN ACADEMY
Haven: Yale Concilium on I nternational and Area Studies), pp.
143-160.
[Translation of no. 273 in the bibliography of 1971.]
68. Veremija: Z istoriji ukrajinsko-biloruskyx movnyx zvjazkiv,
Harvard Ukrainian Studies, I I I /IV, Part 2, pp. 760-767.
69. The Year 1860 in Shevchenkos Work, Shevchenko and the Crit
ics. 1861-1980, ed. by George S.N. Luckyj (TorontoBuffalo
London), pp. 324-354.
[Abridged version of no. 318 in the bibliography of 1971.]
70. [Review of] Ivan Zilynskyj, A Phonetic Description o f the Ukrain
ian Language (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Ukrainian Research
Institute, 1979), in: General Linguistics, 20:3,tpp. 164-166.
71. Polemika pro Sardena. ne Sardena? ne polemika? [Com
ment on Ivan Koelivec, U poxodenkax po Paryu, Suasnist*, 9
(225), pp. 101-114], Suasnis , 3(231) (Munich), pp. 87-90.
72. Postskryptum redaktora, [On the current issue of Suasnist*, ded
icated to the workers of the Ukraine], Suasnis , 2 (230) (Munich),
pp. 157-159.
73. (RMt [George Y. Shevelov]), Slova, jakyx ne bulo, [On the miss
ing word entries in Slovnyk ukrajins'koji movy, vol. 10(Kiev: Nau-
kova dumka, 1979)], Suasnis 6 (234) (Munich), pp. 65-66.
74. Spalaxy v temrjavi, z temrjavy, v temrjavu: memuary, Suasnist,
11 (239) (Munich), pp. 64-68.
75. (RMt [George Y. Shevelov]), Biloruskyj samvydav v oboroni
nacionalnoji hordosty, [Annotation on the Letter to a Russian
Friend. A Samizdat Publication from Soviet Belorussia (London,
1979)], Suasnist, 7-8 (235-236) (Munich), pp. 238-239.
76. (RMt [George Y. Shevelov]), esk Svdectv... [Annotation on
Svdectv, 60 (Paris)], Suasnist ' 11(239) (Munich), pp. 162-164.
77. (RMt [George Y. Shevelov]), Ceskyj kvartalnyk Svdectv...
[Annotation on Svdectv, 59 (Paris)], Suasnist' 6(234) (Munich),
pp. 97-98.
78. (RMt [George Y. Shevelov]), U kvartalnyku Krosrodz... [Anno
tation on I. Kleiner, Ukrainian National Movement of Our Time
in the USSR, Crossroads, 4 (J erusalem, 1979)], ibid p. 125.
21
79. Kilka rjadkiv pro smerf Borysa Oleksandrova, Suasnis , 3(231)
80. (RMt [George Y. Shevelov]), Volodymyr \ rakovy, [Obituary],
Suasnis , 11(239) (Munich), pp. 104-105.
1981
81. Evolution of the Ukrainian Literary Language, Rethinking Ukrain
ian History, ed. Ivan L. Rudnytsky (Edmonton: Canadian Insti
tute of Ukrainian Studies), pp. 216-231.
82. Problems of Terminology and Periodization in the Teaching of
Ukrainian History, ibid., p. 265.
83. A Remark of Intermedia dwoie Published with Tragaedia albo
wizerunk mierci Przewitego Jana Chrzciciela Przesanca Boego
by J akub Gawatowic (1619), Studia z filologii polskiej i sowias
kiej XX (Warsaw), pp. 231-238.
84. Vasyl Simovy and His Work, in: Vasyl Simovy, Ukrajinske
movoznavstvo. Rozvidky j statti, ed. and with introduction by
George Y. Shevelov ( =University of Ottawa Ukrainian Studies, 4)
(Ottawa: The University of Ottawa Press), pp 7-56.
85. Pro cerkvy Radoslava uka, Suasnis , I (241) (Munich), pp.
53-62.
86. Pro pryyny hnivu, sluni i neslun. Zavvahy na berehax statti
Hrabunok Kyjivskoho Psaltyrja, [On the Kievan Psalter of
1397), Suasnist 3-4 (243-244) (Munich), pp. 179-183.
87. Z nhody vystavky kartyn Vasylja Kurylyka v Vinnipezi, Suas
nist', 1(241) (Munich), pp. 50-52.
1982
88. Medu praslavjanskim russkim, Russian Linguistics, 6 (Dor
drecht, Holland), pp. 353-376.
[On the studies by G. A. Xaburgaev.]
89. Pislja Knjazoji emali [by Oksana Ljaturynska], Suasnis , 4-5
(256-257) (Munich), pp. 51-81.
Cf. no. 100.
90. [Review of] Mytropolyt Ilarion (I vanOhijenko), Etymolohino-se-
mantynyj slovnyk ukrajinskoji movy, vol. 1: A-D, ed. by J urij
Mulyk-Lucyk ( =I nstytut doslidiv Volyni, 39) (Winnipeg: Volyn,
1979), in: Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 6:1, pp. 96-99.
91. Do rinyci rozhromu ukrajinizaciji, Svoboda, 199 (J ersey City,
20 October 1982), p. 3; 36 (25 February 1983), pp. 3-4.
92. J akym ja xotiv by bayty Ukrajinskyj muzej u Nju-J orku? Svo
boda, 11 (J ersey City, 19J anuary), p. 3.
93. (Letter to the Editor), Carpatho-Rusyn American, 5:2, p. 4.
94. 80-rija Petra Xolodnoho, Mol., Natali Livyckoji-Xolodnoji
(Vstupn slovo na vroystij konferenciji UVAN u SA 24-ho ovtnja
1982 roku), Svoboda, 230 (J ersey City, 4 December), p. 2.
95. Vystup na akti vruennja literaturnoji nahorody Fundaciji Ome-
ljana i Tetjany Antonovyiv Vasylevi Barci v Nju-J orku 13 ljutoho
1982 roku, Suasnist ' 1-2(253-254) (Munich), pp. 83-89.
96. Zdzisaw Stieber, In memoriam (7 J une 1903 12October 1980),
Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 6:1, pp. 79-92.
1983
97. Dvomovnis vulgaryzmy. Dysymiljacija plynnyx v ukrajinskij
literaturnij movi, Studia Slavica in honorem viri doctissimi Olexa
Horbatsch. Festgabe zum 65. Geburtstag, 1(Munich: Verlag Otto
Sagner), pp. 213-221.
98. Epizod z istoriji ukrajinskoho slovnyctva, Zbirnyk na poanu
prof, d-ra Volodymyra Janeva. Symbolae in honorem Volodymyri
J aniw ( =Ukrajinskyj Vilnyj Universytet, Naukovyj Zbirnyk, vol.
X) (Munich), pp. 885-889.
99. Kulievi lysty i Kulis u lystax, Suasnist\ 12 (272) (Munich), pp.
7-38.
100. Nad kupkoju popelu, o bula Oksanoju Ljaturynskoju, in:
Oksana Ljaturynska, Zibrani tvory, ed. by Bohdan Hosovskyj and
Svitlana Kuzmenko (Toronto: Orhanizacija ukrajinok Kanady),
pp. 9-67.
Cf. no 89.
101. Olexa Horbatsch zum 65. Geburtstag (5. Februar 1918), in:
Arbeits- und Forschungsgemeinschaft der ukrainischen Wissenschaf
ten e.V., Jahrbuch der Ukrainekunde (Munich), pp. 243-253.
BI BL I OGRAPHY OF PUBL I CATI ONS 23
102. Pro pamflety Mykoly Xvylovoho, in: Mykola Xvylovyj, Tvory
v pjatox tomax, vol. 4, ed. by Hryhorij Kostjuk (New York
Baltimore Toronto: Slovo and Smoloskyp), pp. 7-63.
[Reprint of no. 55.]
103. A Tendency in Language Development: A Remark on the Ero
sion of the Feminine /-stem Substantives in the Ukrainian Lan
guage, Harvard Ukrainian Studies, VII, pp. 587-603.
104. Ukrajinizacija: radjanska polityka 1925-1932 rokiv, Suasnis , 5
(265) (Munich), pp. 36-57.
105. [Review of] Michael Bruchis, One Step Back, Two Steps Forward:
On the Language Policy o f the Communist Party o f the Soviet
Union in the National Republics (Moldavian. A Look Back, a Sur
vey, and Perspectives, 1924-1980) (Boulder, Col.: East European
Monographs, 1982), in: Canadian Slavonic Papers. 25:2, pp. 321-322.
106. Maty-j-mauxa, Suasnis , 1-2(261-262) (Munich), pp. 252-254.
[On the University of Kharkiv.]
107. Vidkrytyj lyst u vidpovid na zakrytyj lyst, Novi dni, 401-402
(Toronto), pp. 3-7.
108. Vystup na akti vruennja nahorod Fundaciji Omeljana Tetjany
Antonovyiv u Nju-J orku 5ljutoho 1983 rok : druhoji literaturnoji
nahorody Vasylju Stusovi i peroji naukovoji Orestovi Subtel-
nomu, Suasnis , 1-2(261-262) (Munich), pp. 25-28.
II. Editorial Work
1. Editor, A Historical Phonology o f the Belorussian Language, by
Paul Wexler ( =Historical Phonology of the Slavic Languages, III)
(Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universittsverlag, 1977), 192 pp.
2. Editor, A Historical Phonology o f the Macedonian Language, by
Blae Koneski ( =Historical Phonology of the Slavic Languages,
XII) (Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universittsverlag, 1983), xii + 150
pp., 1linguistic map.
3 Editor, A Historical Phonology o f the Polish language, by Zdzisaw
Stieber ( =Historical Phonology of the Slavic Languages, V) (Hei
delberg: Carl Winter Universittsverlag, 1973), 171 pp., 1map.
4. Editor, A Historical Phonology o f the Slovak Language, by Rudolf
Krajovi ( =Historical Phonology of the Slavic Languages, IX)
(Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universittsverlag, 1975), 175 pp., 6 lin
guistic maps.
5. Editor, Leonid Vasilev, Trudy po istorii russkogo ukrainskogo
jazykov ( =Slavische Propylen, 94) (Munich: Wilhelm Fink Ver
lag, 1972), xxxiv +653 pp.
6. Editor, Vasyl Simovy, Ukrajinske movoznavstvo. Rozvidky j statti
(=University of Ottawa Ukrainian Studies, 4) (Ottawa: The Univer
sity of Ottawa Press, 1981), 451 pp.
7. Member, editorial committee, The Annals o f the Ukrainian Academy
o f Arts and Sciences in the U.S., 1962-1972 (editor-in-chief,
1960-1962).
8. Member, editorial board, Encyklopedija Ukrajinoznavstva (Munich
Paris New York), 1949.
9. Member, editorial board, Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 1977 .
10. Member, editorial board, Language and Style, 1967 .
11. Member, editorial board, Russian Linguistics 1974 .
12. Member, editorial board,. Slavic and East European Journal,
1979 .
13. Member, editorial board, Suasnis (Munich), May 1981 (editor-
in-chief, December 1978 April 1981).
14. Member, editorial board, Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopaedia (To
ronto: University of Toronto Press), 1963 .
S T U D I E S I N
U K R A I N I A N L I N G U I S T I C S
I kavism and Markedness
in U krainian D iminutives
CHRISTINA Y. BETHIN
In Contemporary Standard Ukrainian (CSU) i:here is an alternation
between the two mid vowels/e/ and / / and the high vowel / / which is
often referred to as ikavism.1 Although the alternation was at one time
phonologically conditioned in that the high frort vowel was found in
the closed syllable under retracted stress or as a result of what is tradi
tionally called compensatory lengthening after the loss of a weak jer,2in
CSU this alternation is not phonologically determined. The presence of
minimal pairs in CSU such as xid : xodu process vs xod : xodu type
of cart, holova : holivka head vs holova : holovka head of cabbage
and other forms in which the alternation does no : take place in spite of
the given phonological conditions, such as mea : mez boundary,
klen : klena maple, lovec : lovcja catcher (as well as borrowings
which do not exhibit this alternation, e.g., aktor : aktora actor,
moda : mod fashion) indicate that the implementation of this alterna
tion is not a productive phonological process in CSU.
1 T his is not generally true of the mid vowels which derive from strong jers, although
there are isolated cases where nouns which had a jer now exhibit ikavism: brova : briv (<
) eyebrow; bloxa : blix (< ) flea.
2 T he theory of compensatory lengthening as a result of the loss of weak jers in U krain
ian generally originated with Miklosich (1852). L ater Potebnja (1865) included studies of
northern U krainian dialect diphthongs as a chain in this proposed development. His work
was followed by S axmatov (1915) and expanded by Bulaxovskyj in numerous publica
tions. Bulaxovskyj indicates that probably compensatory lengthening was more instru
mental in the raising of the mid vowel than its mere occurrence in a closed syllable
(1951:247). S hevelov (1979), on the other hand, expresses strong doubt about the theory
of compensatory lengthening and especially about the tendency of scholars to postulate
intermediate diphthongal stages in all U krainian dialects, suggesting instead that this
development in the mid vowels is the consequence of narrowing. (S ee his extensive discus
sion on pp. 302-333, 425-439, and elsewhere.) T he data in this paper are taken from
Bulaxovskyj (1946, 1951), Holoskevy (1955), Holovauk and R usanivskyj (1975),
N inovskyj (1969), Pohribnyj (1964), R usanivskyj (1969) and Zovtobrjux (1973).
28
The problem of ikavism in CSU is primarily an historical one. Traces
of the alternation are found throughout the system as a result of phono
logical, morphological and analogical developments. In a synchronic
analysis there are essentially two aspects to this problem. The first is the
domain of the alternationthe distribution of its occurrence. The
second is its role in the contemporary system.
This paper will address the second issue and examine the role of this
alternation in the grammatical category of nouns. It will consider the
implementation of this alternation within the noun paradigm and its use
in neutral nouns as compared to the grammatically marked diminutive
forms. It is suggested that when ikavism does take place in nouns, it is
associated with grammatical markedness.
There is a significant but limited number of nouns which exhibits the
e, o : alternation. The following can be cited as representative (1):
NSG GSG GLOSS
hr im hromu thunder
viz vo za cart
mist mostu bridge
rih roha horn
dim domu house
pic peci stove
osin ' ose n v fall
NSG GPL GLOSS
noha ni h leg
hora hir mountain
zorja zir star
kola kil school
pole p i i' field
In order to clarify the function of this alternation in the inflection of
CSU let us consider some diachronic developments. The alternation has
been levelled in the development of several nouns. This levelling can be
of two types: either the mid vowel is generalized throughout the para
digm or the / / is generalized to other forms of the paradigm. The first
type of levelling in the inflectional category is motivated by paradigm
regularity, i.e., the mid vowel is more frequent in the paradigm. This
I KAVI SM AND MARK EDNESS I N DI MI NUTI VES 29
type of levelling occurred in the genitive plural (feminine and neuter
nouns) as well as in the nominative singular (masculine nouns). For
example: sova owl N sg, sov G pi; osa wasp N sg, os G pi (dialectal
vis); med honey N sg (dialectal mid), medu G sg, etc. These changes
can be attributed to paradigm regularity where the more frequent var
iant is generalized.
The second type of levelling, in favor of the / /, seems to be more
restricted. This type of generalization took place only if the / / alternant
was found in the nominative singular category. Thus, / / has been now
generalized in the paradigm of clothes; odi N/A sg, odii G sg (pre
viously odei), odii D sg etc. and in a few oth^r paradigms as well.
There seem to be no regular instances of the / /-alternant generalizing
to the rest of the paradigm if it was found in the genitive plural, e.g., the
paradigm of she-goa has not changed on the model of the G pi kiz to
+kiza, +kizu, +kizy, etc.
In CSU several nouns show variants in the genitive plural (2):
NSG GPL GLOSS
stodola stodol/ stodil barn
pidloha pidloh/pidlih floor
svoboda svobod/ svobid freedom
koza k o z / kiz goat
panoxa panox/panix stocking
si oza s l o z / s l i z tear
udo va udov/udiv widow
It is difficult to determine if these are chronological differences. There is
a possibility that these variants reflect different dialectal developments
which have entered the standard language.3Nevertheless, it is striking
that CSU does not allow such extensive variation in the nominative
singular category: the few existing variants actually differ in meaning,
e.g., sxid east, sxod meeting; xid process, xod cart. The fact that
variation is possible in the genitive plural suggests that the /i/-alternant
in the genitive plural is generated by a rule.
3 For example, Holoskevy (1955) gives two variants for nora: nor/nir and for suxota:
suxotj suxit, while Pohribnyj (1964) gives only nir and suxot.

The pleophonic forms are also interesting in this respect. They gener
ally were not subject to ikavism as indicated in (3).
NSG GSG GLOSS
voran vorona raven
mo lot moloa hammer
ho los kolosu voice
erep erepa skull
bereh bereha shore
NSG GPL GLOSS
soroka sorok magpie
vorona voron crow
vereteno vereten spindle
derevo de re v tree
But some pleophonic forms do exhibit ikavism (4):
NSG GPL GLOSS
bo roda bo rid beard
storona storin side
do lot o dolit chisel
doroha dorih road
bo loto bolit mud
ereda cerid herd
bereza beriz birch
Ikavism in these forms is not supported by paradigm regularity. Al
though it may have at one time been motivated by a retraction of stress
as Bulaxovskyj (1946) identifies, in CSU it is of interest that the alter
nation is widely found in the genitive plural but only in isolated cases of
nominative singular forms, e.g., porih threshhol, poroha G sg; smorid
stench, smorodu G sg.4
The hypothesis suggested by the data is that in the inflectional para
digm the e, o:i alternation, when it does occur, is identified with the
category of genitive plural. Two other examples are of interest here:
kryxta crumb and plaxta skirt. These nouns have several variants in
4 T wo neuter nouns have a retraction of stress from the desinence onto the stem but do
not exhibit this alternation: mook milk, molk G pi and derel source, derl G pl.
I KAVI SM AND MARK EDNESS IN DI MI NUTI VES 31
the genitive plural: kryxt/ kryxot/ kryxit and plaxt/plaxot/plaxit. Clearly
these forms indicate the presence of an epenthetic vowel / /. The / / is
not epenthetic. The genitive plural form kryxit implements ikavism and
suggests the possibility of a reanalyzed new nominative singular
+kryxot a.
The preceding discussion suggests that 1) ikavism in the nominative
singular is a lexical phenomenon in that its occurrence is not at all pre
dictable; 2) the genitive plural case differs from the nominative singular
in that it may be morphologically marked by the presence of ikavism,
and 3) in the inflectional (neutral) paradigm the mid vowel is the more
frequent alternant and tends to be generalized.
In the derived diminutive-affectionate paradigm of.these nouns the
implementation of this alternation is of a different nature. Two types of
derivations will be considered here. The first type is derived by the suf
fixation of -(o)k- and -(e)c-, historically - - and - -.5 As a result of
changes in the jers, the addition of these suffixes gave preceding open or
closed syllables: CVC + + > CV-Cok\ CVC + + > CVC-ka, where
ikavism was phonologically motivated in the latter (closed syllable).
Forms which preserve this regular historical development in CSU are
not numerous: ostrovok : ostrivka island; Donee' : Dincja Donets
River. Most of these forms have undergone analogical changes, e.g.,
vizok : vizka cart. The zero desinence is not ari issue in these forms
since it is the root vowel not the stem vowel which alternates.
The second type of derivation to be considered here is the formation
of the second degree diminutive by the suffixition of -oc(o)k- and
-o n (o)k-, e.g. vizook : vizoka. The root vowel in these diminutives is
never found in a closed syllable, in other words, ikavism was not phono
logically motivated in any form of the paradigm.6
In order to clarify the role of ikavism in CSU nouns, let us compare
the occurrence of ikavism in the neutral paradigm (where the alternating
5 T here is a homophonous suffix -ec- which forms deverbal or denominal nouns with
the meaning actor: strilec ' sharpshooter, cf. striljaty to shoot. T he root vowel in these
derivations is not usually subject to ikavism, although it does Lake place in a few: honec'l
hinecmessenger, hincja G sg, cf. honyty to chase, run.
6 T he diminutive-affectionate suffix -yk- does not elicit any changes in the root and
therefore is phonologically regular. T he -yk- retains its vowel in all cases: kin*horse N sg,
konja G sg, konyk N sg, konyka G sg; nis nose N sg, nosa G sg, nosyk N sg, nosyka G sg,
etc.
vowel is both the root vowel and the stem vowel) with its occurrence in
the diminutive-affectionate paradigm (where the alternating vowel is
only the root vowel). The environment of ikavism in the former is a zero
desinence and in the latter it may be a consonant cluster. Data given in
(5) are diminutives suffixed in ~(o)k, those in (6) have the suffix -(e)c\
NSG GSG NSG GSG GLOSS
drib drobu dribok dribka fraction
kil kola kilok kilka stake
mist m o s t a / mostu mistok mis tka bridge
rih r o h a / rohu riok rika horn
cobit ob ota obitok obitka boot
dzvin d zv ona/
dzvonu
dzvinok dzvinka bell
NSG GSG NSG GPL GLOSS
ni no i nicka niok night
kist ' kost y
kistka
kist ok bone
NSG GPL NSG GPL
GLOSS
j ahoda jahid jahidka j ahidok berry
bdola bdil bdilka bdilok bee
noha nih nika niok leg
hora hir hirka hir ok hill
soxa six ika siok plow
NSG GSG NSG GSG GLOSS
stil stola stilec stil 'cja table/chair
dvir dvoru dvirec ' dvir c ja courtyard/
railway sta
tion (dial.)
vzir vzoru vzirec vzireja pattern
riv rovu rivec riv cja ditch
ostriv ostrova ostrivec ' ostriv cja island
hrebin ' hrebenja hrebinec hrebineja comb
NSG GPL NSG GPL GLOSS
koleso ko lis kolisce ko lise c ' wheel
eeto eit eit ce eit ec ' sieve
selo sil s i l c e silec ' village
Both of these groups have ikavism in the neutral paradigm as well as in
the derived diminutives. Nouns whose neutral paradigm allows two var
iants in the genitive plural (2) also have the / /-alternant in the diminu
tive (7).7
(7) N S G G PL G L OS S
kizka kizok goat
panika paniok stocking
slizka slizok tear
komirka komirok shed
ozirce ozirec (dial.) lake
S ome nouns whi ch do not exhi bi t ikavi sm in the neutral paradi gm do
have i kavi sm in derived forms (8).
(8) N S G G PL N S G G PL G L OS S
xudoba xudob xudibka X uibok cattle
kora kor kirk a kirck bark
smereka smerek smerika smeriok fir
teta tet titka tit ok aunt
T he data show that the presence or absence of ikavi sm in the inflec-
tional (neutral) category does not have a direct effect on the occurrence
of ikavism in the derived category and that ikavism seems to be more
general in the dimunitive-affectionate category.
In the first degree diminutives considered, this generalization may be
a consequence of paradigm regularity, given that in the derivational
paradigm, unlike in the inflectional one, the regular phonological devel
opment resulted in the more frequent occurrence of the /i/-alternant.
(See Table 1.) The // was then generalized to environments where it
was not phonologically expected, i.e., the N sg, the G pi.
7 T his is not always true. For example, topolja poplar N sg, topol/topil'G pi, has the
diminutive topolka; stopa foot N sg, stop/stip G pi, has the diminutive stopka, even
though there is the word stopka wineglass. S ome neuter nouns also show interesting
variation in the root: slovo word N sg, sliv G pi, slovko N sg, slovka G sg, sloveko (not
common) N sg, but slivce N sg, slivcja G sg, slivecG pi. T he word kolo exhibits a similar
pattern.
Table 1. Inflectional vs derivational paradigm structure
N viz ko-za N vi-zok kiz-ka
A viz ko-zu A vi-zok kiz-ku
G vo-za ko-zv G viz-ka kiz-kv
D vo-zovi ko-zi D viz-kovi ki z - ci
L vo-zi ko-zi L viz-ku k i z - ci
I vo-zom ko-zoju I viz-kom k iz-koj u
V vo-ze ko-zo V viz-ku kiz-ko
N vo-zv ko-zv N viz-ky kiz-ky
A vo-zv ko-zv A viz-ky ki-zok
G vo-ziv kiz G viz-kiv ki-zok
D vo-zam ko-zam D viz-kam kiz-kam
L vo-zax ko-zax L viz-kax kiz-kax
I vo-zamv ko-za my I viz-kamy kiz-kam v
It is suggested then that due to analogical levellings which have taken
place in the substantive paradigm of CSU, the //, /o/-alternant of
ikavism has come to be identified with the inflectional category and the
/ /-alternant of ikavism has come to be identified with the derived cate
gory. This development represents a type of unilateral linkage as dis
cussed in Elson (1980) since the diminutive is marked with respect to the
neutral paradigm and one of the participants of the alternation, the / /-
alternant, is characteristic of the marked forms of this opposition. If
linkage does indeed play a role here, then one would expect that the
/ /-alternant be extended to other marked members within this gram
matical category (nouns) and specifically to nouns in which ikavism was
not a regular phonological development (nor one which can be still con
sidered to be phonologically conditioned). Second-degree diminutives in
CSU, that is, forms derived by the suffixation of -on- and -o-, provide
precisely this type of supportive data (9).
NSG GPL GLOSS
kiz oka kizook goat
slizon 'ka slizon ok tear
udivon ka udivon ok widow
xudibon 'ka xudibon ok cattle
titon ka titon ok aunt
jahidon ka jahidon ok berry
ni en ka nien ok foot, leg
bdiloka bdilook bee
bdilon ka bdilon ok bee
ziroka zirook star
ziron ka ziron ok star
hiroka hirook hill
hiron ka hiron ok hill
NSG GSG GLOSS
kilook kiloka stake
mistook mistoka bridge
rieok rieka horn
dzvinocok dzvinoka bell
vizook vizoka cart
In spite of the fact that the root vowel in each of these nouns is found in
an open syllable and therefore theoretically not subject to ikavism, the
/ /-alternant is found throughout the paradigm of these nouns.
The phenomenon illustrated here bears a resemblance to the example
discussed by Shevelov (1979:605): Kit lvnyj, xlop mvnyjvsjdy
povysja (A cat who is able to catch, a peasant who is able to talk
profit everywhere). Mivnyj is not an occurring form of CSU, but She
velov points out that there is paradigmatic motivation for such an
invention: as in livnyj, often (though by no means always) marks adj.
in a consonant +- n y j Likewise, the / i/-alternan: has come to be asso
ciated not only with the suffixes adj. -(o)k- and -(e)c-, for which there is
paradigmatic motivation, but with the second degree diminutives as
well.
It is also of some interest that the statistical analysis presented by
Chopyk (1980) on ikavism showed that in nouns derived by the suffixes
-e-, -el-, -en -, - -, -osi -, -ot-, and -oh-, some 1270 examples exhibit
ikavism in the nominative singular while only 10do not. His data on the
genitive plural of nouns which would normally be expected to undergo
ikavism if it were still a phonologically productive process in CSU
showed that 1119 nouns with the suffixes -ec(a), enn(ja), -ot(a), and
-ott(ja) do not exhibit this alternation, while only four of these types do.
The above indicates not so much that ikavism is an active process in the
nominative singular as opposed to the genitive plural, but that the / /-
alternant has indeed become associated with derived forms and that it is
linked to the marked member of the grammatical class. Thus the deriva
tional suffixes are lexically marked as associated with ikavism and the
/i/-alternant appears in the citation form, the nominative singular. It is
possible that in many of these cases the / /-alternant is perceived as the
basic one. The lack of ikavism in the genitive plural simply reinforces
this interpretation because for ikavism to occur in the genitive plural it
would have to be implemented by some type of rule raising basic / e/ or
// to / /.
The data suggest that the / /-alternant may be identified with the
derived category. It is interesting to speculate about the implication of
this generalization with respect to developments in the neutral para
digm. It may be a factor in some of the changes that are taking place in
the paradigm today. For example, new genitive plural forms have come
into use: poliv (and pil)\ and substandard seliv (and sil)\ sl'oziv (and
sliz)\ udoviv (and udiv/udov). Although this new gen. pi. ending -iv may
be motivated by certain accentual properties of the feminine and neuter
paradigm as Stankiewicz (1960) points out, and it is certainly in keeping
with Greenbergs (1969) suggestion that marked grammatical categories
tend to have overt marking, it should nevertheless be noted that the
presence of this new ending resolves the problem of ikavism in these
forms. Since ikavism is not considered to be functionally significant
within the paradigm in that it is never the sole grammatical marker, the
curtailment of this alternation is not unexpected. In the marked derived
category, however, the / /-alternant is a linked alternant.
In conclusion, the phonologically unproductive alternation known as
ikavism is used in different ways in different morpholocial categories.
Within the neutral noun paradigm it is not functionally significant and
neither member of the alternation is specifically linked with either the
nominative singular or the genitive plural. Borrowings generally do not
exhibit ikavism. In other nouns, however, this alternation does seem to
be linked in that the / /-alternant is associated with the marked diminu
tive forms and possible even with the marked category of derived nouns
in general. No claim has been made that ikavism must be characteristic
of marked categories. It has simply been suggested that when ikavism
does take place it is associated with the marked member of an opposi
tion. In this way ikavism provides evidence for linkage, which, as Elson
(1980:308) claims, functions to manifest grammatical markedness.
State University o f New York at Stony Brook
BI BLI OGRAPHY
Bethin, Christina Y., Phonological Rules in the Nominative Singular and the
Genitive Plural of the Slavic Substantive Declension, Diss. University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1978.
Bulaxovskyj, L.A., Z istorynyx komentarijiv do uki ajinskoji movy. Holosni
povnoho tvorennja. o, e Naukovi zapysky Kyjivskoho derav-
noho universytetu, 5, (1946) 1.
Bulaxovskyj, L.A., Kurs suasnoji ukrajinskoji literaturnoji movy, I, Kiev:
Radjanska kola, 1951.
Chopyk, Dan B., Morphologically Conditioned I kavism in the Substantives of
Contemporary Standard Ukrainian. Paper presented at the Twelfth
National AAASS Convention in Philadelphia, November 5-8, 1980.
Elson, Mark J ., On the Nature of Morphophonemic A lternations, Lingua, 51
(1980), 297-309.
Greenberg, J oseph H., Some Methods of Dynamic Comparison in Linguis
tics, Substance and Structure o f Language, ed. J aan Puhvel, Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1969, pp. 147-203.
Holoskevy, G., Ukrainian Language Dictionary, New Y ork: Knyhospilka,
1959.
Holovauk, S.I. and V.M. Rusanivskyj, eds., Orfohraficnyj slovnyk ukrajins-
koji movy, Kiev: Naukova Dumka, 1975.
Hudson, Grover, The Representation of Non-Productive A lternation, Pro
ceedings o f the First International Conference on Historical Linguis
tics, II, eds. J . Anderson and C. J ones, Amsterdam: North-Holland,
1974, pp. 203-29.
J akobson, Roman, Beitrag zur allgemeinen Kasuslehre: Gesamt bedeutungen
der russischen K asus, Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague, VI
(1936), pp. 240-88.
Kurylowicz, J erzy, La nature des procs dits analogiques, Acta Linguistica, 5
(1945-49) pp. 15-37.
38
Maczak, Witold, Tendences generales des changements analogiques, Lingua,
1 (1958), pp. 298-325, 387-420.
Ninovskyj, V., Ukrajinskyj zvorotnyj slovnyk, Edmonton: Ukrainian Book
store, 1969.
Pohribnyj, M.I ., Slovnyk naholosiv ukrajinskoji literaturnoji movy, Kiev:
Radjanska kola, 1964.
Rusanivskyj, V.M., ed., Suasna ukrajinska literaturna mova: Morfolohija,
Kiev: Naukova Dumka (Ukrainian Academy Grammar), 1969.
Shevelov, George Y., A Historical Phonology o f the Ukrainian Language (His
torical Phonology of the Slavic Languages, IV. Ukrainian), Heidel
berg: Carl Winter, 1979.
Stankiewicz, Edward, Stress Alternations in the Ukrainian Substantive Declen
sion: Types and Role, The Annals o f the Ukrainian Academy o f Arts
and Sciences in the U. S., VII (1960) pp. 141-51.
Worth, Dean S., The Notion of Stem in Russian Flexion and Derivation, To
Honor Roman Jakobson, I I I, the Hague: Mouton, 1967, pp. 2269-88.
ovtobrjux, M.A., ed., Ukrajinsko literaturna vymova naholos, Kiev: Nau
kova Dumka, 1973.
What is U krainian
in the Multilayered S peech
of the Yugoslav R usini?
HENRIK BIRNBAUM
There can be little doubt that the author of Narys suasnoji ukra-
j i n s koji movy, The Syntax o f Modem Literary Ukrainian, Die ukrai
nische Schriftsprache, 1798-1975, and A Historical Phonology o f the
Ukrainian Language, to mention just the milestones among a host of
significant contributions to Ukrainian linguistics, is currently the rank
ing specialist in the field of synchronic and diach ronic research into the
Ukrainian language. Eminently qualified in other areas of Slavic linguis
tics as wellnotably in the reconstruction of the Common Slavic sound
system and its modifications through prehistoric time, in specific prob
lems of Russian, Belorussian, and Polish linguistic evolution and struc
turein addition to having published widely also in literary history and
criticism, the linguist whom we honor with this volume holds indeed a
unique position in Slavic studies worldwide, that is to say, not only in
Western but in Soviet and East European scholarship as well.
If in his manifold and tireless inquiries into various facets of his
native language, George Y. Shevelov has not, to the best of my knowl
edge, addressed the controversial question of the place and status of the
speech andstarting with the beginning of this centuryeven the
genuine literature of the small Slavic splinter group known as the
Rusini (or Rusnaci, in their own vernacular; occasionally, less accu
rately also referred to as Ruthenians), now residing primarily in the
Yugoslav region of Vojvodinaspecifically, the districts of Baka and
Srem and in a few nearby villages of Croatian Slavonia, that may well
be, in part at least, owing to the fact that their language by most unbi
ased qualified experts has been considered essentially West Slavicto
be exact, a local variety or development of an East Slovak dialect
rather than East Slavic, or in other words, a form of Ukrainian. Yet
voices have been raised in the Rusin community itselfamong them, in
recent years, increasingly deserving of our attention, if not necessarily
unqualified acceptancewhich have contended that their native tongue,
i.e., the speech of the settlers, who from the mid 18th century on had
been moving down from their legendary Highland, or Hornjica, of the
Carpatho-Ukraine and an adjoining district in East Slovakia (centered
around the town of Preov/Prjaiv) and across the Hungarian Plain, is
indeed an offshoot of Ukrainian, a branch by and large independently
developed while profoundly affected by other, neighboring and coterri
torial language communities. By the same token, however, the Rusini
have also insisted on not being identified and equated with the Ukrain
ian settlers who have come to what is today Y ugoslavia only considera
bly later, mostly since the 1890s, making their home partly in some
other areas in the new country, particularly, in addition to Vojvodina,
also in Slavonia and Bosnia. Thus, beginning with the official Yugoslav
census of 1971 the Ukrainians and the Rusini are recognized as separate
and different ethnic groups, or nationalities, in the Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia.
Before even making preliminary attempts to settle the hotly debated,
emotionally charged issue of the national, ethnolinguistic identity of
todays Rusini, let us first take at least a brief look at the evidence at
hand. Is there perhaps some truth, after all, in the claim about their
Ukrainian origin, or are these altogether misconceived and misguided
views colored merely by wishful thinking conditioned by cultural herit
age as embodied, above all, in their embracing the Greek-Catholic, or
Uniate, form of Christianity? Or, is the problem possibly even more
complexand thus not so easily resolvedthan what appears at first
blush? In what follows, the discussion will focus on its purely linguistic
aspect. In other words, we will address the question: Whatif any
thingis Ukrainian in the multilayered speech of the Rusini?
If, as is customary in the case of a purely genetic language classifica
tion, we first examine the phonol ogi cal characteristics of the speech
of the Rusini, we note that: (1) Common .Slavic (henceforth CS) kv, gv
before secondary front vowel (, - reflecting an earlier diphthong) are
represented here by kv, hv, as in Slovak; thus Rus kvet (and kvitki),
SPEECH OF J UGOSL AV RUSI NI 41
Slk kvet, hviezda against Ukr cv/kv, zv: evil/kvit, zvizda.(2) Early
CS (or Proto-Slavic) jc under the conditions of i:he 2nd regressive and
the so-called 3rd (or Baudouin) progressive palatalizations yield Rus ,
as in Slovak, contrary to Ukr s: Rus ve, Slk ve (-mon): Ukr vse\
Rus siri, Slk er: Ukr siryj (however, this reflex in Rusin is not neces
sarily pertinent since every s before front vowel yields here; cf. veele,
e, edlo; exceptions: sebe, silni, siver, serdecnosc).(3) CS tl, dl (i.e.,
also where the cluster is not secondary, the result of jer-syncope) are
retained, as in Slovak (and the rest of West Slavic), while Ukrainian
(like the other East Slavic languages) here simplify the original cluster:
Rus modljic (but molitva, further pravilo, garlo), pletla, Slk modlic
(dial.), plietla vs. Ukr molyty, plela.(4) CS CarC, ClC, Cere, CelC
are reflected as CraC, ClaC, CreC, CleC (Slk *CrC, *ClC) as against
East Slavic pleophony: Rus draha, hlas, breza, mleko, Slk drha, hlas,
breza, mlieko vs. Ukr doroha, holos, bereza, moloko.(5) CS labial +j
does not result in a cluster with epenthetic /'while in Ukrainian it does:
Rus sipe, Slk sype, but Ukr syple. (6) CS tj (and kt before front
vowel), dj yield c, dz, as in Slovak, as against c, d / in Ukrainian: Rus
vracac, Slk vraca vs. Ukr vorocaty; Rus, Slk noc vs. Ukr nic; Rus, Slk
medza vs. Ukr medza (dial.), meza.(7) CS (j)e- is reflected as je- in
both Rusin and Slovak, but as o- in Ukrainian: Rus jeen \ Slk jese vs.
Ukr osin\
To these more or less diagnostic criteria some other less well estab
lished could be added where the language of the Rusini in mostnot
allinstances coincides with Slovak rather than with Ukrainian. When
it comes to the reflexes of CS e (jatf) Rusin coincides as frequently or
perhaps more frequently with Ukrainian than with Slovak, thus, e.g.,
Rus leto, Slk leto; Rus les, Slk les; Rus dzeci (Po dzieci), Slk deti; Rus
mesto, Slk msto; Rus lovk, Slk lovk; Rus verier Slk veri ; Rus
meac, Slk mesiac; Rus treljic, Slk stelit; Rus premenjic, Slk pre-
menitf; Rus rezac, Slk rezat But Rus bida (: Sl k bieda), bili (: biely),
hvizda (: hviezda), djido (: dedo), Ijik (: liek), misac (: mieat), rika (:
rieka), pisok (:piesok), ein* (: tien), riic (: rieit), vizi (: sviey), vini (:
vn, nih (: sneh), njini (.nn), siver (: sever). By the same token,
Rus xleb (: Slk chlieb) or vira/ (: viera) are perhaps more difficult to
judge.
42
While many instances of deviation from the normal evolution of the
Rusin vowel and consonant system may signal some external influ
encesmostly from Ukrainian, but in part also from other Slavic lan
guages (primarily Slovak), it is possible nonetheless to ascertain the
basic structural characteristics of the Rusin sound system and to relate
it, in synchronic (typological) and diachronic (genetic) terms, to the
phonologies of the Slavic sister languages as well as to the underlying
Common Slavic source. A description and brief analysis designed to
achieve precisely this was sketched some years ago by M. Peikan in
Juznoslovenski Filolog 31 (1974/5), 111-35 (Osnovne strukturalne
karakteristike rusinskog glasovnog sistema).
When it comes to morphology, the share of similarities with Ukrain
ian rather than Slovak is, generally, somewhat higher. Thus, to mention
just a couple of telling examples: Rusin has tot where Slovak, like the
rest of West Slavic, uses ten (cf. Ukr toj and dial, tot, R tot; on the
Ukrainian evolution, see, e.g., G.Y. Shevelov, A Historical Phonology
o f the Ukrainian Language, Heidelberg, 1979, 246-7); or, Rusin is closer
to the East Slavic long-form adjectival inflection than to the West
Slavic: dobroho, dobromu (identical with Ukrainian) as opposed to Slk
dobrho, dobrmu, etc. However, the generalization of the ending -ox
in the gen. and loc. plur., of - in the dat. plur., and of -ami in the
instr. plur. of all nouns Rusin shares with the dialects of East Slovakia
while similar levelings in the plural paradigm of the substantive are
found only in part also in the Lemkian dialect of Ukrainian but are not
characteristic of standard literary Ukrainian. The influence of the
Serbo-Croatian super- or adstratum is readily noticeable in Rusin nom
inal and (though somewhat less) verbal derivation, where older suffixes
are often replaced by new ones of South Slavic origin. In inflection we
may further note, of course, the retentionwhen used without the per
sonal pronounof the auxiliary, a residue of the copula verb, in the 1st
and 2nd person of the past tense, having the forms som, si, zme, see (cf.
SC sam, si, smo, ste)\ cf. thus, for example, Rus znal som, znal si, znali
zme, znali see, reminiscent of SC znao sam, etc.; but cf. further Po
znalem, znae, znalimy, znalicie.
It is much more difficult to draw any valid general conclusions with
regard to Rusin syntax. Although at the surface Rusin sentence struc-
SPEECH OF J UGOSL AV RUSI NI
43
ture, like that of other Slavic languages, is largely derivable (in syn
chronic or even generative terms) from a basic underlying Slavic syntac
tic model, it is here, in particular, that the impact of the different Slavic
environment of the Rusini during the last two centuriesthat is, of
Serbo-Croatiancan be strongly felt. Thus, to give just one example, it
is characteristic of their speech that they have Largely (if by now not
entirely) substituted da for the older conjunction ze to introduce subor
dinate constructions corresponding to English ^-clauses. In the thor
oughly bilingual (and occasionally multilingual) milieu of the Rusini,
all of whom today also speak Serbo-Croatian, a lexeme and phrase pre
viously shared with West Slavic had thus to give way to borrowed
South Slavic analogues. It should also be noted that some first attempts
at describing and systematizing certain portions of Rusin functional
syntax, that is, the use of word-forms, have been made in recent years;
cf., e.g., A.D. Dulienko, Gu sintaksi pripadkox u jaziku jugoslavjans-
kix Rusnacox, Tvorcosc 3: 3(Novi Sad, 1977), 14-19.
Rusin vocabulary presents specific, intriguing problems connected
with the fact that several chronological layers of the Rusin lexicon can
be ascertained. Thus, the oldest, or Carpathian, stratum of the lan
guage contains items shared with or borrowed from Slovak, Polish,
Ukrainian, and Russian. Probably some of the Hungarian and German
loanwords of Rusin, too, date back to these early times. After their
migration to Baka (and Srem) the ties of the Rusini with Ukrainian as
well as Russian culture were maintained largely through the vehicle of
the Church and its texts. In the Vojvodina the Rusini came into close
contact, actually coterritorial symbiosis, with the Serbs while earlier
connections with Germans and Hungarians either continued or were
renewed. Finally, in more recent years, the impact of Ukrainian (and, to
a lesser extent, also Russian) has again become stronger, mostly as a
result of a deliberate and directed cultural-linguistic orientation in the
Rusin community, while the lexical penetration and, in fact, assimila
tion by Serbo-Croatian has, of course, further increased. Moreover,
some terms belonging to an international, modern set of lexical items
have now made their appearance also in the language of the essentially
still rural Rusin population. For some additional details and illustrative
examples, see, e.g., O. Horba, Leksyka hovirky bacvansko-srimskyx
ukrajinciv, Nauk. zb. Muz. ukr. k u l t. v Svydnyku 4: 1(Prjaiv, 1969),
309-47; S. Gustavsson, Rusinema Jugoslavien, der as kultur och sprk
(- Inst. f. si. o. bait, spr., Sthlms Univ., Meddelanden 13), Stockholm,
1975, 31-55; H.D. Pohl, Minoritates Slavonicae, Klagenf. Beitr. z.
Sprachw. 75-1 (1975), 38-43; A.E. Suprun, A.M. Kaljuta, Vvedenie v
slavjanskuju filologiju, Minsk, 1981, 137-9.
As for the written language, it should be remarked that it has recently
shown an increased tendency (partly, perhaps, to counteract total assim
ilation by Serbo-Croatian) toward secondary convergence with standard
Ukrainian in line with the aims of local language planners. The present
form of literary Rusin had gained currency only between 1904 (the year
of the appearance of the volume of poems titled Z mojoho valala by
Havrijil Kostelnik, generally considered the first publication in literary
Rusin) and the early 1920s at the expense of a latter-day form of
Church Slavic, with a substantial admixture of genuine Russian and
Ukranian, and the artificial, largely West Ukrainian lingo (jazycie)
previously adhered to. For a brief account of this development, see
A.D. Dulienko, Stanovlenie i razvitie rusinskogo literaturnogo jazy
ka v J ugoslvii, Sov. slavjanoved. 3/1972, 38-50, esp. 40-1; cf. further
id., K voprosu o literaturno-pismennom i narodnom jazyke u basko-
sremskix rusin v XVIII-XIX vv., Zb. za filol. lingv. 14:2 (Novi Sad,
1971), 61-9. It is worth mentioning, moreover, that slight dialectal dif
ferences, reflected also in the vocabulary, now exist between the variety
of Rusin as spoken and written in Ruski Kerestur, which forms the
basis for the literary norm, and that of Kocur; cf. ibid., 46. For addi
tional relevant information, including data on Rusin linguistic structure,
see now also the same authors book Slavjanskie literaturnye mikroja-
zyki, Tallin, 1981.passim.
Particular consideration should, obviously, be given to the socio
geographic setting for the ethnogenesisand thus for the emergence of
the earliest languageof the Rusini. Their first homeland was, as was
already mentioned, in the Carpathian region of East Slovakia and the
Carpatho-Ukraine (or Subcarpathian Rus). This was for centuries a
zone at the crossroads of several European cultures and languages. West
Slavic (Slovak and Polish), East Slavic (Ukrainian and Russian), Hun
garian, German, and Yiddish ethnic elements converged, mingled, and
SPEECH OF J UGOSL AV RUS [NI
45
interacted here. Though we must not necessarily agree with those who
view this region not only as the focal point of a linguistic convergence
area but as the center of a veritable Carpathian Sprachbund comparable
to that formed by the Balkan languages (as narrowly, linguistically
defined), interference and secondary convergence were certainly charac
teristic of the Carpathian languages. For some further details and a
discussion of attendant problems, see, in particular, A.M. Rot, Osoben-
nosti vzaimodejstvija jazykov i dialekt karpatskogo areala, Uhorod,
1973; S.. Berntejn, Problemy karpatskogo jaizykoznanija in Kar-
patskaja dialektologija i onomastika, Moscow, 1972, 3-15; id., Prob
lemy interferencii jazykov karpato-dunajskogo axeala v svete dannyx
sravnitelnoj dialektologii in Slav, jazykozn., Mezdunar. s ezd sla-
vistov ... Dokl. sov. deleg., Moscow, 1973, 25-41; id. et al., Obsce-
karpatskij dialektologiceskij atlas. Lingvisticeskie tnograficeskie aspek
ty, Kiinev, 1976; id., G.P. Klepikova, Obekarpatskij dialektologi
ceskij atlas. Principy. Predvaritelnye itogi in Slav, jazykozn., VIII
Mezdunar. s ezd slavistov ... Dokl. sov. deleg., Moscow, 1978, 27-41;
id. et al., Obekarpatskij dialektologiceskij atlas i nekotorye prob
lemy junoslavjanskogo tnogeneza in Slav, jazykozn., IX Mezdunar.
s ezd slavistov ... Dokl. sov. deleg., Moscow, 3-17. Cf. further M. Blixa,
Otraenie slovacko-ukrainskix jazykovyx kontaktov v toponimax
nekotoryx regionov vostonoj Slovakii in Perspektivy razvitija sla-
Vjanskoj i onomastiki, Moscow, 1980, 79-89, and for the early evolution
of the Transcarpathian Ukrainian dialects, L. Dezs (De), Oerki po
istorii zakarpatskix govorov, Budapest, 1967.
Under such conditions, then, a changeover, or perhaps rather reinte
gration, of a Slavic dialect such as the prototype of the speech of todays
Rusini may have been fairly natural or even expected. The additional,
subsequent leveling force of the Serbian linguistic impact can only have
contributed to make their vernacular both a peculiar, isolated lan
guage (in the sense conceived by A. Vaek; cf. his paper K vvoji izo
lovanho slovenskho jazyka, Slavia 44, 1975, 1-6) and a firmly
embedded, multiple-integrated member of the Slavic language family.
This, in conclusion, brings us back to the question how to classify the
multilayered speech of the Yugoslav Rusini. To which branch of Slav
icthe eastern, western, or southerndoes their language belong today?
The answer to this question is not an easy one. In purely genetic terms,
it would seem that, given in particular the many phonological agree
ments between Rusin and Slovak, the spoken and written language of
the Rusini must be classified as essentially West Slavic. This was already
the opinion of O. Broch who wrote in 1899: dasRussinische dieser
Bacska-Kolonien wrde somit ... ein Ostslovakischer Cotaken-Dialek
sein (see Arch. f . slav. Phil. 21, 49-61, esp. 56), and the same view has
since been repeatedly expressed by unbiased scholars (cf., e.g., C.E.
Bidwell, The Language of the Baka Ruthenians in Y ugoslavia, SEEJ
10, 1966, 32-45, esp. 32 and 36). Yet the belief that the language of the
Rusini rather is a continuation of a form of Ukrainian, and thus basi
cally East Slavic, has, as was mentioned, also been voiced, to be sure
primarily by politically engaged non-linguists and by members of the Ru
sin community itself. Among the latter was, however, also the ranking local
linguist, M.M. Koi, who stated with firm conviction that as the lan
guage of a nationality it is a dialect of Ukrainian which for specific
historical reasons had its own winding road of development (cf. Ling-
vistini roboti, Novi Sad, 1978, 22). And in his textbooks for school use
the same scholar and educator has claimed that Rusin could be consi
dered one of the southwestern dialects of Ukrainian, acknowledging,
though, that it is impossible at this stage of its evolution to indicate
exactly to which of the earlier Ukrainian dialects usin is most closely
related, or of which it is an extension. This latter is said to be owing to
the specific regional development that the speech of the Rusini had gone
through in its new locality during a period when other West Ukrainian
dialects developed in their respective regions both independently and as
a result of mutual interaction, as well as under the influence of the
standard language. Consequently, some of the differences that pre
viously may have been only rudimentary or even nonexistent are said to
have turned more marked, or to have emerged where there were none
before (cf. M.M. Koi, Gramatika ruskoho jazika za V II Iklasu osnov-
nej koli, Novi Sad, 1972, 83).
Even though it cannot be argued that statements such as the ones just
adduced or paraphrased are entirely free of some national bias (due to a
long cultural tradition, enhanced in particular by religious commit
ment), they are, by the same token, also not to be simply discarded as
SPEECH OF J UGOSL AV RUSI NI 47
merely reflecting wishful political thinking. In simple terms, it would
perhaps be safest to say that Rusin today is a genuine mixed Slavic
language containing substantial elements of neighboring or previously
adjoining languages of all three branches of the Slavic language group;
cf. a definition to that effect by O. Horbatsch who remarked that ihren
siidlemkisch-ostslovakischen bergangs- und Mischdialekt erhoben sie
im 20. J h. zu einer selbstndigen Schriftsprache (see Der Einfluss des
Serbokroatischen auf die Sprache der ukrainischen Ansiedler in J ugo-
slavien in Slavist. Studien z. VIII. Intern. Slavistenkongr. ..., Cologne &
Vienna, 1978, 139). For a more general discussion of Ukrainian-Slovak
transitional phenomena, see also, e.g., L.A. Bulaxovskyj, Pytannja
poxodennja ukrajinskoji movy, Kiev, 1956, 205-6. However, the mat
ter, more closely studied, is actually more complex and intricate. Fol
lowing . Benveniste and, with some reservations, L. Hjelmslev, I have
tried to show elsewhere not only that genetic linguistics and genetic lan
guage classification, given some necessary qualifications, can be consi
dered hierarchically subordinated to typological linguistics and a typo-
logically-based grouping of languages, but also that the overriding typo
logical classification rests primarily on criteria relatable to the underlying
structure of meaning, its lexical expression and its formal, grammatical
manifestation. And, using precisely certain facets of the speech of the
Rusini as telling examples, I have attempted to demonstrate the inher
ent difficulty in arriving at a clear-cut, noncontroversial classification;
cf. my paper Language Families, Linguistic Types, and the Position
of the Rusin Microlanguage within Slavic, Welt d. Slav. 28 (1983),
1-23. For certainly there can be no doubt that, in addition to displayng
characteristics linking the Rusin language with the Slovak environment
of its speakers erstwhile home region, there are present other traits
typologically definable, perhaps, rather than strictly geneticthat echo
the ties by which the Rusin people were once associated, and in a way
continue to be connected, also with the Ukraine, specifically the Car-
patho-Ukraine, and the speakers of its language.
University o f California, Los Angeles
C omputer-A ssisted T allying and
the Present S tate of o, e: A lternations
in U krainian N ouns
(Inflectional-level Analysis)
DAN B. CHOPY K
The purpose of this paper is to illustrate, with the help of computer-
assisted1and manual tallying,2the present, synchronic state of , e :
alternations in Ukrainian nouns on the inflectional level.
Grammars and research papers3dealing with the Ukrainian language
constantly point out that the most characteristic feature of the Contem
porary Standard Ukrainian (CSU) is the intra-paradigmatic , e :
1 Preliminary research and early drafts of this paper were aided considerably by grants
from the U niversity of U tah R esearch Fund and by a small travel grant from the S hev
chenko S cientific S ociety (in A merica). A n abbreviated version was read on S eptember 29,
1980 at the S econd I nternational C ongress of S lavists in G armisch-Partenkirchen,
G ermany.
2 S everal dictionaries were searched for appropriate lexical terms, namely: . . A ndru-
syshen and J.N . K rett, Ukrainian-English Dictionary (T oronto: U niversity of T oronto
Press, 1957); A N U R S R , PoVsko-ukraijinskyj slovnyk, ed. L .L . Humecka et al. (K iev:
A N U R S R , 1958); B.D . Hrinenko, ed., Slovar ukrajinskoji movy, 2nd ed., (K iev,
1963); V. N inovskyj, Ukrainian Reverse Dictionary (Munich-E dmonton, 1969); . .
Pohribnyj, Slovnyk naholosiv ukrajinskoji literaturnoji movy,2nd. ed., (K iev: R adj
anska kola, 1964); A N U R S R , Ukrajinska literaturna vymova naholos (K iev: N au-
kova D umka, 1973).
3 S pecialized publications were consulted: A N U R S R , Zakonomirnosti rozvytku ukra-
j in s koho literaturnoho movlennja (K iev: N aukova D umka, 1965); A N U R S R , Struk-
tur no-mate maty ni doslidennja ukrajinskoji movy (K iev: N aukova D umka, 1964);
A N U R S R , Statystyni ta strukturn linhvistyni modeli (K iev: N aukova D umka,
1967); L .A . Bulaxovskyj, Pytannja poxodennja ukrajinskoji movy (K iev: A N U R S R ,
1956); L .A . Bulaxovskyj, Kurs suasnoji ukrajinskoji literaturnoji movy, v.l. (K iev:
R adjanska kola, 1951; F.T . ylko, Narysy z dialektolohji ukrajinskoji movy (K iev:
R adjanska kola, 1966); A .P. K oval, Kultura ukraj insKoji movy (K iev: N aukova
D umka, 1964); M.M. Pylynskyj, Movna norma styl (K iev: N aukova D umka, 1976);
G. Y. S hevelov, A Historical Phonology o f the Ukrainian Language (Historical Phonology
of the S lavic L anguages, IV. U krainian), (Heidelberg: C arl Winter-U niversitats-verlag,
1979).
50
alternation in the final, closed root/stem syllables of the inflected parts
of speech. Closed syllables state the environment in which vocalic alter
nations occur. This environment specifies only phonological condition
ing. However, particular instances in the declensional paradigms of the
nouns where / / replaces / , e/ are stated largely in morphological
terms, as the following examples indicate:
1. / / occurs in place of /, / in the nominative-accusative
singular (also, but very seldom, in the instrumental plural) of
masculine nouns with -0 desinence in the dictionary form.
Examples: stil (table) in N sg with a closed final syllable,
becomes stola in the G sg, stolovi in D sg, etc. with //
whenever the stem is followed by a vowel which uncovers an
open syllable in the stem, e : alternation occurs in similar
environment, e.g. rentin' (belt) in the N sg, becomes remenja
in the G sg, etc.
2. / / occurs in place of /, / in the nominative-accusative-
instrumental singular (and very seldom in the instrumental
plural) of feminine nouns with -0 desinence in the dictionary
form. Examples: sir (salt) in the N sg becomes soli in the G
sg and pic (oven) in the N sg becomes peci in the G sg, etc.
3. / / occurs in place of / , / in the genitive plural of feminine
and neuter nouns with a vocalic desinence in the dictionary
form. Examples: kosa (scythe) in the N sg becomes kis in the
G pi, where final syllable is closed, and selo (village) in the N
sg becomes sil in the G pi.
It is important to notice that along with the instances where the
vocalic alternations in the noun-paradigms occur, there are many exclu
sions where vocalic alternations do not occur in the above specified
phonetic conditions. Usually the following categories of nouns are listed
as exclusions:
1. Loanwords. Examples: motor (motor) in N sg and motora in
the G sg, student (student) in the N sg and studenta in the G
sg-
2. Nouns in which questionable phonemes / e/ or // are fleet
ing vowels. Examples: den (day) in the N sg and dnja in the
G sg, or son (dream) in the N sg and snu in the G sg etc.
3. Nouns in which questionable phonemes / e/ or // are part
of interconsonantal -ere-y -oro-, -ele-, -olo- sequences
(CoroC-)Examples:bereh (bank, shore)in the N sg and ber-
eha in the G sg, or voroh (enemy) in the N sg and voroha in
the G sg.
4. Nouns in which questionable phonemes / e/ or // are part
PRESENT STATE OF O, E : I AL TERNATI ONS 51
of interconsonantal -er-, -or-, - - sequences. Examples: ort
(devil) in the N sg and orta in the G sg, or smer (death) in
the N sg and smerty in the G sg.
The large number of nouns in which the expected vocalic alternations
do not occur introduces confusion regarding the validity and intensity
of o, e : alternations. This situation becomes more acute when one
encounters diachronic statements concerning vocalic alternation trends
in the Ukrainian language. Thus Professor G. Shevelov4has pointed out
that in the 17th c more shifts occured from the non-alternational to the
alternational type...; but beginning in the 18th c the trend changed, and
the prevalent type of shifting was from the alternational to the non-
alternational type. To be more specific, more often than not the trend
was toward the restoration and complete or partial generalization of o
(e). This may be interpreted as a tendency to limit the scope of the
alternation o, e : i. It was, however, only a relative shrinking of the
alternations: in most words, especially in high frequency words, it
remained intact.5Similarly, Professor L. Bulaxovskyj,6referring to the
present synchronic state of Ukrainian morphophonemics, has pointed
out that, because the phonemes /, / may often occur in closed sylla
bles and / / in open ones, the alternations : , e : belong to an
historical type and not to a positionally phonetic type... Compare, for
example, such pairs as: vin (he) : von (away [with you]!); umiv (know
how, past tense) : umov (G pi condition); tij (D sg f that) : toj (N sg m
that); six (G pi wooden plough) : sox (to dry up, past tense); hilka
(branch) : holka (needle); bijky (G sg fight) : bjky (N pi Boyko); pist
(Lent) : post (post, position); siV(salt) : sol{sol, G note)7... etc. In the
above examples both, the phoneme // and / / occur in closed sylla
bles. It should also be pointed out that there are innumerable examples
in the Ukrainian language where the phoneme // occurs in open sylla
bles, as in lito (summer), mira (measure) etc. On the basis of these
examples, one must reject the idea of binding, purely phonetic norms
4 S hevelov, Historical Phonology.
5 S hevelov, Historical Phonology, p. 721.
6 Bulaxovskyj, Kurs.
7 Bulaxovskyj, K urs, p. 240.
governing vocalic alternations in the nouns. Many morphological condi
tions are involved in this process. However, these conditions, containing
many exceptions, cannot be precisely formulated and consequently can
not serve as reliable indicators of regularity and hence predictability.
In an attempt to find ways of overcoming this entangled situation in
Ukrainian morphophonemics, to reveal more regularities and to provide
additional insight into the operating system of vocalic alternations, I
decided to use statistics, i.e., statistical tallying and inventorying. My
intention is to trace more precisely the present tendencies through the
actual inventories of groups of nouns in which o, e : alternations
occur, describe their kinds, and indicate the density of these alterna
tions. The data for this research were gathered from the six-volume
Ukrainian-Russian dictionary8which was incoded on computer tapes at
Harvard University.9These tapes, decoded by Mr. Nicholas Wipond,10
contain a corpus of 227,888 lexical items. It was fortunate to find in this
corpus incoded nouns with , e : alternations in their final stem-
syllables. These were limited only to those nouns which appear in the
dictionary lists with -0 desinence in the nominative (N) singular (sg).
The computer was instructed to list all those nouns.
There were 8,325 nouns ending at -0 desinence in the N sg and exhib
iting , e : alternations in declensional paradigms. In this total there
were 8,196 nouns exhibiting : alternation, and only 129 nouns exhib
iting e : alternation in specified environments. In the first group there
was an overwhelming dominance of third declension (feminine) nouns,
in particular of nouns formed with the help of the highly productive
word-forming suffix - / ist-. There were 7,477 of these nouns, leaving
only 68 nouns for other third-declension nouns with : alternation,
8 A N U R S R , Ukrajinsko-rosijskyj slovnyk, ed. I .M. K yryenko (K iev: R adjanska
kola, 1953-1963).
9 I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Joseph Van C ampen from S tanford
U niversity for allowing me to use his computer tapes with incoded K yrycenkos
Ukrajins'ko-rosijskyj slovnyk (which was part of his own research pursued at Harvard
U niversity).
10 My thanks go also to Mr. N icholas Wipond and Paul L uckau, graduate computer
students at the U niversity of U tah, for their help in decoding the Van-C ampen-tapes and
for sorting and collecting the statistical data on U krainian nouns with , e : alternations.
PRESENT STATE OF O, E : I AL TERNATI ONS
53
and 42 nouns with e : alternation. Masculine nouns with : alterna
tion numbered 651 items and those with e : alternation 87 nouns.
However, it should be pointed out that of those masculine nouns, and
non-suffixed third declension feminine nouns, there are many deriva
tives, in some cases as many as 43 derived nouns from the same deriva
tional base (root; e.g. derivatives from -vid-). To a large extent deriva
tives show the same vocalic alternations as their derivational base. Thus,
the high number of derivatives and of nouns formed with the help of the
same word-forming suffix, indicates the frequency of vocalic alterna
tions and not its density, i.e., not the number of individual nonrelated
nouns, subject to the same morphophonemic process of alternations. It
is important that the distinction be properly understood between the
notions of frequency and density. Frequency refers to the occurence of a
particular process and density indicates the number of items in which a
particular phenomenon occurs. Furthermore, (in the projection of the
future tendencies) frequencies of particular phenomena indicate their
high or low present utilization, while density, i.e. the high or low
number of items in which that particular phenomenon occurs, indicates
general historical trends: high item-density prognosticates vitality and
an increased probability of their continual existence in the future, while
low item-density indicates their general decline. I f these conclusions are
applied to CSU and to the computer data just obtained: 8,325 nouns
with : alternation and 129 with e : alternat , then one does not
see much future for the continued operation of e : alternation in the
Ukrainian nouns. However, no attempt is made here nor can be made
to predict the date for the final burial of that phenomenon in the
Ukrainian language. A further examination of the inventory numbers of
the nouns with , e : alternations reveals tendencies toward their
further decline. If one were to subject the 651 masculine nouns with :
alternation to the count of a single item per a whole number of their
derivatives, then this number is reduced to 271 nouns, while the 87
nouns with e : alternation is reduced to 13nonrepeated items.
The restrictive approach in counting only nonrepeating stems with o,
e : alternations to determine their densities proved useful. The author
of this study, therefore, decided to manually gather representative (i.e.
one representative item in place of the whole group of derivatives)
nouns/stems from several sources.11However, from this gathering count
were excluded all prefixed nonbound roots and nouns in which the
phoneme in question was a fleeting vowel. Our inventories of pertinent
masculine and feminine nouns with alternating vowels followed by a
consonant in a final position (-C#) have indicated antipodal tendencies:
nouns with -0 desinence in the N sg showed a high density quotient,
while those with -0 desinence in G pi indicated a low count results.
More precisely, these data may be presented in the following statements:
a) Out of 1,553 indigenous nouns with -0 desinence in the N sg,
only 101 nouns do not exhibit o, e : alternations in the
environment before -C#, while 1,452 nouns do;
b) Out of 1,258 pertinent indigenous nouns with -0 desinence in
the G pi only 45 nouns exhibit , e : alternations in the
environment before -C#, while 1,213 nouns do not.
Although in density there are probably as many nouns with the perti
nent vowels in the environment before -0 desinence in final position of
both above mentioned groups of nouns, the items with -0 desinence in
the G pi do not adhere to the closed-syllable rule.
This restrictive inventory counting was further applied to the group
ing of pertinent nouns according to their paradigmatic stress patterns.
There seemed to have been some noticeable correlation between the
items from particular paradigmatic stress pattern groups and the density
of nouns with , : alternations. Additionally, taking into considera
tion the fact that there are nouns with alternating , e : vowels among
those which are usually considered exclusions (as they are listed also in
this study), it was decided to list such items in the inventory tables.
Separate data in these tables are therefore given for loan words; nouns
containing interconsonantal or-, -ol-, -er- sequences; pleophonic nouns,
i.e., nouns in which the questionable vowel is contained in interconso
nantal - -, -oto-, -ere-, -ele- sequences; and for indigenous nouns in
whose stems the phonemes /, / may be followed by a consonant in a
final position, and thus subject to the rule of alternation.
Paradigmatic stress patterns of Ukrainian nouns are not indicated in
11 All manual selections and counting of pertinent nouns were done by the author of
this study fromthe dictionaries listed in note 2.
general dictionaries. However, there are nine such patterns. In the dic
tionary forms only accents for nominative and genitive singular are
given. From such notations it may follow that the accent of a particular
noun may be that of the G sg, yet deviations may occur in A sg, N/A
and G pi. In this study, therefore, the paradigmatic stress patterns were
determined by the presence or absence of an accent on the stem of the
noun in the following instances: 1) in all singular cases except accusa
tive; 2) in the accusative singular only; 3) in the nominative and accusa
tive plural, and in the remaining cases in plural. By marking the pres
ence of an accent on the stem-vowel in any of the above indicated
instances with a plus (+) and its absence with a minus (-), the nine stress
pattern types (marked with appropriate diacritic signs over the dotted
alternating stem-vowels o, e) may be presented in the following tabular
form:
Stress Example Sg A sg NA Obi Examples (transliterated)
type -A pi pi
1. V rd-) + + + + rid, rid, rdy, rdiv (clan)
2. V stl-0 - stil; stil; stoly; stolx (table)
3. V vz-0 + + viz; viz; vozy; vozx (wagon)
4. V kn-) + + k i n ; konj; koni; knjax (horse)
5. V ks-a + + + kos; kosu; kosy; ksax (scythe)
6. V nh-a + + noha; nohu; nohy; nohx (leg)
7. V rh-0 + + + rih; rih; rohy; rohx (horn)
8. V stfp-a + stopa; stop; stopy; stopx (foot)
9. kls-o + + + + koleso; koleso; kolesa; kolsax
(wheel)
The last stress pattern type (as distinguished from the first) shows an
accentual shift from the first stem-syllable (indicating stable paradigm
stress in singular) to the last (which indicates fixed stress in the plural
paradigm).
The stress pattern types are significant for prediction purposes. Nouns
of certain stress patterns exhibit vocalic alternations much more rigor
ously than others. Our data (collected manually) support this conten
tion, as can be observed from the following tables: (nouns with o :
alternations are called o-stems and those with e : alternations
e-stems).
S U MMA R Y T A BL E S OF O-S T E MS
A . N onsuffixed O-stems with -0 desinence in N sg
S tress type L oan words N ouns with -CorC- N ouns with -CoroC- Other native nouns
0.0 o.i 0.0 o.i O'.O o.i o:o o:i
V 723 18 33
_
50 4 54 166
V - -
13 - - - -
30
V 8
- 12
-
13 1 - 37
V - - - - - - -
2
V - - - - - -
1 3
Totals 731 18 58 - 63 5 55 238
Add nouns with the suffixes -ov, -ost \ -oh, -ot .n - - 1252
TOTAL: 55 1490
B. N onsuffixed o-stems with -0 desinence in G pi
S tress type L oan words N ouns with - CorC- N ouns with -CoroC- Other native nouns
O'.O o.i O'.O o.i O'.O o.i O'.O o.i
V 156 1 20
_
28 3 ' 48 6
V
- - - - -
1
- -
V
- - - - 2 1 12 12
V
- - - - 1 6 3 14
V
_
-
_ _
-
_
- 3
2
T otals 156 1 20 - 31 11 63 37
A dd nouns with suffixes: -ottQ'a), -ot(a)n 96 -
T OT A L : 159 37
12 All data for suffixed nouns were taken from the reverse-running dictionary: Vasyl
Niniovskyj, Ukrainskyj zvorotnyj slovnyk (Munich-Edmonton, 1969).
SUMMARY TABLES OF E-STEMS
A. Nonsuffixed -stems with -0 desinence in N sg
S tress type L oan words N ouns with -CerC- N ouns with -CereC- Other native nouns
e\e e:i e:e e:i e:e e:i e:e e:i
v 927
-
27
-
31
-
25 12
v
- - - - - - 3 3
v
v
-
_
-
- _ -
7
1
1
Totals 927 - 27 - 31 - 36 16
A dd nouns with suffixes: -el\ -en \ -e, ( - e v ) n 60 3
TOTAL: 96 19
B. Nonsuffixed ^-sterns with -0 desinence in G pi
S tress type L oan words N ouns with -CerC- N ouns with -CereC - Other native nouns
e:e e:i e:e e:i e:e
e:i e:e e:i
V 230
-
18
-
11 1
20
-
V - - 1 - 4 - - -
V - - - - - -
10
-
V
/
- - - - 2 1
-
1
v
- - - - 2 -
1
1
2
Totals 230 - 19 - 19 2 31 3
Add nouns with suffixes -ec(a) -enn(ja)n 1048 -
TOTAL: 1079 3
Several statements of clarification would be appropriate here in
connection with the statistical figures given above:
1. The number of indigenous nouns is considerably increased by the
suffixed items which, on the inflectional level, may have /, / in the
environment before -Ct. Included in this group are all nouns formed
with the help of the following word-forming suffixes: -ev/-v, -ey - ,
-h, -st \ -ot and -e(a), -enn(ja), -ot(a), -ott(ja).
2. Among the nouns with -0 desinence in the G pi there is evidently
significant positive correlation between the nouns with moveable para
digmatic stress patterns and the presence of the vocalic alternations.
This correlation is so strong that it extends itself even to the nouns with
interconsonantal -ere-j-ele-, -oro-\-olo- sequences. Out of 76 nouns in
this group, 43 of them exhibit vocalic alternations and 33 do not. The
strongest correlation between the nouns with moveable paradigmatic
stress pattern and the vocalic alternations is exhibited by the feminine
nouns in which the desinencial paradigmatic stress in the singular is
shifted from the desinence to the stem in the accusative singular. Out of
27 nouns in this group all but 6 nouns exhibit vocalic alternations.
Especially noticeable in this group are the vocalic alternations in the
nouns with interconsonantal -ere-j-ele-, -oro-\-olo- sequences.
3. Nouns with e:i alternations have phonological conditioning which
differs from the conditioning in the nouns with o:i alternations before
-C#. First of all the nonsuffixed e-stems ending in -C#in the G pi have
an insignificant number of items exhibiting e:i alternation. Only 6 nouns
out of a total 1352 have e:i alternation. These nouns are: bereza (birch),
cer'eda (herd), koleso (wheel), piece (shoulder), eeto (sieve), selo
(village).
Phonological conditioning of vocalic alternations in the nouns with -0
desinence in the N sg shows these differences: while / / in place of //
may occur in o-stems in the environment before any consonant in final
position, / / in place of // may occur in e-stems primarily in the envi
ronment before palatal or palatalized consonants in final position, i.e.
before -C#.
The different tendencies toward vocalic alternations are evidenced by
the total numbers of nouns which have been presented in our data. They
show the following results:
Nouns with no Nouns with
alternations alternations
o-stems with -at in N
sg
907 1490
o-stems with -Ctt in G
pi
366 49
e-stems with -ctt in N
sg
1081 19
e-stems with -ctt in G
pl
1347 6
In conclusion, the present state of o, e : alternations can be summa
rized thus: on the inflectional level, the , e : alternations are, in addi
tion to phonological, also morphologically conditioned. Phonologically
they occur in closed syllables, but morphologically they occur readily in
the indigenous nouns with -0 desinence in the N sg. They seldom occur
(if at all) in the indigenous nouns with -0 desinence in the G pi. More
specifically:
1. / / in place of // occurs readily in the environment before
-C#of the nouns which have a -0 desinence in the nominative
singular;
2. in the nouns which have -0 desinences in the genitive plural,
the vocalic alternations are significantly restricted:
a) They occur readily in those o-stems which exhibit movea
ble paradigmatic stress patterns;
b) They seldom occur in those o-stems which exhibit fixed
paradigmatic stress patterns.
c) They are restricted only to a few individual items in
e-stems.
3. / / in place of / e/ occurs in e-stems with -0 desinence in the
N sg but only and primarily in the environment before pala
tal or palatalized consonants in final position of the noun.
Before other consonants these vocalic alterations are in
significant.13
University o f Utah
13 Explanations of residual problems in this alternation may be found in: L. A. Bula-
xov'sk],'Vybrni praci vpjaty tomax.v. ii (Kiev: Naukova Dumka, 1977), pp. 242-296;
and in Shevelov, Historical Phonology, pp. 302-332.
Feofan Prokopovi and the Duxovnyj
Reglament
CARIN DAVIDSSON
During the past two decades of historical research the reforms of
Peter the First have attracted a great deal of attention. In Sweden there
has been Claes Petersons (1979) important work on the administrative
and judicial reforms, while in the United States, J ames Cracraft (1971,
1972) has dealt with the ecclesiastical reform. In this connection Cra
craft has had occasion to discuss Feofan Prokopovi, author of the
Duxovnyj Reglament, Peter the Firsts ecclesiastical regulation. Peter
summoned Prokopovi to St. Petersburg from Kiev in 1715, finding in
him a senior cleric whose sympathies (or antipathies) closely corres
ponded to his own (Cracraft 1971:60). Furthermore, the Duxovnyj
Reglament, commissioned by Peter in late 1718 and first published in
the autumn of 1721, represents, in Cracrafts words, Prokopovics own
greatest literary achievement and the most enduring monument to his
genius (loc. cit.). A translation of it, therefore, is more than welcome.
It will make the work accessible to scholars who, though lacking a full
command of Russian, are nevertheless engaged in areas of vital impor
tance for research into Feofan Prokopovi and his place in the cultural
history of Russia. By the same token, however, the standards by which
such a translation must be judged should be of the very highest.
A. V. Mullers English translation came out in 1972. A great deal of
effort has obviously gone into it: in addition to the translation proper,
there is a comprehensive twenty eight page introduction and a carefully
prepared and often exhaustive commentary (thirty seven pages) to both
the introduction and the translation. The translation itself, however,
leaves much to be desired. Without wishing to subject it to detailed
critical scrutiny, I propose to offer here some comments of a more fun
damental nature on translating technique.
My first observation has to do with the text chosen as a basis for the
translation. Muller remarks (1972: 85-86):
The present translation of the Manifesto of 25 J anuary 1721, the
Oath of the Members of the Spiritual College, the Spiritual Regula
tion, and the Supplement to the Spiritual Regulation is based on
the aforementioned text printed in Polnoe sobranie zakonov,
compared, corrected, and amplified on the basis of the superbly
edited version published by Verkhovskoi (Uchrezhdenie, 2, pt. 1:
3-105) and the less definitive, but still useful, compilation produced
by N. V. Beneshevich (Sbornik pamjatnikov po is torii cerkovnago
prava, preimuestvenno Russkoj Cerkvi do poxi Petra Velikago...,
2:89-155; 159-191).
Muller has chosen his text, then, from Polnoe sobranie zakonov.
Since this makes no claim to being a critical edition, however, Muller
has been obliged, as he says, to compare, correct and amplify his origi
nal text. One only wishes he had had access to one of the early printed
editions, produced in Feofan Profopovics own lifetime and probably
under his supervision. Verxovskoj, in his edition of the Reglament
manuscript, actually carefully notes the variants in the first printed edi
tions. These books are, of course, very rare and consequently difficult
for western scholars to gain access to. All the same, a copy of the
second edition, printed on February 23rd, 1722 in Moscow with Church
Slavonic text, can be found in the Uppsala University Library (shelf-
mark Ksl. 112) and is mentioned in L. Kjellbergs catalogue of Church
Slavonic texts. This edition is also mentioned in T. A. Bykova and M.
M. Gurevics bibliography of Church Slavonic texts (no. 149), where it
is accorded a very thorough commentary (1955:230-233). Despite
Mullers detailed remarks, a scholar relying entirely on his translation
will not find it easy to imagine exactly what the Duxovnyj Reglament
was like in its original form.
Muller comments on his translation procedure as follows (p. vi):
The task of rendering the present documents into English was
undertaken and completed without references to the one other full
English translation of them, which appeared in the eighteenth cen
tury, or to any of the partial translations that have subsequently
made their way into print. Only after that part of the project was
done were other translations consulted. In this sense, then, this is a
fresh translation, which also means that whatever errors or short
comings it has are my responsibility.
PROK OPOVY C AND DUXOVNY J R E C L A ME N T 63
Such an attempt to understand the original independently of other
translators is certainly a good first step in translation. But the next stage
ought to be an examination of all the earlier translations in a good deal
more detail than seems to have been the case with Muller. Here I cannot
help being reminded of Feofan Prokopovics own sense of the cumula
tive nature of wisdom. I quote the relevant passage from the Duxovnyj
Reglament in Mullers translation. It gives the first of Prokopovics nine
reasons for introducing an administrative council into the Russian
church, as a replacement for the traditional system of patriarchal
authority vested in one man.
In the first place, truth is to be found more certainly by conciliar
concurrence than through one individual. There is an ancient Greek
proverb: L ater thoughts are wiser than first. Moreover, many minds
pondering a single issue will be wiser than one. It happens that, in a
certain difficulty, a simple person may see what an educated and
intelligent person will not see. How, then, is it that there is no need
for a conciliar administration, in which many minds analyze a prob
lem that has been presented, and what one does not comprehend,
another will understand, and what this one fails to see, the other
one will see? Thus, a doubtful matter will be explained more cer
tainly, and more quickly, and whatever decision it required will
appear without difficulty. (P. 9)
Two expressions in this extract from Mullers translation themselves call
for comment. The first is conciliar concurrence as a rendering of
sobornoe soslovie (instrumental case in the Russian). Mullers version
does not distort the content of the text, but I interpret the expression
differently. In my opinion soslovie means sobranie, assembly, and
sobornoe means vselenskoe = vseobee, vsemirnoe, general or uni
versal. Sobornoe soslovie would therefore designate a body of roughly
the same type as the vselenskij sobor mentioned in the first part of arti
cle eight of the Duxovnyj Reglament (fol. 9 r.), translated by Muller as
ecumenical council. This type of council had the character of an
extraordinary episcopal assembly which could be summoned to solve
especially awkward problems. The expressions Sobornoe soslovie and
Sobor selenskij (in Feofan Prokopovics forms) are in these instances
printed with a capital letter in the 1722 edition, which could indicate
that they refer to actually existing bodies. But the printed edition is by
no means consistent. On fol. 4 v. sobornago soslovija appears without
64
THE ANNAL S OF THE UK RAI NI AN ACADEMY
the capital letter. One should note here that Cracrafs work of 1971,
which translates extracts from the Duxovnyj Reglament, renders sobor-
noe soslovie as general council. I shall return to Mullers translation
of the adjective sobornyj in these expressions very shortly.
The second expression from my quotation of Muller (p. 9) is concil-
iar administration. This is a rendering of Sobornoe praviteVstvo, which
the context suggests must mean a governing body. Feofan Prokopovi
seems to waver between this expression and sobornoe pravlenie when he
means a particular governing body. The word upravlenie also occurs,
meaning an abstract system of government or treatment of questions.
Muller usually renders all three Russian terms administration (some
times government), so that the distinction made by Feofan Proko
povi is lost. Mullers translation of the adjective sobornoe as concil-
iar (cf. Lat. concilium) is partly to blame here. To my way of thinking,
Cracraft has the better solution (1971:156): he translates sobornoe pra
viteVstvo / pravlenie as administrative council, which unambiguously
indicates an existent body.
Wherever he thinks it possible, Muller has apparently tried to trans
late the adjective duxovnyj as spiritual. Thus the books title, Duxov
nyj Reglament, has been rendered Spiritual Regulation. In his com
mentary Muller offers (1972:86-87) a very detailed account of his think
ing here, concluding with two additional arguments in favor of the
word spiritual. In the first place, spiritual embodies
a certain ambiguity that mirrors the literalness of the original, for
the ambiguity is present in Russian as well as in English. Secondly,
the ambiguity is a serviceable one. For in the present translation the
word spiritual is intended to connote matters pertaining either
specifically to church administration or to norms of religious prac
tice in a more general sense. It is hoped by its use to avoid the
narrower institutional orientation imparted by such titles as Eccle
siastical Regulation, Church Regulation, Clerical Regulation,
and so on.
All of Mullers arguments notwithstanding, it seems to me that the
ambiguity of spiritual should not be allowed to broaden the reference
of duxovnyj in the collocation Duxovnyj Reglament. For here I should
say that duxovnyj means cerkovnyj, the difference between the two
adjectives being mainly a matter of style, more or less as in the choice
PROK OPOVY C an d d u x o v n y j r e g l a m e n t 65
between Ecclesiastical Regulation and Church Regulation. In the
1719 Russian instruction for the Vojevodas reference is made to a
church regulation (tserkovnyj ustav) (Peterson, p. 272). One point in
favour of Mullers Spiritual Regulation would be the English expres
sion spiritual court, applied to a court having jurisdiction in matters
of religion or ecclesiastical affairs. But paragraph seven in the first part
of the Duxovnyj Reglament (fol. 3 r.) makes clear that religion and
church, to Peter the Firsts way of thinking, are one and the same thing.
As a Christian Sovereign, guardian of the true faith and of all good
order in the Holy Church, having given consideration to spiritual
needs, and desiring every best administration of them, he has
vouchsafed to establish also the Spiritual College, (duxovnoe /colle
gium -C.D.; Muller, p. 8)
The renderings so far discussed may give the impression that Mullers
translation nevertheless stays fairly close to the original. In fact, how
ever, it often seems to be more in the nature of an interpretation than a
translation. As a result, the style of presentation in the Duxovnyj
Reglament sometimes suffers. To illustrate this I have chosen an exam
ple from the second paragraph of the first part (fol. 2 r.), where the
Russian reads: Ino e estkollegium edinovremennce, ino e est vsegda-
nee. This could be rendered: There are both temporary colleges (ad hoc
colleges, nonce colleges) and permanent colleges.' This sentence is the
beginning of Feofan Prokopovics pedagogically well-planned account
of colleges of various types, which finally leads up to the duxovnoe
kollegium instituted by Peter the First. Muller translates: It is not an
ad hoc college; rather, it is permanent. This refers to the newly insti
tuted college as something already well-known. It jumps the gun, so to
speak, and spoils Feofan Prokopovics logical exposition of what a
duxovnoe kollegium is like.
The pedagogical tact illustrated by this example is everywhere appar
ent in Feofan Prokopovics text. It should therefore find its counterpart
in any translation, which in this particular case would not be difficult.
Other cases, however, are more complicated, as we can see from the
chapter Mirskie osoby, po eliko astny su nastavlenija duxovnago in
the second part (fol. 67 r.). Literally, the translation runs: Worldly
people. Insofar as they take part in spiritual (religious) upbringing.
Here Muller translates mirskie osoby laymen: Laymen, insofar as
they are concerned with Religious I nstruction (p. 45). He thus gives the
exact reference of mirskie osoby right at the beginning, in the chapters
title. Feofan, on the other hand, before giving the directives relating to
these people, has a long introductory account of how the Russian term
should be interpreted. Although it is unnecessary to say much in this
short section, one or two words in preface are nevertheless appropriate,
so as to enable a fuller understanding of why worldly people (mirjane)
are called worldly people (mirjane), and of how they differ from the
spiritual state. This term world (mir) is used in a threefold meaning.
There follows Feofans perspicuous explanation of the three different
meanings of mir. This introduction quite loses its point if the translator
cannot find a way of rendering mirjane - mirskie osoby which preserves
the mir - world link. One can seefrom Mullerstranslation that he has
struggled with the problem. Sometimes he gives first a literal version,
followed by an alternative in apposition, e.g. worldly people, or lay
men. But this is a long way from the concision of Feofan Prokopovi.
The translation reflects the originals content, but not its formal, expres
sive dimensions.
The questions dealt with so far concern what one might call the texts
most striking words and expressions. But I should also like to show that
less noticeable words and expressions also affect the character of the
translation. A passage in the first part of the Duxovnyj Reglament (fol.
7 r.-v.) has the word mnenie in three different sentences: one in the
beginning, one in the beginning of the second half, and also in the
penultimate sentence. To show how this word is rendered in the two
different translations I quote first the sentences from the Russian text
and then the corresponding sentences in the translations. The marking
(extra spacing and italics) is my own:
Tako prostye serdca mn n i e m s i m razvraajutsja, to ne tak na Samo-
derca svoego, jako na verxovnago pastyrja v koemlibo dle smotrjat.
Takomu e v nrod m n n i j u , velmi radi i ne prostyja, no kovarnyja
elovky, tii bo na Gsdrja svoego vradujue,
Cto kogda ee i sam past takovm o sebe nadmen mn n i e m, spa ne
poxoet!
PROK OPOVY C a n d d u x o v n y j r e g l a m e n t 67
Muller (1972:11):
Wherefore simple hearts are misdi
rected by this notion, so that, in any
kind of matter, they do not look so
much to the A utocrat as to the
Supreme Pastor.
Those particularly inclined to such
ideas are not the common people,
but insidious persons
How, after all, would it be put to
rest, when even the Pastor himself is
inflated with such an opinion of
himself?
Cracraft (1971:154):
Simple hearts are perverted by these
ideas, so that in some matter they
look not so much to their Autocrat
as to the Supreme Pastor [the pa
triarch].
Criminal and dishonest persons are
pleased to discover such ideas among
the people:
And what if the Pastor himself, in
flated by such lofty opinions of his
office, will not keep quiet?
Leaving aside Mullers misinterpretation in the last instance, our
general impression must be that the translations depart unnecessarily far
from the original. In the case of expressions containing mnnie, neither
of the two translations uses one and the same word consistently. Muller
has notion, such ideas, such opinion, while Cracraft has ideas,
such ideas, such lofty opinions. It is not until the third sentence that
we find they both have rendering which might also have been suitable
for the first two instances. The repetition of mnnie may well have been
deliberate on Feofan Prokopovics part, or the result of artistic intui
tion. But whatever its genesis, a translator should, in my view, do every
thing he can to preserve it.
Feofan Prokopovics Duxovnyj Reglament belongs, of course, in the
category of texts written for a specific technical, scientific or prac
tical purpose. It is, after all, a piece of officially ratified legislation. At
the same time, however, it must also be classified as a text with a
decided literary and artistic value (cf. the quotation from Cracraft
1971:60). This twofold character means that it is twice as difficult to
produce a translationone that will be faithful to its utilitarian and
literary qualities alike. It would be extremely valuable if specialists in
the field of translation were to pay more attention to the stylistic analy
sis of literary prose, so as to explore the special techniques authors use,
and the ways of translating them into the target language. The results of
such research would have a direct application in the actual business of
translating, and would help to ensure that the translation of a work
such as the Duxovnyj Reglament would do justice, not only to its con
tent, but also to the artistic form it has received from the masterly Feo-
fan Prokopovi.
Uppsala UniversitetRyska Institutionen vid bo Akademi
REFERENCES
Bykova, T.A. and M.M. Gurevi. Opisanie izdanij napeatannyx kirillicej (1689-
1725), Moscow and L eningrad, 1955.
Cracraft, J ., The Church Reform o f Peter the Great, L ondon and Stanford,
Cal., 1971.
Cracraft, J ., Feofan Prokopovich, in J .G. Garrard, ed., The Eighteenth Cen
tury in Russia, Oxford, 1973.
Kjellberg, L., Catalogue des imprims slavons des X V I e, X V I f et sicles
conservs la Bibliothque de VUniversit Royale Uppsala, Uppsala,
1951.
Muller, A. V., The Spiritual Regulation o f Peter the Great, Seattle and L ondon,
1972.
Peterson, C., Peter the Greats Administrative and J udicial Reforms. Swedish
Antecendents and the Process of Reception, Diss. Stockholm, 1979.
Polnoe sobranie zakonov rossiiskoj imperii s 1649 goda, 1st Series, 1649-1825,
45 vols., St. Petersburg, 1830.
Slovar'russkogo jazyka X1-XV11 vv., Vyp. 3, Moscow, 1976.
Verxovskoj, P.V., Uredenie Duxovnoj Kollegii Duxovnyj Reglament, 2
vols., Rostov-on-Don, 1916.
Le mythe de lallongement
compensatoire en ukrainien
PAUL GARDE
Le changement phontique le plus caractristique de lukrainien, le
passage de slave commun (si. c.) e, o ukr. en syllabe ferme, donnant
lieu des alternances eji et / i {pi, peci; dim, domu) est expliqu tradi
tionnellement par un allongement compensatoire: lors de la chute des
jers, les vibrations glottales de ces voyelles se seraient reportes sur les
voyelles de la. syllabe prcdente, provoquant son allongement: p e c / >
*p, domu > *dm. Ces voyelles longues se conservent sous forme de
diphtongues ie, uo etc. attestes dans les dialectes ukrainiens du Nord
et celles-ci, par diffrentes tapes galement attestes dans les dialectes,
passeraient en ukrainien du Sud et dans la langue littraire i. Cette
interprtation, qui permet de rattacher les faits ukrainiens ceux de
plusieurs autres langues slaves, remonte initialement Miklosich. Nous
nen retracerons pas ici lhistoire, quon peut trouver expose de faon
dtaille chez Shevelov (1979:331). Cette thorie a t combattue par
Kurylo (1932) et Shevelov (1979), ainsi que par lauteur de ces lignes
(Garde 1974), mais elle reste assez largement rpandue et a t reprise
rcemment, avec de nouveaux arguments, par Timberlake (1983). Elle
mrite donc un nouvel examen.
Quand on parle allongement compensatoire (Ersatzdehnung,
compensatory lenghtening, zaminne podovennja etc.) on affirme deux
choses: quil y a eu allongement et quil a t compensatoire, cest--dire:
1 que, du point de vue synchronique relatif une priode ancienne
de lhistoire de lukrainien, cette langue a possd des phonmes je\ /0/
(devenus plus tard / /) qui sedistinguaient des phonmes / / /6/ (rests
/ / // jusqu aujourdhui) par un trait pertinent de longueur, et non
pas, par exemple, par la diphtongaison, la fermeture, ou tout autre trait
pertinent quon pourrait imaginer.
2 que, du point de vue diachronique, ces voyelles // // ont rem
plac // // du slave commun par compensation de la chute des jers,
cest--dire par report sur ces voyelles de la sonorit des anciennes
voyelles ultra-brves qui sesont amuies dans la syllabe suivante.
Ces deux assertions: lune sur la nature de lopposition entre les deux
classes danciens e et o, lautre sur ses causes, ne simpliquent pas
mutuellement de faon ncessaire, elles doivent donc tre discutes
sparment.
Dans cette discussion nous nous appuierons moins sur les donnes
dtailles des dialectes ukrainiens (bien tudies cjepuis longtemps et
exposes en dtail en dernier lieu par Shevelov 1979:323-334 et par
Nazarova 1975) que sur le raisonnement partir de quelques faits vi
dents et de confrontations typologiques.
I- Y A-T-IL EU UN ALLONGEMENT?
Lorequon parle allongement compensatoire, on ne le fait pas
propos de lukrainien seul, mais on entend replacer lephnomne tudi
dans le cadre dun ensemble de processus commun de nombreuses
langues slaves: on rapproche les alternances ukrainiennes du type pic,
peci; dim, domu dautre alternances existant dans dautres langues
slaves entre des voyelles apparaissant en syllabe ferme et les mmes
voyelles en syllabe ouverte. Par exemple, en citant des cas dalternance
entre lenominatif et legnitif dun mme nom:
s.cr. dm, doma; pc, pei; la, lai; kv, krvi; , ui;
tch. dm, domu; chlb, chleba; d , det; mrz, mraza;
poi. wz, wozu; db, dbu; rzd, rzdu; grd, grodu;
h.sor. wz, woza; pec, pjece; hrd, hroda; brjh, brjoha.
Cependant il est clair que les conditions de fonctionnement de ces
alternances sont trs diverses dune langue lautre, Sans entrer dans le
dtail de leur conditionnellement par laccentuation ou par la nature de
la consonne suivante, qui a t tudi par de nombreux auteurs, et en
dernier lieu de faon particulirement claire par Timberlake, nous rel
verons seulement que:
I- parmi ces langues lukrainien est la seule o cette alternance con
cerne seulement les rflexes des voyelles si. c. e et o. En serbo-croate on
AL L ONGEMENT COMPENSATOI RE EN UKRAI NI EN 71
trouve des rflexes de voyelles brves les plus diverses par exemple
dans lz, ru et lu dans krv et zc; en tchque de voyelles diverses:
dans chlb, dans dst\ or dans mrz etc.; en polonais moderne de et
dans rzd, db, de or dans grd (et, comme on le sait, des voyelles les
plus diverses dans la langue ancienne et les dialectes); en sorabe mme
on trouve lalternance non pas seulement dans les rflexes de e et o,
mais aussi rgulirement dans ceux de or et er (hrd, brjh): ceux-ci en
ukrainien chappent lalternance, si lon excepte le cas des gn. pl.
du type holiv, borid, dont Shevelov (1979:607) a. montr quils ne sont
pas antrieurs au XVIIe sicle, et ne peuvent donc pas, comme levoulait
Bulaxovskij (1961) se rattacher des phnomnes slaves communs.
Cette rpartition est lie au fait que dans la plupart des langues exa
mines la diffrence entre les deux types de sjllabes est directement
atteste sous la forme dune alternance entre brve et longue. Cest lecas
en serbo-croate et en tchque, ctait le cas anciennement en polonais,
comme en tmoignent lvidence les dialectes (notamment kachoubes).
Le sorabe est, avec lukrainien, la seule langue ou lon nait pas dattesta
tion directe doppositions de quantit.
Il faut ajouter que lukrainien est la seule des langues considres o
la voyelle que lon prsume tre issue dune ancienne brve allonge (en
ukrainien (< e, o) apparaisse dans toutes les syllabes fermes o figu
raient les voyelles en question et dans ces syllabes seules. Dans toutes les
autres langues, et mme en sorabe, il y a de nombreux autres cas dal
longement en dehors de celui prsum compensatoire.
Ainsi lukrainien est la seule langue o lhypothse de lallongement
apparaisse comme une explication ad hoc, rendant compte du seul ph
nomne quelle est cense expliquer, sans le mettre en rapport avec
aucun autre.
Plus gnralement, on peut diviser lensemble des langues slaves en
deux grandes zones, que nous pourrions appeler: zone de conservation
et zone de disparition des oppositions slaves communes de quantit. La
zone de conservation ou zone Ouest comprend das lensemble le slave
occidental et sud-occidental: Pol., Tch., Slovq., Slovn., S.-Cr. (nous r
servons le cas du Sor.). La zone de disparition ou zone Est, le slave
oriental et sud-oriental: R., BR., Ukr., Bulg., Mac.: cest la zone que
J akobson (1963) appelle bolgarsko-russkij prosodieskij tip et dont les
caractristiques sont reconnues aussi par Shevelov (1964:447).
Nous disons conservation ou disparition parce que les opposi
tions de quantit existaient videmment en slave commun sous la forme
des oppositions /, T/aif, ju, / (crites en v.sl. respectivement a/o,
/ , / , i/b). Mais dans tout le domaine slave ces diffrences quantita
tives se sont accompagnes de diffrences qualitatives, au dbut redon
dantes, plus tard phonologises: > (ouvert) mais > <5 (moins
ouvert et labialis) etc.
Dans la zone Ouest les oppositions quantitatives et qualitatives ont
continu coexister, parfois jusqu nos jours; les oppositions qualita
tives se sont phonologises sans que les oppositions quantitatives se d-
phonologisent. Le meilleur exemple en est le serbo-croate o, encore
aujourdhui, en rgle gnrale les voyelles issues dune longue slave
commune: a < a, e < ou , u < u ou , < ou y, a ou e dans les
rflexes de groupes du type tort, sont encore aujourdhui longues, tandis
que celles issues dune brve: < ou , e < e et o < o sont brves, sauf
quand il y a eu un processus dabrgement ou dallongement dont les
conditions sont connues et peuvent tre dfinies (le plus important de
ces processus et sans doute le plus ancien est labrgement des voyelles
sous ton aigu: dm, dd, mraz, cf. J akobson 1963 et Garde 1976:213)
cest ce processus qui est sans doute lorigine de la phonologisation des
oppositions qualitatives. Ltat du solvne sexplique partir dune
situation proche de celle du serbo-croate.
A propos des autres langues du groupe Ouest: Tch., Slovq., Pol., on
peut dire la mme chose: les voyelles y ont conserv leur quantit si. c.
chaque fois quelles nont pas t abrges ou allonges par un processus
dallongement ou dabrgement dont les conditions peuvent tre dfi
nies. Sans doute ces processus (surtout pour lallongement) ont-ils t
plus nombreux et plus divers dans ces langues quen s.cr. Mais le prin
cipe est le mme; dans ces langues les oppositions quantitatives nont
jamais t dphonologises (sauf date rcente en polonais); la quantit
actuelle continue directement la quantit slave commune hrite.
Au contraire dans le groupe Est il nexiste aucun fait qui ncessite
pour son explication l'hypothse* dune conservation des oppositions
quantitatives slaves communes. Dans ces langues, les oppositions quan
titatives ont t dphonologises quand les oppositions qualitatives ent
AL L ONGEMENT COMPENSATOI RE EN UK RAI NI EN 73
t phonologises. On pourrait rsumer la diffrence entre les deux pro
cessus en les figurant comme suit:
lEst: dm > ; dar > darb
rOuest: dm > dmb ; dr > drb
Ainsi si propos du serbo-croate ou du tchque on admet un allon
gement dmb > *dm (s.cr. dm, tch. dm) on suppose ainsi lappari
tion dun phonme /<5/ oppos /6/ dans un systme qui connaissait
dj lopposition brve-longue. Si on fait la mme supposition propos
de lukrainien, on est oblig dadmettre lapparition doppositions o/ et
e/ dans un systme qui jusque l ne connaissais pas doppositions de
longueur.
Or typologiquement il est habituel que loppc-sition de longueur, si
elle existe, englobe lensemble des voyelles. On ne trouve pas, semble-t-
il, de systmes o cette opposition sapplique deux voyelles seulement,
surtout sil sagit de voyelles daperture moyenne. Au contraire dans cer
taines langues lopposition de quantit concerne toutes les voyelles, sauf
prcisment les voyelles moyennes, ainsi en lituanien moderne o lesys
tme vocalique est lesuivant:
Brves Longues
u I

a
Ainsi, quand on postule en ukrainien ancien lexistence de longues ,
, on fait une hypothse quadruplement improbable: improbable philo
logiquement, puisque ces longues ne sont en ukrainien nulle part et
jamais attestes directement; improbable gographiquement, parce quon
ne trouve rien de semblable dans toute la partie Est du monde slave;
improbable chronologiquement, parce quaucun autre phnomne en
ukrainien ni en slave oriental en gnral ne ncessite pour son explica
tion lappel des oppositions de quantit postrieurement la perte de
la quantit slave commune; improbable enfin typologiquement, parce
que lexistence doppositions quantitatives sur les seules voyelles moyen
nes e, o ne semble pas atteste ailleurs.1
1La situation du sorabe, comme la remarqu Stieber (1967) est assez semblable celle
Il est beaucoup plus vraisemblable que ces sons aient t initialement
soit des , ferms, soit des diphtongues ie, uo:
1- sil sagit de voyelles fermes on aurait un systme sept voyelles:
u

e o
a
qui est frquent dans les langues, par exemple en italien, ou, dans le
domaine slave, en Slovne et dans de nombreux dialectes russes (Leka).
2- sil sagit de diphtongues, cest un phnomne trs frquent que des
langues ne possdent aucune diphtongue, sauf celles dont llment le
plus ouvert est une voyelle moyenne e ou o. Cest ce quon trouve en
italien (ie, uo), en espagnol (ie, ue), en tchque (ou, auquel il faut
ajouter ej du tchque parl), et, si lon considre les diphtongues descen
dantes seulement, en lituanien (ie, uo). Surtout, ces diphtongues sont
directement attestes dans les dialectes ukrainiens du Nord et bilo
russes du Sud.
Ainsi, lhypothse de la fermeture ou de la diphtongaison des voyelles
en cause apparat comme bien plus satisfaisante que celle de lallonge
ment. Cette conclusion peut tre atteinte sans quon ait se prononcer
sur lorigine, compensatoire ou non, de lapparition de ces nouvelles
voyelles.
II- LE PROCESSUS A-T-IL T COMPENSATOIRE?
Si lon admet lhypothse de lallongement, celle de son origine com
pensatoire est toute naturelle, elle a pour elle la vraisemblance phon
tique (tranfert des vibrations glottales dun point un autre de la chane
parle lors de la chute dun phonme sonore) et de nombreux parallles
de lukrainien, et les arguments avancs ici pour lukrainien pourraient ltre aussi pro
pos du sorabe, sauf largument gographique, qui joe en sens inverse: si lukrainien est au
coeur de lazone Est dedisparition de laquantit, lesorabe est au centre de lazone Ouest
o laquantit est conserve. Il y aentre les deux langues dautres diffrences, notamment
la prsence de en syllabe ouverte en h.son dans des groupes issus de xtort, xtoit, x tert, x
telt: wrona, boto etc. (cf. Dybo 1963:57). Le cas du sorabe mrite donc un examen
particulier.
typologiques, par exemple en grec ancien ( *es-nai > *eznai > *nai,
crit Avai tre, cf. Lejeune 1946:191), en latin (*pend-tus donne
pensus pes en face de pend je pse, cf. Ernout-Meillet 1951:876),
en franais (o la chute de muet aprs voyelle produit dabord un
allongement, qui sest conserv dans certaines rgions o amie est dis
tingu de ami par une plus grande longueur du i, cf. Bourciez 1937:33),
etc. Cest pourquoi il ny a aucune difficult admettre le caractre
compensatoire de lallongement dans les langues de la zone Ouest, o la
longueur est directement atteste.
Si lon renonce pour lukrainien la thse de lallongement, celle de
lorigine compensatoire du phnomne devient moins vraisemblable,
mais encore faut-il la remplacer par une autre plus satisfaisante.
La premire solution propose a t celle de Kurylo (1932), elle sup
pose que lestade initial de lvolution a t un timbre plus ferm (, )
des voyelles des syllabes prcdant un jer, et explique la fermeture de ces
voyelles par une assimilation au timbre ferm (, u) du jer lui-mme.
Ainsi on aurait dom. > dom, le o se fermant en sous linfluence du
de la syllabe suivante. Cette explication a t accepte dans ses
grandes lignes par Shevelov (1979).
Sa difficult est quelle suppose que, dans la priode prcdant la
chute des jers, ceux-ci avaient encore un timbre i, u plus ferm que e, o,
capable dexercer une action assimilatrice sur ceux-ci, alors que les jers
qui ont subsist, ceux en position forte, ont dans toutes les langues
slaves sauf le bulgare, soit un timbre de mme aperture que les rflexes
de e, o (tch., pol. e, slovq., mac., si. or e, o, slovn. ) soit mme un
timbre plus ouvert queux (s.cr. a ). En ukrainien mme on peut dire que
les jers forts ont des rflexes plus ouverts que e, o, comme on levoit en
syllabe ferme o sl.c. , > e, o, mais si. c. e, o > i: domb >dim, mais
sbnb > son. Si lon suppose quau moment de leur chute les jers taient
encore i, u, il devient bien difficile dexpliquer la suite des changements
selon la thse de Kurylo:
I e phase: assimilation daperture:
domu > dmu sunu > sunu
2e phase: chute des jers en position faible:
dmu > dm sunu > sun
3e phase: volution des jers subsistants (en position forte):
dm > dm sun > son
Cest ce dernier changement qui fait difficult: comment u peut-il
passer o (ouvert) sans se confondre au passage avec (ferm) qui
occupe du point de vue de laperture une position intermdiaire, et alors
quon ne suppose aucun trait distinctif supplmentaire, tel que la lon
gueur, pour les diffrencier?
Le caractre ouvert du o de son (et des rflexes des jers forts en
ukrainien et dans toutes les langues slaves) ne peut sexpliquer que si les
jers avaient commenc perdre leur caractre ferm ds avant leur
chute, prenant sans doute un timbre du type (conserv jusqu
aujourdhui en Slovne), qui tait pour ainsi dire leprlude leur chute:
une volution semblable sobserve dans le cas du e muet franais. Mais
si ces voyelles avaient, ds avant leur chute, un timbre plus ouvert, elles
taient donc incapables dexercer sur les voyelles de la syllabe prc
dente laction assimilatrice suppose par la thorie de Kurylo.
Nous avons propos (Garde 1974) une autre explication lvolution
de e, o en ukrainies en syllabe ferme, explication qui nous parat com
patible aussi bien avec lhypothse de la fermeture initiale de ces voyelles
quavec celle de leur diphtongaison ou mme avec celle, invraisemblable,
de leur allongement, Cette explication est fonde non pas sur les parti
cularits des syllabes fermes, mais au contraire sur celle des syllabes
ouvertes. Rappelons dabord une vidence: au moment de la chute des
jers ceux-ci sont encore des phonmes distincts, ils ont encore un trait
pertinent quelconque qui les diffrencie de e, o, sans quoi ils nauraient
pas pu tomber sans que tombent aussi e, o. Aprs la chute des jers en
position faible, ceux qui subsistent, les jers forts, ne peuvent exister
quen syllabe ferme. La syllabe ouverte est donc une syllabe voca
lisme dfectif: on peut y rencontrer tous les phonmes vocaliques de la
langue, sauf , . Si lon considre dans lensemble du systme vocalique
lesous-ensemble des voyelles issues des brves slaves communes e ,
linventaire des lments de ce sous-ensemble possible dans les diverses
positions est lesuivant:
syllabe ferme: e
syllabe ouverte: e o
Plus tard, bet voluent vers les timbres e et o. Mais ils ne se con
fondent pas avec e et o anciens, ils prsentent un timbre plus ouvert, ce
qui aboutit rinterprter e, o anciens comme des voyelles fermes , ;
Sbn > son et dom > dm
dbn ' > den ' et pe > pe
Mais cette volution ne se produit pas en syllabe ouverte, parce que
dans cette position lopposition / et / nexistait pas. La syllabe
ouverte tait une position de neutralisation des oppositions je et 0/o,
on y recontrait seulement un archiphonme E, O, ni ouvert, ni ferm
(comme aujourdhui dans les syllabes inaccentues du Slovne, de lita
lien, ou des parlers russes du type de Leka qui connaissent lopposition
/e et /o, seulement sous laccent): gn. dOmu, pEi.
Dans la suite de lvolution (et presque immdiatement) se confond
avec le rflexe de , qui tait jusque l, soit un e encore plus ferm, soit
une voyelle diffrente par quelque autre trait: pc comme ls: cest ce
que marque dans la graphie lapparition du nouveau j a t ' " . Mais ce
issu de est possible aussi en syllabe ouverte; lsu. Ds lors la syllabe
ouverte nest plus en position de neutralisation de lopposition daper-
ture, et le E de pEi est rinterprt comme un e ouvert:
lsu > lsu (mod. lisu)
pEi > pei (mod. peci)
La rinterprtation de E comme e entrane celle de O comme o (ouvert):
dOmu > domu (mod. domu)
A partir de l lalternance actuelle est dj en place. Il ne restera plus
observer que lvolution de it o vers (et, paralllement, de lancien
vers y ), dont on peut suivre les tapes dans les dialectes.
La conception expose ci-dessus a t critique par Timberlake
(1983:229-230) dans les termes suivants: This hypothesis... suffers from
a problem of chronology: after the fall of the jers, it would be too late to
differentiate e o < *e *o from e o < strong . Before the fall of the
jers, all e, o were in open syllables, so there would be no way of differ
entiating those that would eventually end up in close syllables from
those that would end up in open syllables, without referring to the pres
ence or absence of a following weak jer.
Dans lalternative propose par Timberlake, le deuxime terme est de
toute vidence juste, mais non pas le premier. Dire que aprs la chute
des jers il aurait t trop tard pour diffrencier e o <*e *o de e < *
* , cest supposer que la chute des jers faibles et la confusion des jers
forts avec telle ou telle autre voyelle sont un seul et mme phnomne. Il
est facile de voir que la chute des jers faibles et la confusion des jers
subsistants, ou jers forts, avec dautres voyelles dune autre origine
sont non seulement des processus logiquement distincts, mais encore
quils nont pas pu tre simultans: la confusion des jers forts avec e, o
(ou autres voyelles) a eu lieu ncessairement aprs la chute des jers fai
bles, dans certaines langues trs longtemps aprs, dans certaines langues
mme elle na pas eu lieu du tout.
Que les processus soient logiquement distincts, cest lvidence: on ne
voit pas pourquoi le premier impliquerait ncessairement le second. Le
premier (chute des jers faibles) a lieu de faon identique dans toutes les
langues slaves, le second a, comme on sait, des rsultats diffrents selon
les langues. Sils ne simpliquent pas logiquement, leur simultanit
absolue ne saurait tre quun hasard dune probabilit nulle, il y a donc
succession, et ncessairement la chute des jers faibles prcde, ft-ce de
peu, la confusion des jers forts avec dautres voyelles: si ctait linverse,
tous les jers auraient t confondus avec dautres phonmes, et les
auraient donc entrans dans leur chute.
Mais en outre il existe des langues slaves o la confusion des jers forts
avec un autre phonme na pas eu lieu. Si les jers se confondent avec e
en tch. et pol., avec e et o en slovq. et mac., avec a en s.cr., avec e et le
rflexe de en bulg., il reste le slovne o la voyelle ane peut tre le
rflexe que de et : sbn > ssn, pbs > pds. Il en est de mme dans les
dialectes stokaviens du groupe de Zeta-Lovcen, o le rflexe des jers est
a: san, dan, ce quis montre que la confusion des jers avec a en tokavien
est un phnomne rcent (cf. Ivic 1958:207).
Ainsi la confusion des rflexes des jers forts avec dautres voyelles ne
se produit pas au moment mme de la chute des jers faibles, elle se
produit aprs, parfois longtemps aprs, et peut ne pas se produire du
tout. Il nest donc pas vrai de dire quaprs la chute des jers il tait trop
tard pour diffrencier e o de . Cest seulement aprs la confusion
suppose de ces deux groupes de voyelles quil aurait t trop tard.
Or justement il est possible de montrer que lukrainien se range,
comme le slovne, dans la classe des langues slaves o cette confusion
des jers avec e o (ou avec tout autre phonme) ne sest jamais produite,
et o la distinction existe toujours, En effet dans la position o ces deux
types de voyelles (e, o dune part, , de lautre) taient en concurrence,
cest--dire en syllabe ferme, il est impossible de trouver un mot o
elles aient le mme rflexe: partout lopposition / sest conserve sous
la forme /e (pijpes) et lopposition / sous la forme i/o {dim/son).
En syllabe ouverte cette opposition navait pas tre conserve, puisque
ds ledpart (ds aprs la chute des jers faibles) elle nexistait pas.
Ainsi, de mme quen Slovne ne peut tre le rflexe que des jers, de
mme en ukrainien en syllabe ferme e, o ne peuvent tre le rflexe que
des jers (ou des voyelles issues du polnoglasie).
La suite des processus peut tre figure comme suit, en prenant
comme exemples une langue o se produit la confusion des jers avec
dautrs voyelles, le macdonien(2) et une autre o elle ne se produit pas,
lukrainien:
mme voyelle
voyelles
diffrentes
Un parellle typologique est fourni par lvolution des e muets en
franais, qui se produit, comme on sait, dans des conditions assez voi
sines de celle des jers en slave. La chute des e muets en position faible se
produit dans toute la France dOl au XVIesicle. Les e muets en posi
tion forte se conservent avec un timbre distinct de celui de toute autre
voyelle: (voyelle centrale non arrondie). Mais aujourdhui cette pro
nonciation d, encore considre comme la norme, nest pas la plus fr
quente: le plus souvent cette voyelle est prononce , avec la mme
voyelle (antrieure arrondie moyenne) que dans fleur (selon Martinet
1945:67, ceserait l la prononciation de 75% des Franais). Nous avons
donc deux types de prononciation du franais, qui ont en commun un
mac. domb > dom > dom
Sbnb > Sbn > son
ukr. domb > dm > dim
Sbm > Sbn > son
2 Nous choisissons le macdonien et non le russe, parce que dans cette dernire langue
lopposition dm/son a subsist trs longtemps et existe encore aujordhui dans de nom
breux dialectes (typede Leka).
premier processus: la chute de e muet en position faible, mais qui diff
rent par ladoption ou non dune second processus: la confusion de e
muet en position forte avec une autre voyelle, savoir . Ainsi, dans un
mot comme relever, comportant deux e muets, le premier en position
forte, lesecond en position faible:
Rdlve (pron. normative)
Rdldve > Ralve >
Rlve (pron. usuelle)(3)
En franais comme en slave, les deux processus restent bien distincts, et
lesecond peut ne pas seproduire.
Ainsi lexplication propose ici suppose que la diffrenciation des o et
e en syllabe ferme sest produite ncessairement aprs la chute des jers
faibles. Elle diffre ainsi de lhypothse de Kurylo qui veut quelle sesoit
produite avant, et de la thorie de lallongement compensatoire, qui
suppose quelle a eu lieu en mme temps. Elle ne fait appel aucun
processus phontique compliqu, mais seulement la notion trs simple
conomie des changements phontiques (pour reprendre leterme de
Martinet).
La thorie de lallongement compensatoire est probablement valable
pour les langues slaves occidentales et sud-occidentales. Applique
lukrainien, elle a tous les caractres dune explication ad hoc, quaucun
fait ne vient tayer, et puisquune hypothse plus simple peut lui tre
substitute, nous ne voyens aucune raison de la conserver.
Universit de Provence
BI BL I OGRAPHI E
Bourciez E. 1937, Prcis historique de phontique franaise, Paris.
Bulaxovskij L.A. 1961, Otraenija t.n. novoakutovoj intonacii drevneslavjans-
kogo jazyka v vostonoslavjanskix, in Issledovanija p o leksikologii i
grammatike russkogo jazyka, M., 3-13.
3 N ous ne mentionnerons que pour mmoire la prononciation mridionale usuelle
Rlve (le 2 processus sest produit, mais non le 1 ), et la prononciation mridionale
hypercorrecte: Rlve, dene (pour djeuner): le 2 processus sest produit dabord, et le 1
seulement ensuite, si bien que les mme tymologiques, comme celui de djeuner, ont
disparu en position faible.
Dybo V.A. 1963, Ob ostraenii drevnix koliestvennyx i intonacionnyx otno-
enij v verxneluickom jazyke in Serbo-luickij lingvistieskij sbornik,
M.
Ernout A. et Meillet A. 1951, Dictionnaire tymologique de la langue latine,
Paris.
Garde P. 1974, K istorii vostonoslavjanskix glasnyx srednego pod ema, V.
Ja. 1974, 3, 106-115.
Garde P. 1976, Histoire de l accentuation slave, t. 1-2, Paris.
Ivic P. 1958, Die serbokroatischen Dialekte: Ihre Struktur und Entwicklung, S
Gravenhage.
J akobson R. 1963, Opyt fonologieskogo podxoda k istorieskim voprosam
slavjanskoj akcentologii in American Contributions to the 5th Inter
national Congress o f Slavists, The Hague, 153-178.
Kurylo H. 1932, Les voyelles e et o en ukrainien et leur transformation dans les
voyelles fermes nouvelles RES 12, 1-2, 77-88:.
Lejeune M. 1946, Trait de phontique grecque, Paris.
Martinet A. 1945, La prononciation du franais contemporain, Paris.
Nazarova T.V. 1975, Zaminne podovennja v ukrainskomu areali na tli sxid-
noslovjanskyx prosodynyx peretvoren , Movoznavstvo 1975, 6,
22-32.
Shevelov G. Y. 1964, A Prehistory o f Slavic, Heidelberg.
Shevelov G.Y . 1979, A Historical Phonology o f the Ukrainian Language,
Heidelberg.
Stieber Z. 1967, Lallongement compensatoire dans lukrainien et le haut-
sorabe, in To honor Roman Jakobson, The Hague-Paris, p. 1935-1940.
Timberlake A. 1983, Compensatory Lengthening in Slavic: I; Conditions and
Dialect Geography, in From Los Angeles to Kiev. Papers on the
Occasion o f the Ninth International Congress o f Slavists, Kiev, Sep
tember 1983, Columbus, Ohio, 207-236.
T owards a T ypology of L exical
I nnovations in C anadian U krainian
I RAI DA GERUS-TARNAWECKA
I NTRODUCTION
Every speech community, whether of high or moderate complexity,
reveals several varieties of language functionally or generationally dif
ferentiated from each other. In the process of differentiation new word
forms come into being, and new words or combinations of words are
formed: thus a new vocabulary evolves. No language which is being
spoken and used daily is static, and neither is it uniform in its spatial-
temporal dimension. It is in a state of continuous linguistic change.
Most often the innovations of a language show up with particular clar
ity in its lexical repertoire.
Some degree of novelty is always desirable. However, where speakers
are subjected to strong socio-cultural pressure from other people, lingu
istic innovation then becomes part of a more general outside influence,
rather than language freshness. This is true of the Ukrainian language in
Canada, which, separated spatially and culturally from its linguistic
base in Europe for almost a century, began developing in a new
direction.
This paper examines the innovation in the lexical repertoire of Cana
dian Ukrainian usage resulting from intra-lingual and inter-lingual
interference. Furthermore, it attempts to develop a typology for the
mechanisms of this innovation. The given observations are based on the
linguistic data derived from a larger project, in which I have been
engaged for several years.1The data consists of the following:
1 Fieldwork and collection of materials for the study of Ihe C anadian U krainian lan
guage were made possible through financial support in the form of a grant from the S ocial
S ciences and Humanities R esearch C ouncil of C anada.
a) tape-recorded interviews with over 200 subjects of Ukrainian des
cent, ranging in age from 10to 80 years;
b) recordings and written texts from the Ukrainian Canadian mass
media;
c) published Ukrainian Canadian texts as auxiliary material.
It should be emphasized that the present study deals exclusively with the
Canadian Ukrainian language and not with North American Ukrainian
as a whole.
Before turning to the theme of innovation in the lexical repertoire of
Canadian Ukrainian itself it is necessary to sketch the general linguistic
situation of the Ukrainian language in Canada.
Originally the Ukrainian language in Canada was represented by a
group of transplanted and substantially differentiated Southwestern
Ukrainian dialects. In Canada these dialects found themselves in a state
of multiple linguistic contacts. The language contact situation encom
passed various types of languages, ranging from those structurally very
different (e.g. English, French, the native Indian languages) to some
fairly similar (e.g. the Slavic languages), as well as variants of the
Ukrainian language and its dialects. Consequently, from the very begin
ning of its history in Canada the Ukrainian language, more properly
the group of Ukrainian dialectswas exposed to linguistic crosscurrents
and linguistic interference.2 As expected, this led to many linguistic
changes.
With time, the continual exposure of the Ukrainian dialects to mutual
interference, due to the frequency of social interactions of their speak
ers, resulted in a rearrangement of many speech patterns, which reduced
the relative dialectal diversity and tended towards intra-dialectual level
ling. The diminishing diversity of the language was further reinforced by
the continual, although varied, interference from literary Ukrainian,
which operated simultaneously with tendencies of intra-dialectal level
ling, and thus leaning towards a degree of uniformity. However, inter
ference from the literary Ukrainian in Canadian Ukrainian of the early
2 In our work the definition of linguistic inteference is that of U. Weinreich: T he
term interference implies the rearrangement of patterns that result from the introduction
of foreign elements into the more highly structured domains of language... in his Lan
guages in Contact (T he Hague: Mounton, 1974), p. 1.
L EXI CAL I NNOVATI ONS I N CANADI AN UK RAI NI AN 85
(pre-World War II) period was not particularly strong.3It was exerted
mainly through literary publications and the Ukrainian Canadian press.
At the same time the Ukrainian language also was subjected to outside
interference, especially, interference from the dominant language of the
nationCanadian English.
It should be noted that when two or more languages come into close
contact they rarely meet on equal terms but usually fall into a hierarchy
of dominance. There is nothing intrinsic in the structure of one language
that makes it superior to another, but the relative social or political
positions of the speakers of these languages almost always give one lan
guage a dominant position. The Ukrainian language in Canada found
itself in a subordinate position and, for obvious reasons, its speakers
had to learn some English.
If we apply R.A. Halls definition of bilingualism as a minimum
degree of proficiency in both languages,4we may assume that in the
pre-war period the majority of Ukrainian immigrants to Canada were
already bilingual. But if we determine bilingualism considering a rela
tive proficiency in each language,5we then must say that, in spite of a
degree of bilingualism of many Canadian Ukrainians, a considerable
number of them nevertheless remained monolingual. The Ukrainian
language spoken in Canada in the pre-war period bore many of the
typical Southwestern Ukrainian dialectal features as well as a strongly
hybridized colouring resulting from interference from English.
New tendencies in the development of Canadian Ukrainian began to
unfold in the post-World War II period. With the new wave of Ukrain
ian immigrants that entered post-war Canada, comprised of speakers
from the whole of the Ukrainian territory, a fresh boost was provided
for the existing Ukrainian language. Even though the new immigrants
represented a variety of Ukrainian linguistic backgrounds and their
spoken Ukrainian differed from the Ukrainian spoken in Canada, they
3 However, determining to what extent this was literary U krainian, and not merely a
series of Western U krainian idiolects stemming from a vertical cross-section of U krainian
urban settlements, requires more research.
4 Cf. R .A . Hall, Bilingualism and A pplied L inguistics, Zeitshrift fr Phonetik und
allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft, 6 (1952), 13-20.
5 Cf. L eonard Bloomfield, Language (N ew York, 1933), and U. Weinreich Contact
3.
86
were cognizant of the acceptable standard of literary language and pro
moted its use. This newly arrived and more intensive interference from
the literary variant of the language stimulated new developmental ten
dencies in the existing language.
In the sixties the dynamics of population mobility and an increasing
trend towards urbanization began to change the settlement pattern of
Ukrainians in Canada. Consequently, alterations in language distribu
tion caused by demographic events on one hand, and further acquisition
and spread of bilingualism on the other hand, promoted a major lan
guage shift.6Now the Ukrainian language receded from its position as
the mother-tongue to that of the second language.
The beginning of the seventies was marked by changes in official
government policies regarding the language question in Canada. The
unusual proclamation in 1971 of Canada as an officially bilingual and
multicultural nation sparked intensive popular interest in and concern
about the question of ethno-cultural identityCanadian versus Eth
nic. Within the Ukrainian population these developments stimulated a
strong ethno-cultural awareness which led to the revival of interest in
and use of the Ukrainian language in Canada, particularly by the
younger generation. Before long the Ukrainian language became a
medium of instruction in Ukrainian immersion programs in many pub
lic schools throughout several Canadian provinces.
The factors outlined above contributed to the direction in which the
language developed further. A combination of two divergent forces, (1)
intralingual interference, and (2) interlingual interference, acting simul
taneously lead to the same processthe gradual Canadianization of the
Ukrainian language.7 This process has been further influenced by a
number of extra-linguistic factors particular to the Canadian bilingual
and multicultural society.
The subject of the Ukrainian language in Canada has already been
discussed in a small number of works. The literature in this area consists
T he degree of language shift varies greatly with generations.
7 T he term C anadianization implies all innovations in the U krainian language that
occurred either because of interference from the U krainian literary language or, on the
other hand, from the nations two dominant languages (C anadian E nglish and C anadian
French) and other immigrant and even indigenous languages found in C anada.
of a number of articles and several graduate school theses. Most of the
articles stress the problem of the Anglicization of the language, and
some examine this aspect in considerable detail.8More recent studies,
however, investigate Ukrainian Canadian from the point of view of lin
guistic interference and introduce the new concept in the study of lin
guistic changesthe concept of a Canadian variant of Ukrainian language.9
It should be pointed out that in the development of the Canadian
Ukrainian language two distinct periods can be identified. The division
of periods coincides with the end of World War II, and this periodiza
tion is determined by the character of the language changes which were
conditioned by altered linguistic as well as extra-linguistic factors.
Changes in Canadian Ukrainian proceeded and continue to proceed on
all linguistic levels. However, the most visible impact of the language-in-
contact situation on Ukrainian and its exposure to linguistic crosscur
rents is reflected in its lexical repertoire.
LEXICAL INNOVATION
The lexicon of Canadian Ukrainian employs a number of mechanisms
in its innovation. Not all of these, however, were active at the same
time. Some are more characteristic of the pre-World War II period,
while others are characteristic of the post-World War II period of the
languages development.
Pre- World War II Period
From the very beginning the Canadian experience has caused Ukrain
ian immigrants to adapt their language accordingly. The need to desig
nate new things, places, and new concepts is a universal cause of lexical
8 In addition to articles of a survey character (e.g. J.B. R udnyckyj, A . R oyik, I. Poho-
recky, R. K lymasz, Y. S lavutych, E. Burshtynsky, I. G erus-T arnawecka, etc.) dealing with
C anadian U krainian, there are a number of graduate theses that examine various aspects
of the influence of the E nglish language in greater detail (e.g. R. K lymasz, J.M. L ewyckyj,
A . R oyik, L. Fedorkiw). Ju. O. luktenko has also displayed an interest in this problem.
9 T he concept of a C anadian variant of the U krainian language was first introduced by
I. G erus-T arnawecka (1978) and further developed in her subsequent articles dealing with
this problem (1978, 1983a, 1983b). A. S hymkiw in her thesis investigages the phonological
interference found in the speech of C anadian U krainians and proposes a phonological
description of the C anadian variant of the U krainian language.
innovations. Thus, Ukrainian immigrants, lacking or not being aware of
the speech equivalents for some Canadian realities, filled the inevitable
gaps in their vocabulary not by describing things afresh but by resorting
to a more economical techniquethat of borrowing. In the Canadian
Ukrainian lexicon several types of borrowings may be distinguished.
1. Loan assimilation
Usually loan items were introduced into the Ukrainian language as
they were perceived and reproduced by Ukrainian speakers; thus, they
were marked by phonetic interference. These items were quickly adapted
to the native language structure and assimilated without any resistance.10
1.1 Simple words
(a) In the process of adaption most of these loans were classified
according to their external form and were accommodated into the suit
able grammatical class of the Ukrainian language. For example, many
English nouns end with hard consonants, which coincide with the char
acteristic of the masculine gender in Ukrainian. As a result, a great
many new words were classified as nouns of the masculine gender and
followed their declensional paradigm, e.g. kopyk cup, trok truck, rum
room, kovt coat, lojer lawyer, korner corner, karpet carpet, krysmes
Christmas.
(b) Other loan words were associated with cognates in the native lan
guage and were introduced in the grammatical system accordingly, e.g.
pejlo (vidro) pail, halja (zalja) hall, pejda (platnja) pay, norsa (med-
sestra) nurse, stokinsy (panoxy) stockings, batlja (pljaka) bottle.
(c) Still other loans were more loosely fitted into the language system,
e.g. holydej holiday, bara bar\jarda yard, poliuvannja polishing.
(d) In addition to borrowings from the English language the Cana
dian Ukrainian lexicon shows evidence of borrowings from other Cana
dian languages, e.g. French: portyd portage, preriji prairie; from
native Indian languages: makasyny moccasins, saskatunky saskatoons,
ypmank chipmunk. However, these words entered the Ukrainian lan
guage through the medium of English and were regarded and treated
as English loans.
10 T he examples illustrating the pre-war period are taken from the recorded interviews.
1.2 Compounds
Most of the compounds were considered simple words and were
therefore reproduced and adapted to the native system unanalyzed, e.g.
forman foreman, milkmen milkman, postmen postman, dragtor
drugstore, honimun honeymoon, ajskrim ice cream, spajshem spiced
ham.
Occasionally, however, the elements of some compounds were ana
lyzed and, in the process of transfer, were recompounded in the native
fashion, e.g. cream cheese as izkrim, or corned beef as bifkorn, and
roast beef as bifrost.
1.3 Short bound phrases
Such compounds usually were perceived in an unanalyzed form and
reproduced as single words. To this group belong:
a) some greetings, e.g. gudej good day, gubaj good bye;
b) interjections, e.g. girap get up!, sarap shut up!, geraut get out!,
vacumera whatsthe matter?;
c) others, e.g. savanagana son of a gun, Grineksend Grain
Exchange; sentyklas Santa Claus.
2. Hybridization
Another technique of borrowing consists of the transfer of some ele
ments and reproduction of others. Such combinations result in hybrid
ized constructions or loanblends.11
2.1 Verbs
In the process of adaptation to the native language, the structure of
borrowed verbs was subjected to more severe changes than that of
nouns. Generally, only verbal stems were transferred and usually in a
phonetically distorted form while native affixes were reproduced, e.g. to
move generated muxuvatysja, zmuxuvatysja, peremuxuvatysja; to
cleanklinuvaty, poklinuvaty; to likelajkuvaty; to watchvouvaty,
etc.
2.2 Diminutives
Many loans, especially nouns, served as a basis for further word for
11 C f. E. Haugen, T he A nalysis of L inguistic Borrowings, i n R. L ass, ed., Approaches
to English Historical Linguistics (N ew York: Holt, R inehart & Winston, 1969).
mation, particularly for the formation of diminutives. In such instances
loaned stems were transferred but derivational affixes were reproduced
and new words were formed to suit the native system, e.g. dress pro
duced dresyna, dresynka, cupkopyok, horsehorsio, horsyk,
boybojsyk.
2.3 Other derivatives
It is interesting to note that many names of companies, institutions
and government agencies, either in their full or abbreviated form, were
perceived by Ukrainian immigrants as personal names and in this capac
ity served as a basis for new word creations. For example: Canadian
National Railway (CNR) generated Sinjar, Canadian Pacific Railway
(CPR)Sypjar. Federal and provincial governmental institutions were
named in generalGoberman, but city government as Sity, Sytyj. Thus,
people were employed u Sinjara, u Sypjara, u Gobermana, and u
Sytoho.
3. Semantic extension
Other types of lexical innovation involve an extension in the use of a
native word in conformity with a foreign model.12 For example, the
word pidloha floor, which in Ukrainian language designates the inside
bottom covering of a room, now is widely used also as meaning the
storey of a building and as the floor in the legislative assemblies desig
nating the part of the house where the members sit and from which they
speak. The word student student now designates a person who is stud
ying in an elementary school, college or university; similarly there is an
extended meaning and use of such words as klasa class, rekord record
and many others.
Post- World War II Period
The mechanisms discussed above were involved in the expansion and
innovation of the Ukrainian Canadian lexicon and were very actively
utilized in the pre-war period. In the post-war period the earlier tenden
cies of the Ukrainian community towards a quick structural speech
12 C f. Weinreich, Contact, pp. 48, 51.
L EXI CAL I NNOVATI ONS I N CANADI AN UKRAI NI AN
91
adaptation and assimilation of loans changed considerably. On the one
hand, changing linguistic factors, such as new sources of intralingual
interference, as well as bilingualism and partial language shifts, and, on
the other hand, altered extra-linguistic factors, brought other innova-
tional mechanisms into action.
Previously, most lexical innovations resulted from the interference
from Canadian English with the Ukrainian language, and very little, if
any, came from interference from literary Ukrainian.13In the post-war
period two sources of interference acted simultaneously: (1) outside
interference, that is, interference from Canadian English (and other lan
guages found in Canada), and (2) interference from standard literary
Ukrainian. Furthermore a conscious effort at Ukrainization, associated
with better education and class mobility began :o appear. All these
trends are reflected in the current lexical repertoire of Canadian
Ukrainian.
A. Source o f Interference: Canadian English
The previous technique of borrowing still is used greatly, but its
mechanisms of application have changed and have resulted in new types
of borrowings.
1. Integration
Whether a speaker has one language at his disposal or more, it is
unlikely that his linguistic repertoire is purely of one kind. That is, even
the monolingual^single-system repertoire includes several available va
rieties of the single language. The bilinguals multi ple-system repertoire
includes the available varieties of two languages The availability of
more than one variety of language for a speaker preconditions the inte
gration of several varieties into his speech.
The term lexical integration used in this paper is a working term for
the purpose of establishing our typology. It designates a types of loan
acquired through direct borrowing or controlled switching to other lan
guage^) and incorporated into the lexical repertoire of a speaker with
minimal or no phonetic changes, no grammatical assimilation, and, as
such, remains unassimilated for the time being.
13 T he intradialectal interference is not discussed here because it requires more research.
In the bilingual situation, integration of lexical items is motivated by
the determining situational factors and also is affected by environmental
frequencies of occurence.14Such lexems of high utterance potential are
usually entities of daily life and interaction in the otherwise English-
speaking community. In current Canadian Ukrainian usage, three types
of such lexems related to the societal domain with which they are asso
ciated can be identified.
1.1 Home setting
Although many of these loans are of various linguistic provenance,
they enter the Ukrainian language through Canadian English and in
most cases are considered as English loans by their speakers. There are
several types of these which can be classified in general terms as:
(a) names for food or drinks, e.g. steak, fish and chips, weiners, hot
dogs, pizza, quince, ketchup, coke, soda, juice, gin, scotch, rye, etc;
(b) appliances and furniture, e.g. toaster, fridge,/refrigerator,deep freeze,
garburator, dishwasher, sink, water-bed, fireplace, stereo;
(c) other words, e.g. party, holiday, experience, business, kleenex.
1.2 School, work, government
To this category belong names for subjects taught in schools, e.g.
social studies, shop, fine arts, home ec. (home economics), phys. ed.
(physical education); academic degrees, e.g. diploma, B.A., M.A., Ph.D.,
Master of Science; names of learning institutions: high school, college,
business school; in employmentnames of positions or trades, e.g.
plumber, caretaker, meterman, accountant, speaker, manager, clerk,
executive director; names of institutions, e.g. City Hall, municipal
[building], unemployment office, welfare.
1.3 Specialized vocabulary
The current lexicon is also expanding in response to modern techno
logical and scientific needs; this category of words enters the Ukrainian
language on a straightforward basis by means of integration. The list of
this type of import is large and is expanding everyday. It comprises
mainly scientific and technical terms or trademarks, such as: computer,
14 E lsa L attey, U terance Potential, C ode-S witching and S peech E rrors, MS . Paper
presented at A .I .L .A ., Montreal, 1978.
computer memory, key punch, atari, xerox, word processor, X-ray,
pacemaker, chemotherapy, or skidoo, snowmobile.
A further examination of the integration mechanism shows that this
kind of borrowing is largely contingent on other contributing factors
such as the educational level of the speakers, age, relative proficiency in
bilingualism, as well as their behavioural attitude towards both lan
guagesEnglish and Ukrainian. Considerable differences exist between
those who intentionally switch to the English language and consciously
integrate borrowed words and expressions into their speech, and those
who switch to English because they lack control over certain language
situations. In the first instance speakers are aware of language switching
and often convey this awareness by, so to speak, verbal quotation
marks. In the other instances language switching often occurs without
this conscious awareness on the part of the users. This, of course, may
suggest insufficient adherence to the Ukrainian language, consequently,
in some instances the distinction between integration as defined here
and code-switching (discussion follows) is very slight and requires
further research.
2. Co de-swit ching
Code-switching between distinct languages is a normal activity in
many parts of the world. Code-switching by bilingual or multilingual
speakers points to the human capacity for substitution. But, as stated
before, there are two types of this phenomenon: (a) controlled or
intended code-switching, and (b) unaware code-switching.
There are several definitions and explanations for the code-switching
phenomenon.15The most common is that of Weinrich regarding ideal
linguistic switches: The ideal bilingual switches from one language to
the other according to appropriate changes in the speech situation
(interlocutors, topics, etc.), but not in an unchanged speech situation,
and certainly not within a single sentence.16
The code-switching mechanism in our typology has the opposite ten
dency. It is uncontrolled switching from one language to the other in an
15 Cf. J. G umperz, S ocial Meaning in L inguistic S tructures: C ode-S witching in N or
way, in John G umperz, Language in Social Groups (S tanford S tanford U niversity Press,
1971), pp. 274-310.
16 Weinreich, Contact, p. 73.
94 T HE A N N A L S OF T HE U K R A I N I A N A C A D E MY
unchanged situation and often within a simple sentence. This mecha
nism of code-switching employed to fill gaps in the lexical repertoire is
in use on a wide scale now, especially among the younger generations.
Here are a few examples: Na snidannja ja budu maty bacon and eggs, a
ja prosu french toast abo pancakes; ja xou invest my money;
Vono ne maje nijaku *social value ; ja muu quit jisty. This type of
code-switching is carried on without any particular pattern; it is situa
tional as well as unstable. The direction of borrowing by means of code
switching illustrates the manner in which the choice of language is often
bound-up with social values.17
B. Source o f Interference: Standard Literary Ukrainian
In a very complicated language contact situation, interference from
standard literary Ukrainian somewhat compensates Canadian Ukrain
ian for inter-lingua! interference, that is, for outside interference. Because
of a more favourable socio-political environment for Canadian Ukrain
ian, the impact of interference from the standard literary language is
much more effective now than it was in the pre-war period. Recent ten
dencies towards convergence of Canadian Ukrainian manifest them
selves in conscious efforts at a certain language standardization and
purification.
The main vehicle for introducing and popularizing literary borrow
ings^ the Ukrainian Canadian mass media and schools. Furthermore,
the influx of Ukrainian language literature dealing with various branches
of the arts and sciences, as well as recent more frequent physical con
tacts with Ukraine, are all largely responsible for many innovations in
the lexical fund of Canadian Ukrainian.
17 T he code-switching usually requires a choice or selection on the part of the user,
according to a specific social situation at the time contact is made with languages by a
bilingual. T he social situations vary according to societal domains. T he direction of bor
rowing by means of code-switching illustrates, therefore, the manner in which the choice
of language is often bound-up with social values. My survey shows that the direction of
this type of borrowings, insofar as the younger generations speech in communicating is
concerned, takes the direction of a two-way street. In a social event where E nglish is the
language used as the tool of communication, quite often code-switching takes place in the
reverse direction. S ome U krainian words and expressions are introduced in the conversa
tion, and the purpose of code-switching here is a metaphorical one and not a situational
one. It is of a symbolic naturea visible symbol of identity.
L E XI C A L I N N OVA T I ON S I N C A N A D I A N U K R A I N I A N 95
The mechanisms used in introducing literary lexical and phraseologi
cal items into their Canadian variant depend upon the degree of lan
guage shift and bilingualism. Among the younger generations, where
tendencies at language standardization are associated with education
and class, such efforts are demonstrated in the innovation of their lexi
cal repertoire with so-called more proper Ukrainian words and
expressions.
1. Exact transfer
This is exact transfer of lexical or phraseological item which functions
in the language recipient exactly as it functions in the source language.
Here are some examples: telebaennja, teleproducenty, aviopota, fotoi-
Ijustraciji, telemerea, korabel-supernyk, Ijacnyj vyhljad, zajnjalasja po-
ea, vodiji avtobusiv, rezultaty opytuvannja, stereoprystrij.
2. Translations
(a) Caiques, that is the proper translations by which the model is
reproduced exactly element by element, e.g. sualka (dryer), xolodyTnyk
(refrigerator), zamorouva/ morozilnyk (deep freeze), zmiuva (mixer),
sofa-liko (sofa-bed), deravnyj pravnyk (solicitor general), matirna
mova (mother tongue).
The trend towards word-for-word translation also explains many syn
tactic changes which language undergoes.
(b) Descriptive translations, where some elements of the model are
reproduced descriptively, for example: liko o xovaje sja (hide-a-bed);
krislo, o pidnosy sja (recliner); stolyk na kavu (coffee-table); stolyk v
kutok (end table); pry lad dlja pidsmauvannja xliba (toaster); vydko-
psuvna jia (perishable food).
3. Rendition18
Rendition is a mechanism, whereby the reproduction of the model
only furnishes a general hint of meaning for the model due to interfer
ence from both languages. Moreover, it may lead to confusion of usage.
Here are a few examples of such rendition: socijaVnyj veir (social
18 T he term has been borrowed from Weinreich, but is applied in a modified meaning.
T he illustrative material is taken from the recorded interviews aid students assignments.
evening), kul'turni dijovyny (cultural activities), onata z Ukrajincem
(married to a Ukrainian), rizni formy zabavlennja (various forms of
entertainment), jixni tradyciji buly nasmikani (their traditions were
laughable); and Katja zlomyla vazu instead of rozbyla, or xany zaraz
pamjatav step instead of xanenko pryhadav, point to confusion in usage
of some lexems.
4. Bilingual transfer
One of the more interesting and popular mechanisms applied to
update the lexical repertoire with lexical items from literary Ukrainian
brings them into use on a bilingual basisUkrainian and Canadian
English in a Ukrainian adaptation. The reason for this phenomenon is
the desire to ensure clarity of expression. This mechanism is now in use,
especially by the mass media, e.g., (a) partially bilingual (the Ukrainian
version is followed by the English in a Ukrainian adaptation as it
appeared in the Canadian Ukrainian press): perexodyly polihrafiny
provirku (laj detector test), pry lady zvohuvannja povitrja (hjumidi-
fajrs), domani prylady (eplajensy), zovtyj syr (edar iz); (b) completely
bilingual expressions presented in both languages and both writing sys
tems simultaneously: texnine skladannja / type setting; pereklady,
korekta I translations, proof-reading; narodennja / birth; dyrekcija /
Board of Directors; koncepcija peretopljuvannja / melting pot; narod
seljan I a peasant society.19
5. Regularization
As to regulatory endeavors, at present there are several linguistic pub
lications which promote puristic efforts on one hand and linguistic lib
eralism and language internationalization on the other. The puristic
efforts concentrate their attention on the purification of the language
from Polish and, in particular, from Russian influences. Unwanted
words of Polish or Russian provenance are discarded or avoided and
substituted by Ukrainian equivalents.20
19 T he examples of the bilingual transfer are taken from C anadian U krainian press
( Ukrajinskyj Holos, Novyj lax, Hornin Ukrajiny, Visnyk, Oko), as well as from students
assignments.
20 For example, a number of articles on the standardization and purity of the language
in most of the C anadian U krainian press appear regularly (P. Odarchenko, C haplenko, Y.
S luvatych, J.B. R udnyckyj and others).
a) Substitution of Polonism; for example it is advised to use pyrih
instead of pljacok, horodyna for jaryna, aka for filianka, polunycja
for truskavka, pljaka for buteVka; and substitution of Russisms: kava
for kofe, pomarana for apeVsyn, cukernja for kondytorska, cytryna for
lymon, or pajka for pajok.21
b) Linguistic liberalism promotes the usage of vocabulary from the
lexical stock of all variants of the Ukrainian language, including North
American Ukrainian, as well as a vocabulary from international stock.
For example, in the Ukrainian press, especially in some of Rudnyckyjs
articles, there are such uncommon expressions as pomejisty, pomejists-
kyj, paskviljada, bovdleryzacija, redaktory-bovdlerysty, urnalistyna
pomejistyka, and many others. In his article Kanadyzmy v navanni
ukrajinskoji movy v Kanadi, Rudnyckyj suggests introduction of Ca-
nadianisms into the Ukrainian language which is taught at schools,
and he proposes such words as, e.g. morgyd, farma, patrijarxaVnyk,
karmanyna, buldozer, rekorduvaty, kredytivka.22
6. New creations
This is a working term. It implies not natural bu : artificial coinage of
new words, either through invention or translation and reinterpretation
of the existing words. This type of mechanism is applied by some lay
men with extreme puristic intention in order to substitute for unwanted
words. An excellent example of such an endeavour is Shtepas Dictio
nary.23 Here are a few illustrations of substitutions by such new crea
tions: skinmuka for ahonija; vysloganok for balkon; kepa, kila for
ironija; sposoba for metodoloh; doar for zontyk; doarka for para-
solja; mokrycja for kaloa/haloa; navcalnyk for uytel' or slovoblud
for sofist. However, it should be stressed that such new creations are
produced on an individual basis only and do not enter into the main
stream of language usage.
21 Most of the examples given here are taken from Odarchenkos articles in Ukrajins'kyj
Holos and Novi Dni.
22 J.B. R udnyckyj, K anadyzmy v navanni ukrajinskoji movy v K anadi, Ukrajinskvj
Holos, N o. 42 (Winnipeg, 1976). S ee also Slovo na storoi, N o. 10, (Winnipeg, 1973); N o.
11 (1974); N o. 12 (1975); and R udnyckyjs Etymological Dictionary of the Ukrainian Lan
guage (Winnipeg, 1961-71).
23 P. S htepa, Slovnyk uzosliv: znadihky (T oronto, 1977); cf. also articles by M. L av-
renko, and others.
The trends and innovational techniques in onomastics somewhat
differ from the generic vocabulary. Therefore, this problem will be dis
cussed more extensively elsewhere.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion we would like to advance a typology of lexical innova
tions which summarizes various factors contributing to and governing
innovations and represents all groups considered here:
Pre- Wor ld War I I Period
1. Loans assimilation
a) simple words
b) compounds
c) short bound phrases
2. Hybridization
a) verbs
b) diminutives
c) other derivatives
3. Semantic extension
Post- Wo r ld War I I Period
A. 1. Integration
a) home setting
b) school, work, government
c) specialized vocabulary
2. Code-switching
B. 1. Exact transfer
2. Translation
3. Rendition
4. Bilingual transfer
5. Regularization
6. New creations
It should be noted that there is no stable pattern of lexical innovation
developed in Canadian Ukrainian. Historically, the lexicon is viewed as
the most changable component in language structure. Thus, the lexical
repertoire of Canadian Ukrainian in current usage represents a stage in
a transitional process towards crystallization of the Canadian variant of
the language.
Finally, it should be stressed as well that the typology proposed here
is the first attempt at the classification of Canadian Ukrainian vocabu
lary in terms of linguistic interference. Obviously, with continually
changing linguistic situations some of the proposed categories may
change too. Nonetheless, it is important to make a start towards a clas
sification scheme.
University o f Manitoba
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BieszczadyIBeskidy, a Vestige of
the G ermanic Bastarnians in the
T oponymy of the C arpathians?
ZBIGNIEW GOB
First, it must be kept in mind that the Eastern Carpathians (extending
from the source of the San river eastward) are called Alpes Bastarnicae
on the so-called Tabula Peutingeriana (second-fourth centuries A.D.),
undoubtedly in connection with a long sojourn of the Germanic Bastar
nians in this region.1Today the oronym Bieszczady (Pol.) refers to the
relatively inaccessible and well-forested mountain range between the
Osawa river, a western tributary of the Upper San, and the Swicza
river, a southern tributary of the Upper Dniestr, whereas the oronym
Beskidy (Zachodnie and Wschodnie) refers to the outer, i.e. northern
ranges of the Western Carpathians (including here the Bieszczady). This
is the official topographic use of these names established finally in the
second half of the nineteenth century by geographers and cartographers.
An older folk tradition in this respect is rather shaky. Beskid || Bieskid
and its derivatives occur quite frequently in the Carpathians as names of
separate (individual) mountains (cf. Sownik Geograficzny Krlestwa
Polskiego, v. V, 1880, p. 157). It is worth emphasizing that Sownik
Geograficzny mentions that the name b(i)eskid is still used by the peas
ants in Maopolska and Silesia as a common name referring to indi
vidual mountains. This view is supported by B. Linde in his large dic
tionary as reflecting Polish usage from the sixteenth to the beginnings of
the nineteenth century, e.g. the Carpathian highlanders call a forest on
the mountain beskid, bieszczad (B. Linde, 1854 ed., v. I, p. 75). The use
of the corresponding or related words in Ukrainian, namely bskyd ||
1 T he G ermanic ethnicity of the Bastarnians has been recently convincingly proved by
H. owmiaski in Pocztki Polski, I (Warsaw, 1963), pp. 202-209.
bsked II bsket 1. uts, gora, rock, mountain; 2. krutizna, obryv,
cliff, precipice, etc. and beskduvaty to graze cattle in the mountains,
is also attested (cf. K. Moszyski 1968, II, 2, p. 884, Ukrajinsko-
rosijskyj slovnyk, Kiev, 1965, and J .B. Rudnyckyj, 1963, 2, pp. 116-117).
So, besides proper names (oronyms) we have in Polish and Ukrainian
common names which seem to continue two Com. Slav, forms *bescadb
and beskydb with the basic meaning mountain; the meaning forest on
a mountain, attested for Polish dialects in the nineteenth century, is
secondary, conditioned by the local landscape in which the lower slopes
of the mountains have been deforested for quite a long time.
The question which now arises is: whether in historical-comparative
terms a regular phonemic relationship (correspondence) between the
form Bieszczad / *beadb / and the form Beskid / * beskydb / can be
established. I think that such a relationship can actually be established
as I will substantiate in the following etymological analysis.
Among the attempts at an etymology of the oronyms in question (cf.
F. Kopen, 1954, pp. 158-173) only two deserve serious consideration:
the Germanic and the Illyrian. A Germanic etymology of Bieszczad ||
Beskid has been proposed by J . Rozwadowski (1914, p. 162 etc.). He
derives the variant *bescadb from Germc. *biskaid- which is represented
by MLG besehet (beskt) Trennung and by Scandinavian2bsked bor
rowed from Low German; the variant *beskydb is derived by him from
another Germc. Ablaut-form, *biskd-. The difference in the Slavic
treatment of the consonant cluster -sk- before ai (= Slav, i) and
allegedly reflects the relative chronology of two stages of borrowing,
namely: 1. *biskaid- > *beskd- > bead- with the palatalization of
-sk- > --, an older, prehistorical stage; 2. *biskid- > beskyd- without
the palatalization of -sk-, a younger, early historical stage.
Besides the fact that these two periods of Slavic-Germanic contacts in
the Carpathian region (the second younger period according to J . Roz
wadowski somewhere between the fifth and seventh centuries A.D.) are
very hypothetical and difficult to prove, the whole reasoning mechanism
which operates behind the two successive borrowings from Germanic is
2 i.e. D anish, N orwegian and S wedish, see H. Falk and A . T orp, Norwegisch-dnisches
etymologisches Wrterbuch (Heidelberg, 1910).
BI ESZCZA D YI BESKI D Y 105
unnecessary since the phonetic laws of the historical-comparative
grammar of the Slavic languages allow us quite easily to start from only
one prehistorical Germc. form. Namely, it is sufficient to start from
*biskaida- or rather from *blskaida- since the primary nominal com
pounds have a long vocalism in the prefix (cf. Germ. Bei-trag, Bei-spiel,
etc. with the original *bl- in contradistinction to be-tragen and other
verbs with be- from the original *bi-). This compound Germc. noun
a quite productive type of formation has a clear etymology, stem
ming from a Com. Germc. verb *skaidan (Goth, skaidan, OE scadan,
OHG sceidan, etc. divide). It was borrowed by the Slavs somewhere in
the Sub-Carpathian region about the time of the birth of Christ in the
form *biskDidos || *biskjidus. After the monophthongization of diph
thongs in Proto-Slavic this form resulted in *biskedu with the so-called
second j a //. The latter in its turn had to palatalize the preceding
sk according to the well-known rules of the so-called second palataliza
tion of velars in Proto-Slavic. And it is here that the whole problem
begins.
The second palatalization of consonant clusters sk, zg in Slavic
shows a dialectal differentiation: West Slavic, e.g. Polish and Czech,
palatalizes sk, zg + , ii (i.e. from an earlier diphthong * ) into ,
which in Czech were later dissimilated into , , e.g. OPol. w
Polszcz, Cz. et N pi. animate of esk Czech adj. etc., but in the
East and South Slavic languages the second palatalization of the
above consonant clusters gives the same results as the palatalization of
the single consonants k, g, thus sk, zg ^ sc, zy later quite frequently
dissimilated into st, zd, eg., OCS vojbsc || vojbst D/L sg. of vojbska
army, etc. A special case in this respect is represented by the Polesie-
Kiev dialects of Old East Slavic. Namely, according to the Shevelovs
explanation (1965, pp. 297-299) in the forms knjaeniipinbske, Smo-
linbsk (loc.), vb rusbski storon velici, po dbsk, etc. sequences sk
(phonetically[ske\) should be interpreted as continuing an earlier s
from a dissimilated see. Whether the process sc > s t > s k was more
widespread in the Proto-Ukrainian dialects of Kievan Rus, we do not
know. In any case, some words with sk + e instead of sc\\st+e are
attested in the Carpathian region; e.g. Shevelov himself quotes skiryty
(from *skoir-, cf. Pol szczerzy, S-C ceriti, etc). These prehistorical dia
lectal processes allow us to explain the variant bieszczad as the West
Slavic treatment, i.e. in this case Polish, of the early Proto-Slav. *bes-
koids, later *besk2db, etc., whereas the variant beskid would be an old
dialectal Ukrainian treatment of the same Proto-Slav. word. Of course,
in view of the preceding it is unnecessary to postulate a Proto-Slav,
variant *beskydb, as proposed by J . Rozwadowski and accepted by
most etymologists. In this connection the contemporary Ukrainian
forms with y after k (beskyd) should be interpreted as secondary, condi
tioned by folk etymology which associated beskid with the nouns in
-kyd derived from the verb kydaty (Pol. kida) throw, obviously from
its various prefixed forms, as e.g. perekydaty perekyd, etc. An older
Ukrainian spelling, e.g. beskidy in the seventeenth century (cf. Rud-
nyckyj, I.e.), may reflect the primary form of this noun.
There remains, however, still one detail to clarify: the treatment of the
Germc. prefix bi- in Slavic. Regularly we should expect * - or *bi-,
depending on the Germc. source. The replacement of this Germc. prefix
by be- in Slavic could be explained as an example of the preservation
and vocalization of a weak in the word initial syllable for the sake of
avoiding an unusual consonant cluster (*bb- > *bsc- > *p-7) if we
start from Germe. bi-\ or if we start from Germc. b-, it could be rein
terpreted and identified with the original Slavic prefix be(z), cf. e.g.
beseda from *bez-sda, etc. The Ukrainian forms of the type bsked,
etc., i.e. with e after k are also secondary and represent the merger of
the phonemes // and / e/ in unstressed syllables.
Now, if we accept the view that the variant beskid is Ukrainian, then
the spread of this word and of the corresponding oronym in the West
ern Carpathians (i.e. the Polish Carpathians) should be historically
related to the so-called Walachian colonization in this region. This
colonization, which had started at the end of the fourteenth century and
reached its peak in the fifteenth century, moved gradually from the east
to the west bringing with it the Ruthenian (Ukrainian) ethnic element
into the Western Carpathians. In economic terms it was largely a
movement comprised of shepherds. Among others such oronyms as
Kiczora, Magura, Gru (the two last of the Rumanian origin), owe their
spread to that Walachian migratory wave. Most probably also the
name Dzia (Ukr. Dif) should be included here since it is popular in
BI ESZCZA D YI BESKI D Y
107
Rumanian territory (in the form Deal and as a common name with the
meaning hill). In Rumanian it is an obvious borrowing from Bulg. djal
(*delb) part, division, dialectal watershed, ridge. In connection with
the semantic development of Slavic delb from division, watershed
through ridge (as boundary) to mountain ridge, mountain we obtain
an excellent parallel to the postulated development of the Germc. *b-
skaida- from Trennung toBergrcken, Berg.
The etymology of Bieszczad || Beskid presented above is actually the
only one that satisfies the requirements of linguistics and represents a
high degree of historical plausibility. Since, however, such an expe
rienced etymologist as O.N. Trubacev returned recently (1968, p. 281) to
an Illyrian etymology of this oronym, I consider it proper to take a
position on this matter. Trubaev derives Bieskidy || Bieszczady (the
forms used by him) from Illyr. *biz-kit- || *biz-kt-, which in its turn
would come from *bz-, Proto-Indo-Europ. *bhiig beech + *kit-
forest, and as justification he quotes allegedly Illyr. K o t l o v
(explained as Wiener Wald?) in Ptolemy and Citius mons in Epirus.
So the name under discussion would be in his o pinion a vestige of the
Illyrians who, before the prehistorical expansion of the Slavs to the
west, most probably dwelt to the north of the Central Carpathians. The
above view can be supported by some hydronyms in the Upper Dniestr
basin which allegedly show etymological ties with the historical Illyrian
territory in the Western Balkans.3But the whole linguistic part of this
etymology is highly hypothetical: e.g. the very reconstruction of PIE
*bhug- beech (the only sure archetype is *bhgo-, cf. Lat. fgus, Gr.
Dor. ~ , etc.), then the treatment of sk+i/ in Slavic that has not
been explained at all, etc. In view of this, the Germc. etymology pro
posed by J . Rozwadowski, with my interpretation of the double treat
ment of sk+2 in Slavic, seems to have much more explanatory power.
Besides that it is well rooted in historically verifiable circumstances,
namely in the sojourn of the Germc. Bastarnians north of this part of
3 T his view, however, has been recently rejected with convincing arguments by J.
U dolph in Studien zu slavischen Gewssernamen and Gewsserbezeichnungen (Heidel
berg, 1979), pp. 600-618.
the Carpathians where the oronym Bieszczady is attested and became
fixed for the historical epoch.
In conclusion I would like to call the readers attention to the
historical-geographical role of the Central-Eastern Carpathians, includ
ing Bieszczady, with its two passes: upkw and Uok and with the low
and easy ridges of the Dukla Pass region. From time immemorial it has
been that part of the Carpathians through which ethnic and demogra
phic waves flowed chiefly from the north to the south, to the Danube
basin. It is highly probably that at least a part of the Bastarnians
reached the northern foothills of the Carpathians through this section of
the mountains while withdrawing northward from the Danube basin.
Later the Goths retreating westward from the Ukraine (pushed by the
Huns) also used the Central Carpathian passes in their migration to
Pannonia. This would be an additional fact speaking on behalf of the
Germc. etymology of Bieszczady || Bieskidy presented above.
University o f Chicago
BI BL I OGRAPHY
Kopen, F., O zhad jmna Beskydy, in the collection of articles Adolfu
Kellnerovi. Slezsk Studijn stav. Opava, 1954, pp. 158-173.
Linde, S. ., Sownik jz yka polskiego, wyd. II, 1854-1861.
owmiaski, H., Pocztki Polski, I, Warsaw, 1963.
Moszyski, ., Kultura ludowa Sowian, t. II, cz. 2; wyd. II , Warsaw, 1968.
Niederle, L. Slovansk staroitnosti, I, 1, Prague, 1902.
Rozwadowski, J ., Beskidy, Jzyk Polski, 2, 1914, pp. 162-164 and Wybr
pism, I, Warsaw, 1959, pp. 318-319.
Rutfnyckyj, J .B., An Etymological Dictionary o f the Ukrainian Language, 2,
Winnipeg, 1963.
Sownik Geograficzny Krlestwa Polskiego, I, Warsaw, 1880.
Shevelov, G. Y., A Prehistory o f Slavic, New Y ork: Columbia University Press,
1965.
Trubaev, O.N., Nazvanija rek pravoberenoj Ukrainy, Moscow, 1968.
Udolph, J ., Studien zu slavischen Gewssernamen und Gewsserbezeichnungen,
Heidelberg, 1979.
Le verbe thme dorigine franaise
dans lukrainien contemporain
Y AROSLAV HARCHUN
Dans la catgorie des mots emprunts ou transfrs, leverbe, comme
dailleurs ladjectif, se classe part, grce ses particularits dordre
structural. A dire vrai, on ne peut pas proprement parler de verbes
emprunts, car la nature des emprunts se trouve tre gnralement telle
que la perue un jeune linguiste franais: les mots suivent les choses,1
ce sont donc, dans la plupart des cas, les substantifs qui arrivent les
premiers. Les substantifs, plus indpendants dans la phrase du point de
vue de la syntaxe, subissent peu de changements morphologiques. Trs
souvent leur nominatif ukrainien reflte entirement la forme de leur
singulier franais, et ne subit qu une adaptation phontique: abaur,
bjuro, juri. Ce nest jamais le cas du verbe, car celui-ci doit ncessaire
ment sadapter morphologiquement son milieu-rcepteur, cest--dire
revtir les traits formels dune certaine classe verbale. Le plus souvent,
un tel verbe est form partir dun substantif emprunt auparavant,
parfois le verbe et le substantif sont transfrs simultanment, et si
lpoque de la technologie moderne on note des verbes emprunts qui ne
sont pas accompagns dun substantif correspondant, leur adaptation
morphologique suit lanalogie. Il est donc plus appropri de parler de
verbes ukrainiens thme d origine franaise (ou, en gnral, trangre)
que de verbes emprunts. Car, notre avis, il est tout aussi impossible
E ditors N ote: T his article basically describes the standards of the U krainian language
as established by T he I nstitute of L inguistics of the A cademy of S ciences in K iev: all
words with French roots are considered independently of whether they have been bor
rowed direclty from French or via a mediation of another language.
1 L. C hirol, Les mots franaiset le mythe de la France en anglais contemporain (Paris,
1973), p. 13.
110
de transfrer un verbe que demprunter une autre langue un temps
verbal ou une forme de linfinitif.2
Le verbe ukrainien, selon V. Rusanivskyj, comprend 13 classes ver
bales que lon dtermine partir du suffixe thmatique. Il est essentiel
de noter que, dans notre cas, cest presque exclusivement la premire (1)
classe qui entre enjeu. Car tous les verbes possdant un thme dorigine
franaise, comme, dailleurs, tous ceux qui ont comme formant des mots
transfrs, appartiennent cette classe verbale.
Historiquement, la classe verbale, selon V. Rusanivskyj, tait divi
se en deux groupes: celui avec le suffixe -ova- et le second avec le
suffixe -UVQ-. Ils ont la variante -va- quand le thme contient une
voyelle comme son final, ce qui dans notre cas est irrlatif. Mais le son
[u] dans le suffixe -uva-, nest notre avis, quun morphophonme
reprsentant le [o] dans la position inaccentue (le plus souvent
praccentue: comparez le nom zozulja, o le premier [u] phontique
prsent le o historique). Nous entrons dans ces dtails parce que le suf
fixe -uva- na remplac totalement son double -ova- qu partir du XXe
sicle. Mais au dbut du XIXesicle la variante graphique -ova- reste
encore prdominante: O. Pavlovskyj, dans son vocabulaire, parmi 38
verbes de la lre classe nen crit que 4 avec -uva-. Cette remarque con
cerne aussi les verbes avec des thmes dorigine franaise ou suppos-
ment franaise. P. Bileckyj-Nosenko, lui aussi, prfre dans son dicti
onnaire la variante -ova-: banizyrovaty (on parlera plus tard du suffixe
-ir- (-yr-) form sur la base de la langue russe et qui nest pas productif
en ukrainien), vakovaty, rezydovaty, ukontentovaty. Mais chez lui nous
trouvons aussi Ijustruvaty, muruvaty etc.
Lhistoire de la langue nous permet dexpliquer pourquoi la majorit
des verbes dorigine trangre est groupe dans une mme classe. A par
tir du XIVesicle, le suffixe -ova- (-uva-) reste typique pour les verbes
contenant le thme nominal (et nous ne touchons pas les sicles prc
dents, car il sagirait alors dune langue littraire quon ne peut nommer
ukrainienne quavec beaucoup de rserve). Comme nous lavons indiqu
plus haut, la nature du transfert linguistique est telle, que cest lobjet,
2 N otons, par exemple, que le verbe franais sortir devient un substantif dans largot
russe et ukrainien (chiottes). Ou bien le cas curieux de lemprunt de la forme ngative du
futur chantera pas devenu santrapa (vaurien).
VERBE THME DORI GI NE FRANAI SE 111
donc le nom, qui vient en premier; ceci explique pourquoi les verbes en
question sont attirs par une classe prexistante qui accommode juste
ment les verbes thme nominal. Lukrainien moderne, dailleurs,
compte quelques verbes dorigine trangre qui ne connaissent pas de
contre-partie nominale, mais la force de lanalogie les a placs, eux
aussi, dans la premire classe.
Les verbes de la classe deviennent nombreux surtout partir du
XVIesicle, sans doute parce que la langue polonaise a renforc lusage
du suffixe -ova-. Cest avec la langue polonaise que les thmes nomi
naux pntrent en masse dans lukrainien. Et cest travers ce canal
quont pntr les premiers gallicismes: benkeovaty, respektovaty (voir
plus loin). La plupart des polonismes qui, au fond, taient des galli
cismes, ont disparu au cours du et du XIXesicles mais le pre
mier grand dictionnaire de la langue ukrainienne, celui de P. Bileckyj-
Nosenko, en fixe un bon nombre, y compris parmi les verbes. Voici
quelques caractristiques des verbes quon trouve chez Bileckyj-Nosenko:
banizyrovaty (bannir; provient du nom bannissement et garde
le 5 devenue z). Ce verbe trahit dj linfluence russe, car le
suffixe russe dorigine allemande -ir- (-yr-) reste mconnu en
ukrainien jusqu la fin du XVIIIesicle.
barbarovaty (barbariser; provient du nom barbare). Ce verbe
nest plus usuel; il est intressant de noter quil existait gale
ment une autre variante de ce verbe avec lesufLxe -y-: barbaryty.
vakovaty (tre disponible, vaquer). Le mot vakans tait us
dans les documents de la chancellerie cosaque partir du XVIIe
sicle; il est intressant de noter que ce verbe na pas le thme
nominal quon pourrait esprer (+vakansovaty), ce qui veut dire
que lenom et leverbe ont t transfrs simultanment.
venerovaty (vnrer). Le dictionnaire fixe en mme temps le
nom venerovanje.
dyryhovaty (diriger). Le dictionnaire indique que ceverbe est
venu par lintermdiairie du polonais; il existait en mme temps
un synonyme rejmentovatydu latin regimen.
kasovaty (annuler, liquider). Provient du verbe casser avec
lextension du sens.
leportuvaty (faire un rapport). On le trouve; chez H. Kvitka-
Osnovjanenko, tandis que dans le dictionnaire en question on
lit eleport, un mot strictement du domaine de la vie militaire.
matority (mrir). Le dictionnaire donne le nom maturit
comme le thme nominal de ce verbe. Linfluence directe latine
est plus probable.
rezydovaty (rsider). Le dictionnaire ne donne pas, cepen
dant, lenom rezydencija, qui est largement connu aujourdhui.
respektovaty (respecter). Le nom respekt est connu des do
cuments de la chancellerie cosaque surtout au cas instrumental:
respektom (signifiant tout en respectant).
rujnovaty (ruiner). Le participe rujnovanyj et le nom rujina
sont aussi fixs.
sapovaty (draciner lherbe mauvaise). Cest le cas de la res
triction du sens du mot franais saper. Un outil agricole em
ploy cet effet sappelle sapa en ukrainien.
ukontentovaty (rendre qn. content). La prfixation des verbes
avec le thme tranger suit les rgles gnrales, mais ce verbe
particulier ntait connu quavec son prfixe. Le substantif ver
bal ukontentovanje est fix galement mais le mot kontent
nxistait comme adjectif substantive quen polonais du XVIIIe
sicle.
fatyhovaty et xvatyhovaty (fatiguer). Provient du nom fatyha
ou xvatyha cequi voulait dire labeur, besogne.
fihurovaty et xvyhurovaty (reprsenter, figurer). Ce verbe est
connu depuis le XVIIe sicle (Petro Mohyla, UcyteVnoje
JevanheVyje, 1637).
La formation de ces verbes, qui pour la plupart sont archaques de
nos jours, constitue un modle pour la formation des verbes thme
tranger dans lukrainien littraire moderne. A lexception de quelques
cas extrmement rares, ces verbes appartiennent la lreclasse. Ils pro
viennent de noms transfrs dj dans la langue (y compris ceux qui
sont devenus archaques) et parfois de noms transfrs dune autre
langue existant paralllement sur leterritoire de lUkraine. Quant leur
prfixation, elle suit les rgles gnrales du verbe ukrainien. Et ils sad
aptent phontiquement la structure phonologique ukrainienne.
A partir de la seconde moiti du XIXesicle et avec lunification de la
langue littraire ukrainienne, on note lintensification du procd dem
prunt lexical. Sur le plan gnral, la frquence demploi du verbe di
minue considrablement, surtout au XXesicle.... La phrase devient
charge de noms, surtout celle du style scientifique, ainsi que celle du
style journalistique.3Ce phnomne nempche pas, dailleurs, laug
mentation de la quantit absolue des verbes nouveaux forms partir
3 V. R usanivs kyj, Struktura ukrajinskoho dijeslova (K iev, 1971), p. 169.
VERBE THME DORI GI NE FRANAI SE
113
de thmes transfrs. Ces verbes drivs prolifrent et ne cessent pas
de dsesprer les puristes.
En ce qui concerne lusage du suffixe -uva-, V. Rusanivskyj crit:
La lre classe verbale englobe une grande quantit de thmes verbaux;
lindicateur de cette classe, lesuffixe -uva-, devient un des suffixes dri
vatifs des plus rpandus, et la frquence de son usage augmente. Au
XXe sicle ce suffixe semploie le plus souvent pour la drivation du
lexique terminologique form partir de mots dorigine trangre.4
Dans le systme moderne de formation des verbes a,, epme tranger
lesuffixe -uva-, du point de vue de la productivit, est suivi des suffixes
binaires -izuva- (-yzuva-) et -iruva- (-yruva-). Ils sont beaucoup moins
productifs, le dernier surtout. Plus rares encore sont les suffixes dsi
gnant les verbes qui appartiennent aux autres classes verbales: -y- de la
X'*me class z (pudry ty s , kadry ty, odekolony ty s y, party zany ty).
On trouve aussi dans la langue ukrainienne les verbes unis thmati-
quement mais forms laide de suffixes diffrents. Ces verbes ne sont
pas nombreux: komandyruvatykomanduvaty, bombarduvatybom
by ty. Trs souvent le suffixe -ir- est employ pour sparer les champs
smantiques des verbes avec des thmes homonymiques: budyruvaty
buduvaty, yryruvatyyruvaty, krokiruvatykrokuvaty, paryruvatyparuvaty.
Il existe en ukrainien une vaste classe de substantifs forms laide du
suffixe dsignant lagent -nyk. Parmi ceux-ci les noms dorigine tran
gre ne sont pas rares: kabotanyk, sabotaznyk (pour ne mentionner
que ceux dorigine franaise). Si leverbe est form partir dun tel nom,
lesuffixe -nyk ne disparat pas, devenant ainsi un autre suffixe verbal
-nyc (en conformit avec les rgles de la palatalisation): kabotany-
aty, sabotanyatyl (ne pas confondre avec sabotuvaty). Une fois
emprunt au nom, lenouveau suffixe verbal ny- devient indpendant et
continue former les verbes qui nont pas de rapport gnrateur avec un
nom: delikatny cat y, intymnyaty, liber a nyaty, sekretnyaty, senty
mentalny aty, f a m i l jarnycaty. Il est important de noter que ce groupe
de verbes appartient la 3eclasse verbale (suffixe -a- pour linfinitif et
-aj- pour la 3epers. pl.).
4 V. R usanivskyj, Ibid, p. 194.
Le suffixe nominal -stv-, lui aussi, est emprunt par lesystme verbal
et, tout fait comme -nyk (-ny-), il devient indpendant: proekterst-
vuvaty, krytykanststvuvaty, jakobinstvuvaty, et mme estetsvuvaty, lite-
ratorstvuvay, patriotstvuvaty.
Il reste cependant dterminer lerle du suffixe franais transfr -a
(-a- pour le verbe). Il faut dcider si un Ukrainian unilingue est dj
conscient du rle de ce morphme qui, dailleurs, reste aussi exotique
que les prfixes kontr-, anty-, re-, de-. Quant aux prfixes cits, il ny a
pas de doute que leur usage intensif dans la langue littraire a produit
un effet plutt rare dans ledomaine des rapports entre les langues: cest
en effet que le transfert morphmique a eu lieu. Si le phnomne est
devenu possible en ce qui concerne les prfixes, il est peut-tre aussi
possible quant aux suffixes.
On trouve en ukrainien un bon nombre de substantifs qui comportent
lesuffixe nominal franais -a. Il reste juxtaposer ces substantifs et les
verbes drivs du mme thme afin de dterminer si pour un Ukrainien
llment -a (-a-) parait tre dtach du thme (nominal comme ver
bal). Il ne reste plus qu en venir aux exemples.
Analysons toutes les paires du type substantifverbe qui contien
nent (ou omettent) le suffixe en question. Nous recourons cette ana
lyse dtaille parce que les autres auteurs nen parlent gure. En voici la
liste presque exhaustive:
(r)afinarafinuvaty, bandabandauvaty, blindablinda-
uvaty, demontdemontuvaty, dubljadubljuvaty, zon-
dazonduvaty, kamufljakamufljuvaty, kaptakaptuvaty,
masamasuvaty, sabotasabotuvaty, stastauvatysja, typ-
(a) typizuvaty, fiksafiksuvaty, antaantauvaty.
Le mot stauvatysja ne fait partie de cette liste que pour mettre au
point notre prochaine conclusion car llment -a- de ce verbe a tou
jours fait partie intgrale du thme.
Parmi ces exemples on ne peut dgager que trois verbes gardant le
suffixe nominal -a. Cette quantit est insuffisante pour nous permettre
daffirmer que la rgle est devenue gnrale, et que nous avons en ukrai
nien un autre suffixe verbal emprunte au nom. En revanche, notre con
clusion est beaucoup plus significative pour la catgorie des substantifs.
Lomission si frquente de llment -a au cours de la drivation signifie
ncessairement que pour un Ukrainien, cet lment est en train de
devenir un nouveau suffixe nominal.
Lukrainien contemporain comprend aussi un grand nombre de verbes
forms laide de suffixes binaires dont les lments initiaux sont dori
gine trangre: -izuva- (yzuva-), -iruva- (-yruva). A,nalysons-les part.
Le suffixe binaire -izuva- contient llment -iz- qui nest autre que le
suffixe franais trs actif dans la formation des verbes et, par la suite,
des substantifs verbaux. Le fait quen ukrainien ce mme suffixe appa
raisse dans les noms comme dans les verbes indique que la chose et
laction ont t transfres simultanment: donc, ekranizuvaty appa-
rat en mme temps que ekran et ekranizacija, tandis que ekranuvaty se
rfre une autre priode de la formation ainsi qu un autre domaine
de la technologie. Voici la liste de ces verbes avec les noms correspon
dents:5avtoryzuvaty, avtoryzacija; detalizuvaty, detalizacija; dyplomaty-
zuvaty; ekranizuvaty, ekranizacija, ekranizator; idealizuvaty, idealiza-
cija; improvizuvaty, improvizacija; indyvidualizuvaty, indyvidualizacija;
internacionalizuvaty, internacionalizacija; ironizuvaty; kolonizuvaty, ko-
lonizacija, kolonizator; konkretyzuvaty, konkretyzacija; lokalizuvaty,
lokalizacija; miniatjuryzuvaty, miniatjuryzacija; modernizuvaty, moder
nizacja; nazalizuvaty, nazalizacija; naturalizuvaty(sja), naturalizacija;
orhanizuvaty, orhanizacija; paralizuvaty (mais parali vient directement
du grec); poetyzuvaty, poetyzacija; realizuvaty, realizacija, realizator;
revoljucionizuvaty; romanizuvaty, romanizacija; romanty zuvaty, roman-
ty zacij a; symvolizuvaty, symvolizacija; sy s tematy zuvaty, systematyzacija;
solidary zuvaty sja, solidary zacija; stylizuvaty, stylizacija; typizuvaty,
typizacija; urbanizuvaty, urbanizacija; federalizuvaty(sja), federalizacija.
Le fait que le suffixe -iz- (-yz-) soit devenu productif dans la langue-
rcepteur et qu il participe au procd du drivation des sovitismes
(p asp orty zuvaty, radjanizuvaty) indique quil a t totalement incorpor
dans lesystme morphologique de lukrainien.
En ce qui concerne le suffixe binaire -iruva- (-yruva-), cest avec un
peu de rserve que nous avons dcid den parler dans cette analyse. La
rserve est due au fait que llment -ir- (-yr-) est dorigine allemande.
5 N. Avilovacroit queles deux composants sont un seul suffixe verbal -izova-. Voir
N. Avilova, Slova internacionaVnogo proisxodenija v russkom literaturnom jazy ke
novogo vremeni, Moscou, 1967.
Lautre raison est que llment -ir- est extrmement productif dans la
langue russe6et que cest cette langue qui nous fournit les verbes thme
tranger forms laide du suffixe binaire -iruva- (-irova- en russe).
Mais si le thme tranger est clairement dorigine franaise, nous pla
ons le verbe dans la catgorie des gallicismes parvenus par lecanal
russe. J e ne serait pas juste de les abandonner aux tudiants spcialisant
dans les contacts russo-ukrainiens, car cest aprs tout le thme et non
pas lesuffixe qui porte la charge smantique principale.
Pour dresser la liste des verbes contenant llment -ir- (-yr-) les
internationalismes ns en masse au cours de la rvolution technolo
gique, ont t rejets ici pour ne laisser que les mots dont lorigine fran
aise ne prsente pas de doute: braviruvaty, drapiruvaty, dresyruvaty,
kotyruvatysja, mankiruvaty, pikiruvaty, utryruvaty, filiruvaty, furay-
ruvaty.
Le verbe reyruvatysja, dailleurs, nappartient pas cette liste, car ici
llment -yr- reprsente la terminaison du thme du verbe correspon
dant franais.
La modestie de la liste de verbes forms selon ce type montre quen
ukrainien lesuffixe binaire -iruva- (-yruva-) est peu productif et que son
usage avec les thmes dorigine franaise se maintient uniquement sous
linfluence de lusage parallle en russe.
Nous avons en outre, trs productif dans leprocd de formation des
internationalismes, mais dusage modr avec les thmes dorigine fran
aise, le suffixe binaire -fikuva-, qui correspond au -fi- franais suivi de
la terminaison verbale -er: internyfikuvaty, kodyfikuvaty, ratyfikuvaty,
fortyfikuvaty.
Il reste enfin un groupe htrogne de verbes appartenant formelle
ment la Xe classe (selon Rusanivskyj): bombyty (pour laviation;
bombarduvatypour lartillerie et laviation), kadryty (argot: se proc
urer une kadraiun kadrune filleiun gars), odekolonyty(sja), partyzan-
yty, forsy ty (argot: prtendre tre un dandy).
Les verbes aiyant un thme tranger qui seforment laide du suffixe
6 A vilova ne prcise pas lorigine de -ir- et constate tout simplement: Ils (les verbes)
sont forms laide des formants drivatifs russifis -irova-, -ficirova-, -zirova-, -izirova- ".
D e nouveau, A vilova croit qu -irova- soit un seul suffixe (Ibid, p. 19). C e nest pas, tout
de mme, notre point de vue.
VERBE THME DORI GI NE FRANAI SE
117
-y-, setrouvent souvent pour une raison qui reste dfinir en marge de
la langue littraire: frajerytysja, rokenrolyty, styryty (voler; tirer qch.-?).
Les derniers paragraphes de cet article tratent la question des muta
tions phontiques qui seproduisent la jonction thme +suffixe.
Pour dgager lethme verbal on juxtapose le verbe et le nom corres
pondant: avansuvatyavans\ si le nom correspondant nexiste pas en
ukrainien, on a recours directement au franais: blanuvatyblanche;
on a galement recours au franais si le nom ukrainien contenant le
mme thme que leverbe analys apparat avec un suffixe franais qui,
dailleurs, nest pas peru comme suffixe dans le cadre du systme mor
phologique ukrainien: abonuvatyabonn +ement (les noms corres
pondants ukrainiens sont abonement et abonent, et naident pas d
gager lethme); de mme pour servuvaty: les mots existant en ukrainien
serviz et servis naident pas comprendre do vient lethme serv-.
Les thmes ainsi dgags se terminent le plus souvent sur une con
sonne dure qui, la jonction avec lesuffixe du verbe de la lreclasse, ne
produit aucune mutation ni difficult dordre orthographique: aviz-
uvaty, ajust-uvaty, aran-uvaty, atak-uvatyy blan-uvaty, deton-uvaty,
deyfr-uvaty, zond-uvaty, konserv-uvaty, koryh-uvaty, mas-uvaty, pa
r a f uvaty, etc.
Cependant, le / franais devient toujours le V ukrainien la jonc
tion thme +suffixe verbal. Orthographique ment cephnomne est refl
t par lechangement de -uva- en -juva-, mais lechangement est illusoire,
car la transcription phontique, mme simplifie, nous montre quau
cune mutation ne se produit cette jonction: [za-vual-uva-ty], [defil-
uva-ty], [dubl-uva-ty], [emal-uva-ty], [onhl-uva-ty], [izol-uva-ty],
[kamufl-uva-ty], [kontrol-uva-ty], [model-uva-ty], [patrul-uva-ty], [pe-
dal-uva-ty], [profil-uva-ty], [reful-uva-ty].
Les verbes comme dyferencijuvaty et kompanijuvaty {dial.) appar
tiennent aussi au groupe de verbes thme mouill, car le[j] phontique
fonctionne comme une consonne pour tout propos morphologique:
[dyferencij-uva-ty], [kompanij-uva-ty].
Mais les mutations phontiques importantes ont lieu la jonction
thme+izuva-, thme +iruva-. Quelles sont les conditions qui modifient
ces deux suffixes binaires de telle manire quiils deviennent -yzuva-,
-yruva-
Nous avons tabli par la voie exprimentale que les variantes -izuva-,
-iruva- prdominent, tandis que les variantes -yzuva-, -yruva- nappa
raissent quaprs sept consonnes: [d, t, z, , s, , r]: komand-yruvaty,
romant-yzuvaty, viz-yruvaty, fura-yruvaty, dres-yruvaty, mar-yruvaty,
solidar-yzuvatysja; utr-yruvaty.
Pour voir ce que tous ces thmes ont de commun, consultons le ta
bleau dress par Morris Halle pour les sons de la langue russe, avec les
traits distinctifs essentiels aux jonctions morphologiques (le phontiste
ukrainien peut sy rfrer avec confiance tout en tenant compte des dis
tinctions fondamentales mais videntes).7
Il en rsulte que tous les sons mentionns, outre +consonantique,
nont en commun quun autre trait distinctif. Celui-ci appartient au
domaine des caractristiques acoustiques du son: -tonalit basse {-low
tonality). Ce trait est donc celui qui dtermine le choix de y dans le
suffixe parmi les deux variantes de suffixes binaires.
En marge de ce groupe, dailleurs, se trouve le son [r] pour lequel le
trait tonalit est non-pertinent. A notre avis, le [r] fait partie de ce
groupe pour des raisons historiques. En effet le[r] final des mots trans
frs na jamais t mouill et reste dur pour tout propos morpholo
gique. Ce nest pas cependant lecas des mots ukrainiens dorigine: com
parez, par exemple, kobzar-juvaty et bazar-uvaty.
Dautre part il faut noter que parmi les autres consonnes, celles qui
attirent le suffixe possdent, comme attendu, le trait distinctif
oppos+tonalit basse (+/ow tonality), sauf le [n] qui se distingue du
groupe de consonnes prcdent par un seul trait+nasal. Ce trait articu-
latoire empche le thme n dattirer le suffixe -y-. Ces deux excep
tions (le [r] et le[n] finals) suggrent la ncessit de lanalyse plus pous
se du phnomne dcrit.
Parmi les 273 verbes analyss, les verbes transitifs sont en majorit
absolue. On en a compt 205, cest--dire75%. Tous les verbes analyss
appartiennent au vocabulaire contemporain et presque tous sont fixs
par les dictionnaires les plus rcents.8Il reste toujours prciser com-
7 M. Halle, The Sound Pattern o f Russian (T he HagueParis: Mouton, 1971), pp.
45-46.
8 Slovnyk inomovnyx sliv, ed. par O.S . Mnyuk, K iev, 1977.
ment cette distribution correspond au schma gnral de la transitivi
t/intransitivit du verbe ukrainien.
Universit d'Ottawa
BIBLIOGRAPHI E
Bileckyj-Nosenko, P., Slovnyk ukrajinskoji movy, Kiev, 1966.
Haugen, E., The analysis of linguistic borrowings, Language, XXVI (1950).
L Hermitte, R., Quelques traits gnraux de lemprunt dans les langues
slaves, Revue des tudes slaves, L U/4 (1979), pp. 459-466.
Ohijenko, I. Inozemnyje elementy v russkom jazyke, Kiev, 1915.
Ohijenko, I. Ukrajinsky] stylistycnyj slovnyk, Winnipeg, 1978.
Samijlenko, V. I., uomovni slova v ukrajinskij movi, ljax, No. 8(1918).
Sergeantson, M.S., A History of Foreign Words in English, L ondon, 1968.
Tokarski, J ., red., Sownik wyrazw obcych, Warsaw, 1971.
Weinreich, U., Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems, The Hague-
Paris, 1968.
D ie ukrainische S prache im Poajiver
D ruck K sika lekarstw koskich
aus dem Jahre 1778
OLEXA HORBATSCH
Dem unermdlichen Literarhistoriker M. Voznjak verdankt die ukr.
Sprachwissenschaft die Verffentlichung der bibliographischen Rari
tt aus dem J . 1788, die sich vermutlich nur in einem einzigen Exem
plar (der Warschauer Universittsbibliothek, Sign. 12.28.5.44) erhalten
hat1). Das Bchlein trgt einen polnischen Titel2), ein polnisches Vor
wort (Przedmowa, S. 3-8), das die Notwendigkeit dieses ukr. tier- und
humanmedizinisch ausgerichteten Druckes fr Landbewohner und vor
allem fr Dorfjugend rechtfertigt, einen ukr. Titel3) (S. 9) sowie den
eigentlichen kyrillischen Text (S. 10-97), dessen letzte Kapitel (ab S. 97),
1 Voznjak, M.: U krajinskyj hospodarskyj poradnyk z 1788 r., In: Zapysky Naukovoho
tovarystva imeny evenka (weiterhin: ZNT), Bd. 122, L viv 1915, S . 37-78.A us dieser
Verffentlichung wurde der T ext fr das historische Wrterbuch des U krainischen (T ym-
enko, Je.: Istorynyjslovnyk ukrajinskoho jazyka, Bd. I, 1-2, Xarkiv-K yjiv 1930-32, (A-
) exzerpiert.E benfalls daraus kennt ihn Plju, P.P. (Istorija ukrajinskoji literaturnoji
movy, K yjiv 1971, S . 223) sowievermutlich nur verbalkennen ihn die A utoren der
G eschichte der ukr. S prache (Istorija ukrajinskoji movy. Syntaksys, K yjiv 1983, S . 487),
bei denen der bibliographische Verweis auf Voznjaks Verffentlichung nicht stimmt.
A uch Maxnovec, L .Je. (Ukrajinski p y s mennyky. Bio-bibliohrafinyj slovnyk, Bd. I,
K yjiv 1960) ist unsere Ksika-Knyycja unbekannt.A uch T ymoenko, P.D . (Xresto-
matija materialiv z istoriji ukrajinskoji literaturnoji movy, B. I, K yjiv 1959) sowie die
A utoren der G eschichte der ukr. S chriftsprache (Kurs istoriji ukrajinskoji literaturnoji
movy, I. Doovtnevyj period, K yjiv 1958) fanden den Poajiver D ruck nicht erwh
nenswert.
2 K sika lekarstw koskich, oraz sposoby ratowania w chorobach byda, owiec, etc.
w typografii W W. OO. Bazylianw za przywileiem J.K . Mci. 1788 r. w Poczaiowie. (Wei
terhin: K).
3 Knyycja dlja hospodarstva [...].
im erhaltenen Exemplar bis zur S. 110) mit polnischen Buchstaben
transferiert werden4).
Voznjak hat den Text nur in einer Abschrift gehabt, die ihm vor 1914
J evhen Tymenko in Warschau angefertigt hatte. Sein Aufsatz enthlt
auer einer philologisch-sprachlichen Analyse (einschlielich vermutliche
polnische Textvorlagen, S. 37-58) auch einen Abdruck des kyrilli
schen Textes (S. 59-78). Beides bentig Ergnzungen und Korrekturen:
Erstens unterscheidet sich die polnische Wiedergabe des kyrillischen
Textes nicht nur textuell, sondern auch sprachlich (der Unterschied wird
bei Voznjak durch einen Parallelabdruck desselben Textes aus den S. 95
und 100 nur flchtig illustriert); zweitens ist Voznjaks Abdruck nicht
berall befriedigend sei es, da Tymenkos Abschrift ungenau war,
sei es, da das ursprngliche Manuskript Voznjaks whrend der russi
schen Besatzung Lembergs 1914 vernichtet wurde (vgl. Voznjak, op. cit.,
S. 58, Funote 2). Voznjaks Abdruck enthlt Stellen mit fehlerhaften
Auslassungen, ungenauen und falschen Wiedergaben des Originals (z.B.
, 65, statt -, - statt pajeryk, Verwechslungen von -
und - u.a.) sowie mancherorts falsche oder weggelassene Wortbeto
nungen. Das Identifizieren der Beispiele in Voznjaks Analyse wird durch
sein Zitieren nach den von ihm numerierten Kapiteln und nicht nach
den Seiten seines Textabdruckes erschwert.
Der Buchinhalt wurde eingehend von Voznjak (op. cit., S. 41-50),
beschrieben. Das Poajiver Werk befat sich mit Ratschlgen und Mit
teln, wie man Pferde (S. 10-48), Ochsen (S. 48-63), Schafe (S. 63-69),
Ziegen (S. 67), Schweine (S. 69-71), Hunde (S. 71-72) kurieren kann,
wie man sich vor Pest hten soll (S. 72-75), wie man gegen Heusch
recken (S. 75-77), Raupen (S. 77-79 und 88), Schlangenbisse (S. 79-80)
4 A ls ein einziges unkomplettes E xemplar nennt es auch E streicher, K.: Bibliografia
polska, Bd. XX, Stlecie 15-18. W ukadzie abecadowym, K rakw 1905, S . 345: K sika
lekarstw koskich oraz sposoby ratowania w chorobach byda, owiec... W typogr. W W.
OO. Bazylianw za przywilejem JK Mci 1788 r. w. Poczajowie. 8 stron przeszo 110.
ber dieses E xemplar berichtet D r. S enkiv, I van, I n seinem A rtikel L ikarska knyka z
1788 roku oo. Vasylijan u Poajevi. U nikaFna bibliohrafina ridkis in der Zeitung
Ameryka (Philadelphia, U S A ) vom 5.6. I. 1984, ohne von der Verffentlichung M.
Voznjaks gewut zu haben.D r. I. S enkiv verdanke ich die A usleihe des Mikrofilms des
E xemplars der Warschauer U B.
POCAJ I VER KSI KA L EK ARSTW K OSK I CH 123
vorgehen kann, wie man erfolgreich Fische fngt (S. 80-82), wie Leinen
gebleicht wird (S. 82-84), wie man psychische (S. 84-85) und krperliche
Erkrankungen bei Menschen (z.B. Fieber, Tuberkulose, Schwellungen,
Zahnschmerzen, S. 85-87 und 97) behandelt, wie man Muse und
Kornwrmer (S. 87) bekmpft, wie Feldschden durch Rinder (S. 87-
88) vorzubeugen sind, wie man Obstbume pfropft (S. 88-91), wie man
Haselnsse (S. 91) und Eier (S. 94) aufbewahrt, wie man Walnsse
pfropft (S. 92-93) und Zwiebeln im Winter vor Frostschden beim
Transport schtzt (S. 94-95), welchen Nutzen man von der Kaninchen
zucht hat (S. 95-96) und was man fr den Brandschutz (S. 96-97) tun
mu.
Neben einem anderen weltlichen Poajiver Bchlein -
... (um 1770 vom guten Ton und Benehmen)5gehrt unser Haus
wirtschaftsbuch zu den kulturhistorisch und sprach geschichtlich interes
santesten Erscheinungen jener J ahre der Poajiver Basilianerdruckerei.6
Diese weltlichen Publikationen entsprachen der F.olle, die dem Basili-
anerorden auf dem Gebiete des Schulwesens in der polnischen Adelsre
publik nach der Auflsung des J esuitenordens (1773) im Zuge der Auf
klrungsbemhungen zukam. Es ging um eine Hebung des wirtschaftlichen
und gesellschaftlichen Niveaus auch bei der ulcr. Bevlkerung der
Republik. Darber spricht das polnische Vorwort in unserem Bchlein:
Dotd wychodziy ksiki rnych lekarstw jzykiem i dru
kiem polskim [...] adnego albo bardzo may zysk w kraiu
naszym Ruskim czyniy czytania i roznoszenia tych ksiek,
poniewa one dostaway si zawsze w rce obywatelow
Polakow, w rce panw [...] A przeto dao si teraz do druku
ksieczk [...] z polskich i innych autorw przetumaczon
/3/ na jzyk ruski, w zwyczaiu miany, uywany i rozumiany
od posplstwa polskiego w Woiewdztwach Woyskim,
Kijowskim, Podolskim i Bracawskim mieszkaicego. Uyo
si nawet charakteru sowieskiego czyli ruskiego, w ktrym
5 E benfalls von Voznjak, M. (U krajinskyj savoir-vivre z 1770 r.) in: Ukrajina, 1914,
Heft 3, S . 35-55, K yjiv 1914, und auszugsweise in: Stare ukrajinske pys'menstvo. Vybir
dlja serednix kil (L viv 1922, S . 474-81) verffentlicht; D ie 2. A uflage dieses Bchleins
aus dem J. 1790 als Beilage zur L emberger Fibel Bukvarjazyka slavenskaho [...] wurde
von Franko, I. (G alicko-russkij savoir-vivre) in: Kievskaja starina, Bd. 32, S . 281-99, K iev
1891, nachgedruckt. S ie wurden von Maxnovec {op. cit., S . 485, vgl. unsere A nmer
kung 1) sowie nebenbei von Plju {op. cit., S. 222, vgl. unsere A nmerkung 1) erwhnt.
6 T ylawskyj, I.: Monastero di Poaivla sua tipografia e le sue edizioni, In: Analecta
Ordinis S. Basilii Magni, series II, sectio II , vol. I V, fasc. 1-2, R omae 1963, p. 250-90.
wielka cz ludu pospolitego iest wywiczona albo te at-
wiey wiczy si moe. /4/ [...] Dla czego nie od rzeczy
bdzie da rad wszystkim obywatelom i dziedzicom miast i
wsiw, aeby poddanym swoim wiczenie si w czytaniu rus
kim z modu zalecili [...] /5/ [...] eby za md posplstwa
do tey przysza pory, i by si czyta i rady uskutecznia
potrafia, wy zacni plebani ritus Graeci i przeoeni [...] zale
ci zechciycie kocielnym dedaskalom swoim, aeby w para
fialnych szkkach dzieci wzite do wiczenia w czytaniu
jzykiem sowieskim kig drukowanych i tey take ki-
eczki onym do uywania dawali. [...] /6/ [...] Moe si zda
wa komu to wszystko, cokolwiek ten zbir may w sobie
zawiera, za niedostateczne, zostao przeto pole dla chccego i
ochoczego lud pospolity i ubogi w ich potrzebach owieca
[] /7/7
Besonders interessant fr die Geschichte der ukr. Schriftsprache ist
die aufklrerische Einstellung des Autors (bzw. der Autoren) in bezug
auf den Gebrauch der fr die breite ukr. Fronbauernmasse verstndli
chen lokalen Volkssprache; dieses Buch wird als Leselektre fr die
Pfarrschulen empfohlen. In dieser Hinsicht ist die Auswahl der Dialekt
basis (unserer Meinung nach des ostpodolischen und nicht, wie Vozn-
jak, op. cit., S. 58, meinte,des wolhynischen Dialektes) von beson
derer Bedeutung. Dabei wurde gerungen mit der kirchenslavischen
Tradition und Rechtschreibung sowie mit lokalen Abweichungen (etwa
in den letzten Kapitelnab S. 60 ungefhr). Nicht minder interessant ist
der Versuch, die polnische Transliteration fr einen Teil der Kapitel ein
zufhren, wobei hier das Polnische (einschlielich manche Ausspra
cheeigentmlichkeiten und Grammatik) die kirchenslavische Tradition
verdrngte.
In diesen polnisch-orthographischen Merkmalen kann man einen
Vorlufer fr den literarischen Gebrauch des ostpodolischen Dialekts
bei den adligen Autoren der polnischen Schule in der ukr. Literatur
des 19. J hts. (T. Padura, S. Ostasevkyj u.a.) sehen. Vielleicht wirkten
hier anregend hnliche polnische adlige Vorbilder im zeitgenssischen
weirussischen Schrifttum des Wilnaer Zentrums.
Bei P. Plju {op. cit, S. 221-22, vgl. unsere Anmerkung 1) ist es also
ein I rrtum, wenn er den Pocajiver Druck in Absatz ber das Schrift-
7 D as Vorwort wurde von Voznjak (op. cit., S . 38-40) ebenfalls in extenso in ukr. ber
setzung angefhrt.
tum Galiziens und Transkarpatiens behandelt.
Wie die Sprachanalyse der K erweist, stammte ihr Verfasser etwa aus
dem Hajsyn-Uma-Raum; dafr sprechen: 1) entpalatalisierter r-Laut
(radn Leintuch 95, mit einem Haken 23) sowie die velare
Endug -t in der 3. Pers. Sg./Pl. (vypadetb fllt aus 41, xodytb geht
10, rbjatb sie tun 27, robljatsja sie werden 13), 2) das wolhynisch-
ostpodolische Suffix -C-anyj der wurzelbetonten Ptz. Prt. Pass, der
-z-Verben (zrobljanoho 81), 3) der sonst im heutigen Ukrainischen nicht
registrierte Rumnismus zgjba Art Hufkrankheit bei Pferden 35
(rum.-mold, zgaib verschorfte Wunde, Rindsgeschwre) sowie die
Erwhnung der Geldeinheit draxma 80, was die Nhe von griechischen
Krmern vermuten lt, 4) die Erwhnung des Geheimtips gegen
Rinderseuche eines ehrwrdigen Gutsbesitzers in der Ukraine (
62) d.h. etwa aus dem benachbarten
Cerkasy-Kyjiv-Gebiet, 5) einiges aus der reichen Synonymik der K
wrde ebenfalls fr Podolien sprechen zastp 74, tovryna 88).
Schon der Textcharakter und Umfang der K bestimmen von vorn
herein, da darin nur eine begrenzte Anzahl von bedeutungsmig spe
zial ausgerichteten Substantiven (meistens Nominative, Genitive, Dative,
Akkusative Sg. und PL), wenige Adjektive sowie besondere Formen von
Verben (Infinitive, Prsentia3. Sg. und PLund Imperative sowie
Partizipien) anzutreffen sein werden.
Phonetik. Phonetische und morphologische Merkmale des kyrilli
schen Textes hat Voznjak {op. cit., S. 50-57) behandelt, wenn auch seine
Darstellung veraltet wirkt, da er die phonetischen mit den morphologi
schen Erscheinungen durcheinanderbrachte.
Die unetymologischen -Schreibweisen bergehen wir hier als
8 E streichert, K.: Bibliografia polska. 140 000 drukw, cz. //. t. II (Oglnego zbioru t.
IX. Stlecie XVIII. Dopenienia do wieku XV-XVII). Bibliografia polska, t. IX, Stlecie
XVIII. Spis chronologiczny, K rakw 1888.Hier finden sich etwa seit den 1750er Jahren
mehrere in Warschau und Wilna gedruckte Werke, deren T itel unserem Poajiver D ruck
entsprechen knnten; sie sind oftmals aus deutschen und franzsischen Vorlagen bersetzt
(z.B. 1756, 1757, 1760 von C erner/Zerner, S . 280, 285, 301, 304, 308; vgl. auch die wh
rend der Pest der 1770-71 Jahre entsprechenden A ufklrungsdi ucke ber die Bekmpfung
dieser insbesondere in Podolien wtenden S euchevon A sch 1770, S . 386, 390, 392,von
S zylarski W., S . 392; 1771: S . 396, 397, 398, 399; 1774: von Milhrd N .A ., S . 423,gegen
Pocken, Fieber und Viehseuchen; 1774: von K rupiski J., S . 422, 424, 434; 1776: von
R yszkowski F.X., S . 449; 1773: ber Brandbekmpfung, S . 413 u.a.).
126
wenig interessant fr das 18. J hdt. in Ostpodolien.
Der Vokal anstelle des * wird geschrieben: 1) traditionell mit o
( 10, 84), 2) seltener mit ( 24, 10,
31, 36) sowie mit u bzw. ( 42, 77); 2)
hnlich wird der Vokal anstelle des * geschrieben: 1) selten mit e
( 18, 16, 61), 2) hufig mit ( 13,
33) und ausnahmsweise mit ( G376, 88). Das etymo
logische wird geschrieben: 1) meistens als ( 24), 2)
ab und zu als u insbesondere wenn unbetont ( 30,
13// 61). Dies beweist, da die Mundart des ber
setzers noch nicht berall den heutigen sdukrainischen Ikavismus-
Stand (mit dem bergang *, *e, > i) erreicht hatte. Wenig aussagend
sind hier Flle vom Typ 84, 68, da es nicht sicher ist,
inwieweit hier der nrdliche ukr. bergang > -yj- bzw. Analogien
zum typ 88, 33// 59, vorliegen.
Anstelle des vortonigen etymologischen o tritt in der K als eine Folge
des Einflusses der Wolhynien- und Polia-Mundarten die Schreibweise
mit a auf ( 38, 38, 83, 41).
Postvokalisches silbenschlieendes / wird im Wortinlaut nicht nur
als ( 17), sondern etymologisch-traditionell (und unter polni
schem Einflu) auch als geschrieben ( 69, ponym 110). In den
maskulinen Prterita wird fast immer - geschrieben ( 65).
Den mittleren /-Laut darf man in den Schreibweisen mit - im Wor
tauslaut anstelle des etymologischen - vermuten (= 34, 69,
= 64, 6L G1 62, = 76, auch:
89II 74),neben der bereits traditionellen Schreib
weise der Gruppen - -, - -, - - ( 24, 48,
46). Die neue ukr. /-Epenthese nach jotierten Labialen kommt nicht nur
in der 3. PI. Prs. ( 73// 27), sondern auch in der
Deklination vor (c 31).
Den fast ausnahmslosen r > r- bergang charakterisieren die Schreib
weisen 31, // 69, // 19).
Der -Laut wird traditionsgem (und vielleicht unter poln. Einflu)
im Suffix - entpalatalisiert als - geschrieben ( 12, selten
14, meistens 90, 23, 72// 46),
jedoch bleibt er in - fast immer palatal ( 48, 95).
Morphologie. In der Deklination der Substantive lt sich in der K
(wie in den heutigen wolhynischen und podolischen Mundarten) ein
deutlicher Einflu des velaren Typs im Lok. Sg. der Maskulina, Neutra
und Feminina (hier auch im Dat. Sg.) feststellen; er ist auch in der drit
ten Deklination der Feminina sprbar, obgleich sich hier noch ber
reste der Endungen der /-Stmme erhalten haben.
Bei den Maskulina findet man folgende Endungsmorpheme in den
einzelnen Kasus vor: 1) im Gen. Sg.: -a (bei Lebewesen, Einzelgegen
stnden, beim Suffix -k- und im palatalen Typ: 72, 27,
36, 34), - (bei Pflanzen- und Stoffnamen: 32,
33); 2) im Dat. Sg.: -oeuf-oei, - - ( 6 72, 53//
- 56, 27/ / 11, chlibowy 110); 3) im Instr. Sg.: - ,
- ( 31, 19, // - 53); 4) im Lok. Sg.: - ,
t f
-i, -u, - ( 33/ / -x 25, 23, 92,
88, 48// - 71, 88, 22,
61, 11 - 92: na spodi 98); 5) im Nom. Pl.: -u, -, - ( 71,
38, 10, 32, 29, 22, hryby 110);
6) im Gen. Pl.: - , - , - , - , - , -0 ( 48, 11,
12, 38, 96, 87, 47//
13// 49, 29// 30, 92: hroszey 98, 9,
10, 28, 24); 7) im Dat. Pl.: - /- ,-
( 69, 27, 23); 8) Akk. Pl.=Nom. Pl. ( 78,
63, 51, 25) und nur bei Personen Akk. Pl.=Gen.
Pl.; 9) im Instr. Pl.: - /- , - ( 30, 39,
20, 75); 10) im Lok. Pl.: - ( 51, 60).
Bei den Feminina sind zu vermerken: 1) im Gen. Sg.: - /- , -t, -e
( 81, 58,rpuibi 89, 58, 77// - 9,
110 soli 110, 49, 11, 25, 67, 82,
81// 36// 31); 2) im Dat. Sg.: -t ( 69,
88, 62); 3) im Instr. Sg.: - , - , - , -to - (93: pod
strychom998, 51, 52, 25, 44, cTOCTiK)
/
9 Falls die Form strychom statt (I nstr. S g.) kein I rrtum ist (d.h. nicht als
I nstr. S g. von stryx D achboden verstanden wurde!), kann sie mit den identischen westli
chen nordpodolischen E ndungen des I nstr. S g. der Feminina {boronm - boronju)
zusammengestellt werden. Vgl. D ejna, K.: Gwary ukraiski? Tarnopolszczyzny, PA N ,
K omitet Jzykoznawczy, Prace Jzykoznawcze 13, Wrocaw 1957, K arta N r. VI I .
/
21, TpAHOCTK) 65, 51, 31// 40, 23//
24); 4) im Lok. Sg.: - -u ( 64, 65,
22/ 1 92: pry zemli 98, 75, 55,
92: u oseni 109, 74, 75, na peczy 109); 5)
im Nom. Pl.: - /- , - , - ( 9, 58, 46, a 52,
81/ 64, kartofli 110); 6) im Gen. Pl.: -0, - , - , - , -
( 67, 42, OTpb 47, 14, 39, 42,
77, 26, 12); 7) im Dat. Pl.: - ( 64);
8) Akk. Pl. =Nom. PI. (Auin 61, 26, 26, 50// -
* f
94, 81, 82, BHTpHOCTH 40, 95, 67,
48, 73); 9) im Instr. Pl.: - , - ( 79, 32,
25); 10) im Lok. Pl.: - /- ( 78, 74,
73, 69). berreste des Duals sind nach den
Zahlwrtern , in den Fllen 19 (aber:
94), 14 anzutreffen; sonst aber treten nur Pluralfor
men auf ( 54, 16).
Bei den Neutra treten auf: 1) im Nom. Sg.: -, -e, -, -a ( 23,
76, /- 69, 38, 75, 79,
73, 41, 68, 28); 2) im Gen. Sg.: -/- ( 23,
, 72, 57, 52, 52,
28); 3) im Dat. Sg.: - ( 32); 4) im Instr. Sg.: - , - ,
- ( 16, 15, 68, 10,
92: czerepiem 98); 5) im Lok. Sg.: - , - , - ( 19, 11,
86: na tertci 110, 44, 50, 76/ /
67: na mistcu 98, 62, 91,
80, 63); 6) im Nom. Pl.: -a ( 76, oxa 24, 84,
77); 7) im Gen. Pl.: -0 ( 52, 18, 76,
52, 71); 8) im Instr. Pl.: - , - ( 96, oxaMH 25,
24); 9) im Lok. Pl.: - /- ( 29, 24,
76).
Unter den Deklinationsendungen der Adjektive sind nur selten Spuren
des Kirchenslavischen anzutreffen (so im Gen. Sg. der Maskulina-
Neutra - : 13/ / 30, 13/ / -rro 31,
13// - 31, 97).
Als eine Angleichung betreffs der Silbenzahl an die Form des femi
ninen Dat. Sg. tritt im femininen Gem. Sg. der Adjektive und Demon-
POAJ I VER KSI KA L EK ARSTW K OSK I CH 129
strative die Endung - auf ( 37, 16, 80,
30,ausnahmsweise: 44); diese Erscheinung hat Parallelen in
der polnischen und in der russischen Sprache. Erleichtert wurde diese
Angleichung des femininen Gen. Sg. an den Dat. Sg. bei Adjektiven
vermutlich durch den Gleichklang des Genitivs und Dativs im palatalen
Paradigma der femininen Substantive, nachdem hier das palatale para
digma die Endung - ( -/) des velaren Paradigmas angenommen hat
(Gen. Sg. und Dat. Sg. < ).
Im Nom. und Akk. Sg. der Feminina und Neutra sowie im Nom.-
Akk. PI. treten Lang- und Kurzformen (nichtkontrahierte und kontra
hierte Formen) auf, wobei die Kurzformen eher im prdikativen als im
attributiven Gebrauch hufiger sind. Von zwei Adjektiven ( 24,
76) kommen maskuline Kurzformen des Nom. Sg. nur in
prdikataver Funktion vor. Hufiger sind die Kurzformen des Nom. PI.
(etwa 8, wovon drei prdikativ gebraucht werden: 70,
22, 21, 14, 72, 56,
Kprvm 45, ] 63). Anders sind die HufigkeitsVerhltnisse bei
femininen Kurzformen (drei prdikative Kurzformen im Nom. Sg.
sowie weitere 30 attributive Kurzformen stehen hier nur noch drei Lang
formen gegenber; im Akk. Sg. sind es 22 Kurzformen und genauso
viele Langformen), bei neutralen Kurzformen (im Nom.-Akk. Sg.: 12
Langformen gegenber 21 Langformen) und im Nom.-Akk. PI. (8 Kurz
formen auf - /- ; sonst nur Langformen: wovon 10 auf - , 32 auf -
sowie 2 palatale auf -tu und 3auf - /- ).
Es lt sich eine Ausbreitung des palatalen Typs der Adjektive (sij)
auf die wurzelbetonten Eigenschaftswrter mit dem Morphem -C-n-yj
insbesondere im Nom. Sg. mask, und im Nom.-Akk. PL feststellen (ca.
50). Sicher sind jedoch nur die 7 Beispiele (, 93,
64, 15, 46, 86, 15,
19, 14, 66), die den palatalisierten Konso
nanten auch in den Kasus obliqui aufweisen. Denn in der poln. Trans
literation wurden die maskulinen Nom. Sg.-Formen - mit - (
93: kady 99) und die Nom.-Akk. Pl.-Formen - mit -yi ( 85:
zeenyi 102) wiedergegeben.
Deadjektivale Adverbien gehen auf - ( 10, 47,
81, 90, 40, 75) und auf - aus
( 77, 46, 40, 33, 73
gewi unter dem poln. Einflu). Ihre Komparativformen lauten:
34// 10, 17// 90, 72, 37//
, 92, 97, 29.
In bezug auf die Kurz- und Langformen sind die Verhltnisse bei
adjektivalen Pronomina hnlich. Im Nom. Sg. der Maskulina sind
anzutreffen: 61// 19, 76/ - 93, 16,
36. Im femininen Nom. Sg. sind es: 42// -pa 47,
84, 70, 77// 27; auch bei den Neutra: 68, 48//
18, 52/ / 41, 56/ / 80/ / 80. Die anderen
Kasusformen lauten: 1) Gen. Sg. fern.: 71// 11 (bei Voznjak,
S. 55, 59, falsch moeul), 2) Akk. Sg. fern.: 45, 56, ^ 61//
>78, TaKio 93, 12, 16, 13, 3) Instr. Sg. fern.:
88// 36/ 47, 4) Nom.-Akk. Pl.: 10, 12//
681/ 14// - 77, 51// - 74, 71,
41/ / 46, 88, 89: tyi 110, 13.
Das Personalpronomen der 3. Person (keine anderen treten im Text
auf) weist folgende Formen auf: Gen. Sg. mask, ( 39, 72),
fern, ( 39, 45), Dat. Sg. mask. (eM 10), Akk. Sg. fern, ( 65),
Instr. Sg. fern, ( 23, 23), Lok. Sg. ( 83,
61), Nom.-Akk. Pl. ( 69), Gen. PI. ( 27, ich 40, 89), Instr.
Pl. (z nymy 110) und Lok. Pl. ( 22).
Bei Zahlwrtern sind folgende Formen hervorzuheben: 1) Nom.-
Akk.: 92, 22, 12, 73, mask, 18, 2)
Gen.: 16, 24, 44,
16, 3) Instr.: fern, 17, 81, 4) Lok.:
oxaxb 24, 5) die polnisch beeinflute Kollektiva-Form des Gen.
Sg. 95.
Die Konjugation der Verben ist in der K nur sprlich belegt: 1) die
Endung der 3. Sg. und Pl. ist -t (ausgenommen 11, 14):
61, 19, im Sg. kann - in der e-Konjugation wegfallen
(6flerb 84// e 80); die --losen Formen erreichen zahlenmig
etwa die Hlfte der -mb-Formen; 2) die 2. Sg.-Form geht auf - aus
( 37, Mcniirb 37); bei den athematischen Verben sind nur
50 und - des Hilfsverbs Prteriti belegt (,
- 90, , - 90, , -
AJ I VER KSI KA L EK ARSTW K OSK I CH 131
npTHKOBb 90); 3) das Infinitivformans -ty (einmal
- : 25) tritt auch bei den Verben mit der Infinitivwurzel auf
einen Guttural auf ( 40, 74); das Suffix -ovaty
( 39, ; 71) erscheint bereits in der Form
-uvaty ( 51, ^ 35) in einem Drittel aller Belege; 4)
das Postfix - wird noch von seinem Verb getrennt (insbesondere im 2.
Teil der K) und ihm vorangestellt ( . / /
71); dieses - dient sowohl zur Bildung der Reflex
iva als auch des Passivs (hier neben den mit passiven Partizipien
zusammengesetzten Formen: [] KypioHH 70,
[...] [...] 21) wie auch in
unpersnlichen Stzen ( 83);
5) Futurum wird bei imperfektiven Verben nur mit dem Infinitiv und
dem (meist postpositiv gebrauchten) Hilfsverb (63) gebildet
( 6fle 19); 6) hervorzuheben sind besonders die auftretenden
Aspektfeinheiten ( 69: 68, 96: -
15, 24: 24); die iterativen Formen werden von
prfigierten Perfektiva ( 88 zu 77) sowohl mit Suffixen
als auch mit einem verschobenen Wortakzent gebildet ( 77;
51// 14: 57); die Perfektivierung der
Iterativitt wird durch doppelte Prfigierung des Verbs erreicht (noua-,
nonepe-y nonpu-, nonpo-, noom-: 68,
60, 24, 56); Perfektivierungen mit dem Pr
fix u- sind vermutlich durch polnische Vorlagen bedingt ( 92,
10, 23, 35, 20, 49,
46): heute findet man hier andere Prfixe; 7) in den prfigierten
Verben (im Typ 94: 15, 96, 34,
77, und nur einmal 83) ist der nicht zurckgezo
gene Wortakzent hervorzuheben.
Der von Voznjak vllig auer acht gelassene Wortakzent der K (er
wurde im abgedruckten Text mancherorts fehlerhaft bezeichnet, wie
dies unser flchtiger Vergleich mit dem Original beweist) weist weitere
interessante Erscheinungen auf, die wir hier nur schematisch andeuten
wollen: 1) die typische sdwestukr. (und z.T. auch die schriftsprach
liche) Morphologisierung der Wortbetonung bei Substantiven (der
Gegegnsatz Sg.: PI. sowie Nom. Sg.: Akk. Sg. bei Feminina) ist in der K
noch nicht so weit fortgeschritten wie in der heutigen Schriftsprache
(insbesondere bei dreisilbigen: Akk. PL 84, 74,
69, 65); 2) die postprpositionale Zurckzie
hung der oxytonalen Betonung der Pronomina tritt in der K nicht ein
( 16, 111 j 40); 3) unter den passiven Partizipien
Prteriti auf -ovnyjI-nyj kommen Spuren der nordukr.-weirussischen
Betonung vor ( 33, 77, 72,
40); es herrscht jedoch die sdukr. Betonung -vanyj, '-anyj
vor; 4) bei denselben Partizipien auf -enyj treten die blichen Unter
schiede zwischen den adjektivisierten Formen ( 10,
80, 72, denen sich einige weitere Partizipien mit der
huzulisch-pokutischen Betonung roblnyj angeschlossen haben:
49, 90) und den Partizipien auf ( 19).
Von einer eingehenden Untersuchung des Wortakzentes der Adjektive
nehmen wir hier aus Platzgrnden Abstand.
Aus der Syntax seien hier nur zwei Konstruktionen erwhnt, die ber
den Heimatdialekt des Verfassers der K aussagen knnen: 1) es treten
nebeneinander die beiden Konstruktionen bei bolity auf: die nordukrai
nische 53 und die sdwestukr.
53; 2) die Gleichzeitigkeit der Handlung, die durch ein undekli
nierbares aktives Partizip ausgedrckt wird, mit der Handlung, die im
Hauptsatz durch das Prdikatsverb bezeichnet ist, wird in der K einmal
nach der ostukr. Art in der Partizipialkonstruktion durch ein
imperfektives undeklinierbares Partizip Prteriti (und nicht Prsentis)
ausgedrckt ( ,
, 95).
In der Wortbildung sind Suffixe -yna (fr die Bezeichnung der Einzel
stcke und -wesen gebraucht: 88: bydyna 101) und - (fr
Kruternamen verwendet: 27, 47, ^83)
hervorzuheben.
In der Lexik fllt eine hohe Anzahl von Polonismen auf, die z.T.
noch heute den westukr. Mundarten sowie der ukr. Sprache des 17.
J hdts. eigen sind. Es geht dabei um Abstrakta ( 67), bota
nische und medizinische Termini ( 97, 80, 81,
14) sowie Reihe von Adverbien und Partikeln ( 51,
59, 74, 65). Die aufflligsten sind von Voznjak
aufgezhlt. Ein Polonismenangler knnte in der K noch einen reichen
Fang von versteckten poln. Lehnprgungen machen.
Die transferierten Kapitel der K unterscheiden sich bedeutend von
ihren kyrillischen Vorlagen, wobei die Vernderungen bewut durchge
fhrt wurden und dabei eine andere Dialektbasis (etwa eine mehr nord
westlich gelagerte) des Transliterierenden darstellen . Ein Teil davon sind
durch die polnischen orthographischen und phonetischen Besonder
heiten bedingt: 1) eine Wiedergabe von x durch h ( B e p x 92 > do
werhu 98) und von durch ch ( 92 > snich 98), 2) -k u durch -ki
( 93 > remesnyki 99), 3) die Palatalitt der Dentalen in -m*>,
- , - bleibt unbercksichtigt ( 93 > szyt 98, 93 > iest 99,
91 > ohon 101), 4) pi> wird wie auch pu oftmals durch ry wieder
gegeben ( 95 > ryzaty 100), 5) -u wird in morphologischen
Endungen sowie identischen in Wurzelmorphemen an die poln. Endung
-i bzw. an die poln. Form angeglichen ( 96 > radnami 101,
97 > od iskry 102, 96 > szeroke 101), 6) Angleichungen
von Prpositionen und Prfixen finden statt ( 94 > zepsuiut-
ia 106, 87 > od 105), 7) auch sonstige Angleichungen der phoneti
schen und morphologischen Formen an die polnischen finden statt
( 92 > parostkom 98, 90 > koca 108,
94 > perechowywaty 105, 96 > staa 101, 92 > za
innu 98, uiKpKH 89 > skurki 107, uiMapfi 84 >smaruy 103, 85
> na czczo 102, 89 > koncamy 107, 90 > z miyca
108, 92 > wooski 98, 93 > choroszy 99).
Abgesehen von Druckfehlern ( 95 > ha.dy 100) gibt es auch
eine Reihe von textuellen Vernderungen, indem sie den kyrillischen
Text erweitern (hnuczyi 106), die Vorlage krzen ( 88
> i proczyich 106) oder ihre Vorlage anders interpretieren (
89 > z derewa rodzaynoho 107, e
91 > pokarm onych ne due kosztuiet 100).
Wesentlicher sind die sprachlichen Vernderungen bei dem Translite-
rieren: 1) die kirchenslavischen Formen wurden beinahe konsequent
beseitigt (, , 96 > odyn, odno, odnoho 101,
88 >odnak 106, 94 > czotyry 99, 91 > ohon 101, e
93 > mey 99, 92 > derewo 98, 89 > wpered 107), 2)
einzelne morphologische Endungen wurden verndert ( 96 > ohnia
134
101, 92 > hroszey 98, 87 ^ seedcow 104,
93 > pod strychom998, 94, 86 > syllu 1/6, sollu 105,
92 > pry zemli 98, 93 > w oseni 98, ,
92 > kaminiem, czerepiem 98, im Nom.-Akk. PI. - > - :
, 92, 93, 96, 85, 89 > kotoryi 98, tyi
99, moodyi 100, zeenyi 102, mayi 106; - > -y: > psze-
nyczny 106, im Gen. Sg. fern, - > -oi: 93, 93,
86, 90 > sukonnoi 99, prostoi 102, protywnoi 105,
dykoi 107; Langformen werden durch Kurzformen und umgekehrt
ersetzt: 96, 96, 87, 94, 22 >
okromiszne 101, druheie 101, teie 104, litniu 106, tretiu 110; 90
> tretioho 108; , 94 > kuraczyi, husiaczyi 105, die - -
Endung der 3. Sg. in der e-Konjugation wird gewhnlich weggelassen:
93, 87, 89 > bude 98, prykadaie 105, maie
107; verbale Prfixe und Wurzelmorpheme werden modifiziert bzw.
gendert: 92, 95, 92, 94,
96, 94, 97, 93, -
86 > wroste 98, okryty 100, wysaty 98, peremerza 99, biaty
101, umaczawszy w wodu 99, rozrywaty 102, odopryie 99, ratowatsia
104).
Der Transliterierende hat weiterhin gewhlt: 1) eine andere phone
tische Form des 96 > zeliznymy 101,
95 > gospodar 100, 96 > krepkoi 101, 91 > potym
102, 93 > kamenysty 99, 85 > frybru 102,
96 > cwiakamy 101), 2) eine andere Suffixation (
87 > w sekyny swoi wasnyi 105, 95 > na
obychdku 100, 89 > iabonku 101), 3) eine andere syntak
tische Konstruktion ( 96 > na czotyry oktiw 101,
92 > na okty dwa 98, 90 > dwi piady 107,
88 > w paszniu 105, 86 > z octom 103, 94
litom 105, 93 > od lodey 99), 4) ein anderes Lexem ( 91 >
albo 101, 88 > bydyna 105). Gerade die Wahl des typisch
wolhynischen Wortes bydlna spricht dafr, da die polnische Transli
teration von einem Wolhynier stammen kann.
Anmerkung. Die komplizierte kyrillische Rechtschreibung der K mute
bei der obigen Wiedergabe, aus drucktechnischen Grnden vereinfacht
werden: 1) das prjotierte a (stets im Wortanlaut geschrieben) und der
kleine J us (an allen anderen Stellen geschrieben) wurden mit wie
dergegeben, 2) ein einfaches o wurde auch anstelle von o mega (in
Prfixen/Prpositionen ob-, ot, o, in der Gen. Sg.-Endung -oho, in der
Gen. PI.-Endung -ov, sowie im Anlaut mancher Substantive, und in oba
geschrieben) bei der Wiedergabe geschrieben, 3) das Gravis-Akzent
zeichen (stets ber einer betonten offenen Auslautsilbe der Wrter
gesetzt) wurde hier durch das Akutzeichen ersetzt.
Korrekturnote. Aufgrund von Angaben des unierten Lucker Dom
kapitulars Teodozjusz Brodowicz (im Werk Widok przemocy na sab
niewinno srogo wywartej, I-II, herausgegeben von J a. Holowakyj,
Lviv 1861-62) gibt M. Voznjak (in Istorija ukrajins'koji literatury, Bd.
III, Teil 2, Lviv 1924, S. 105-06) den Starosten Lenkevy als den ber
setzer der Ksika/Knyzycja an. Voznjaks Angaben wiederholt Met
ropolit Ilarion (Ivan Ohijenko) in Fortecja pravoslavija na Volyni svjata
Pocajivska Lavra. Cerkovno-istoryna monohrafija, Winnipeg 1961, S.
325.
Universitt Frankfurt am Main
The L anguage of Bolgarski
Heirmologia of the S eventeenth-
E ighteenth C enturies from the Manjava
Velykyj S kyt Monastery in G alicia
J ACOB P. HURSKY
The text to be discussed in this article was first published in photore
production in Sofia, May 1981, by Elena Toneva.1It constitutes only a
portion of three mixed-content seventeenth-eighteenth century heirmo
logia manuscripts of the so-called Bolgarskij rospev, which were dis
covered by Elena Toneva in 1969 and 1971 in the Music Department of
the Central State Library (under the call numbers MS. SLAV No.
10846, dated from 1676henceforth HI , and MS. SLAV No. 10845,
dated from 1684henceforth H2) and in the Library of the Romanian
Academy of Sciences in Bucharest (under the call number No. 525,
dated from 1731-1733henceforth H3). According to the data of the
manuscripts, the three discovered heirmologia originate from the Ma
njava Velykyj Skyt Monastery in Galicia,2which was founded in 1612
and was active until 1785.3
The content of SBI consists of 2 forewords, 4 title pages, 315 selected
1 E lena T oneva, Manastirat Goljam Skitkola Bolgarski rospev". Skitski bol
garski irmolozi ot XVII-XVIII v. C ast II ([S ofia]: Muzika, 19 1)henceforth S BI . I wish
to thank Prof. G eorge Y. S hevelov for calling my attention to this publication, and the
author E lena T oneva for providing me with a copy of it.
2 C f. the title pages to each of the three heirmologia in S BI , pp. 14, 15, and 16.
3 For more information on the history of this monastery, see C ast I of E. T onevas
Manastirat..., pp. 25-45; Manjavskyj S kyt, Encyklopedija Ukrajinoznavstva, I I, 4, N T S
(ParisN ew York: Molode yttja, 1962), p. 1464; Manjavskyj skyt, Ukrajinska Ra-
djans'ka Encyklopedija, 8 (K iev: A N U R S R , [1962]), p. 466.
chants (nearly all of which are written in the square-type Kievan five-
line staff notation and some, although transcribed in the Cyrillic script,
belong linguistically to the Greek repertory), 18 miniatures, and a one-
page document written in Polisha permission for the transfer of two
monks from Skyt to Moldavia.
Although the main interest of SBI is in the musical notation, it is of
no less importance as a source for linguistic studies. A closer look into
the text reveals that it abundantly represents the living Ukrainian lan
guage of the seventeenth-eighteenth centuries.
Elements of the living Ukrainian language are especially well attested
in the two forewordswhere the author addresses the God-loving sin
ger, resorting, for better understanding, to the Ukrainian vernacular
(prostaja mova)and, to a lesser degree, in the chants which were sung
during the devine services traditionally conducted in Church Slavonic.
The aim of this article is to analyze the most characteristic phonetic,
morphological, syntactic, and lexical features of the Ukrainian language
as evidenced in SBI. Except for the phonetic features the analysis of
which will be based on the whole text, the discussion of the other fea
tures will be based almost exclusively on the two forewords where they
are well documented.
PHONETI C FEATURES
The most notable phonetic features observed in SBI include the
following:
1. The coalescence of the etymological y and into a front-central []
sound, which is characteristic for Modern Ukrainian and for the major
ity of its dialects.4This is evidenced by the very frequent confusion and
interchange of the letters (j>) and u, , (i), e.g. : psaltery
(HI , l);5 : ( ) invent masc sg prt, ( ) :
4 T he merger of the etymological y and i, although with a different phonetic result, is
also typical of Bulgarian and other S outh S lavic languages as well as of C zech and S lovak
(cf. G eorge Y. S hevelov, A Historical Phonology o f the Ukrainian Language ( = Histori
cal Phonology of the S lavic L anguages, I V) (Heidelberg: Winter, 1979), p. 379).
5 E ach illustration in this article is followed by its E nglish translation, grammatical
characterization (if the illustration is not in citation form), reference to the manuscript,
and reference to page in S BI . In the grammatical characterization, the following abbrevia
tions are used: 1) grammatical terms: accaccusative, actactive, C consonant, dat
MANJ AVA MONASTERY HEI RMOL OGI A 139
psalter loc sg, : music gen sg (H2, 6; HI ,
1); : can pi prt (H2, 7, 6); : :
: desert, wilderness loc sg (H2, 8, 98, 270); m :
/ /
we (H2, 9; HI , 1); : : this book
acc sg (H2, 12; HI , 4); : son dat sg (H2, 31, 20); :
: now (2, 39, 32, 65); : ( ) prayer gen
sg (H2, 55, 81); oycmu : mouth instr pi (H2, 36,; Hl, 3);
: ( ) earth loc sg (H2, 89; HI , 566); : Xpucma Christ
acc sg (H2, 91, 36); : :
praiseworthy, laudable instr pi (H2, 184, 190, 193); :
apostle nom pi (H2, 209; Hl, 520); : servant
voc pi (H2, 250); etc.
2. The pronunciation of the etymological as the sound []. This is
usually reflected by spellings of instead of u, in several instances of u
instead of i, and sporadically of instead of i, e.g. ^ line loc pi
/
(Hi, 1)cf. MStU ; ( ) : psalmist nom sg
(H2, 6; HI , 2)cf. P psalmista; nothing gen sg (H2, 7)cf.
MStU ; not at all (H2, 7)cf. R , MStU
; grace, charm, beauty dat sg (H2, 9)cf. P licz-
noci; ( ) [ : ( ) / bow down, worship 1 pi imp
(HI , 510; H3, 235) cf. OCS / , MStU ;
bless 2 pi imp (HI , 553; H2, 251, 252,
/
615) cf. OCS , MStU ; (
tell mase sg prt (H2, 7) cf. OCS , MStU ;
faith loc sg (H2, 611) cf. OCS , MStU ; ( )
that gen pi in acc function (HI , 1) cf. OCS , MStU mux\
that dat pi (H2, 7)cf. OCS , MStU ; etc.
Examples of the confusion of and u, are also found in Cyrillic
transcriptions of the Greek chants, e.g. / / ( ) :
/ ( ) holy (Hl, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309 ...)
dative, dudual, fernfeminine, futfuture, gengenitive, gergerund, impimpe
rative, instrinstrumental, loclocative, mascmasculine, neutneuter, nomnomi
native, partparticiple, perfperfective, piplural, prespresent (tense), prtpreterite,
sgsingular, vocvocative; 2) languages: BgBulgarian, BrBelorussian, C hS lC hurch
S lavonic, G rG reek, MS tU Modern S tandard U krainian, OC S Old C hurch S lavonic,
OU Old U krainian, R R ussian, U U krainian, WU West(ern) U krainian.
6 L etters in parentheses represent the supralinear symbols in the original text.
cf. Gr a y l o; / magnify 1pi pres (HI ,
403, 405, 407, 456)cf. Gr ^ \ \ 'call (upon) 1sg
fut (HI , 425, 426, 427, 438, 439; H3, 530, 531)cf. Gr ;
praise 2 pi imp (HI , 408, 409, 411, 415)cf. Gr alveire; etc.
There are, however, instances of spellings with e instead of which
seem to reflect the Bg ChSl pronunciation of the etymological as the
sound [e]. In general, the e spellings are found in ChSl words or word
forms, primarily in unstressed syllables, e.g. lover of
mankind (H2, 23) : ( ) (H2, 626) / voc sg
(H3, 230; H2, 37) : (H2, 591, 593, 598, 599, 604, 639);
love of mankind acc sg (H2, 89); loving
mankind acc sg neut (H2, 54); / man (H2, 5; H3, 246) :
( ) (Hl, 536, 569); gen sg (H2, 90) : acc sg
(, 697); / / ( ) of man (2,
449, 79) : ( ) \ acc sg (, 671; 2, 650);
to become incarnate, to become a man (H2, 47) /
( ) a past part act acc sg (H2, 132) : (H2,
628);7 / body instr pi (H2, 185, 636) / instr
du (Hl, 219; H2, 138) / bodily acc sg fern (H2, 297) /
instr sg mase (H2, 12) : (2, 36); girl acc sg
(Hl, 570; H2, 21) : (2, 604) / maids gen du mase
(H2, 628) : acc sg fern (H2, 618) / virgin (2, 31) /
voc sg (2, 27) / ( ) maids nom sg neut (H2, 627); ( )
tomb loc pi (HI , 507) / tongue, language (HI , 515) /
( ) prophet (H3, 637) / ( ) cherub (H3, 547) /
( ) world (H2, 121); / / now (Hl, 496; H2, 180;
Hl, 20) : / / (Hl, 549; 2, 39, 32); () /
without reduction to dust (H2, 293) : ( ) immortal, iternal,
imperishable nom sg neut (HI , 535); monastery loc sg (HI ,
14) I gen sg (H2, 15; H3, 16); a.o.8
7 It is interesting to note that all the - (C hS l) forms recorded in S BI are written
with e instead of i; on the other hand, the - (secularized) forms show only t
spellings. From this we may conclude that, in the latter, was read as [].
8 A ll these examples seem to support S hevelovs consideration of similar e (<)
spellings in Middle U krainian texts as C hS l. S ee his A Historical Phonology o f the
Ukrainian Language, pp. 433-434, 195-196, 111-112.
MANJ AVA MONASTERY HEI RMOL OGI A
141
The pronunciation of as [e] is also reflected in one spelling with
instead of e\ 'thou gen sg (H2, 62)cf. (H2, 51, 79, 85, 95).
3. The use of [w] instead of the etymological u in the word-initial
position before a consonant. This is evidenced by several spellings with
in place of the original after words ending in a vowel, e.g.
( ) ( ) which I have not studied (HI , 3) cf. OCS
ca; () () ... ... St. Roman the
Singer did not know how to sing / ( )
those who do not know how to sing (HI , 3) cf. OCS ;
... () so that they would drown their heart
(H2, 7)cf. OCS oymonumu.
4. The distinction of the pharyngeal spirant sound [h] and the velar
stop [g]. The velar stop [g] is found exclusively in words of foreign
origin and in Cyrillic transcriptions of the Greek texts and is rendered in
writing either by the letter r, or by the diagraph , or by the Greek
letter 7 , e.g. when (HI , 1-4; H2, 7, 8, 11)cf. P gdy; ( )
Abednego (HI , 3)cf. Gr 'Aevayd); ( ) George voc sg (H2,
51)cf. Gr Acopyioc;; ( ) Gabriel (H2, 57)cf. Gr ;
abbot gen sg (H2, 12)cf. Gr ; / /
(Hl, 304, 305, 309)transcriptions of Gr a y holy;
(Hl, 361, 369, 376 ...)transcription of Gr ayyekiKal
angelic dat pi; ( ) / / ( ) (Hl, 403, 405, 455)
transcriptions of Gr \ o y o v word acc sg; etc. Considering the fact that
there are no instances of interchange of r, , with in numerous
transcriptions of Gr y [g], one can conclude tha; the letter , found in
words of Slavic origin and in secularized loan words, represents the
pharyngeal spirant sound [h], e.g. ( ) voice instr sg (HI , 2),
fiery acc sg fem (HI , 3), examine 1 pi pret
(H2, 5), mountain, hill gen sg (H2, 8), book (H2, 11),
dogma, tenet gen pi (HI , 1), organ (an instru
ment) (H2, 6), a.o.
5. The use of [o] instead of the original e after the sibilants , ui,
before a non-palatalized consonant. This is attested only by a few spell
ings with o in the forewords: sleeping dat sg masc (HI , 3),
that gen sg (HI , 4), learned nom pi (H2, 7),
nothing else gen sg (H2, 7, 9), ( ) innate instr sg
142
/ nom sg fern (H2, 5, 6). The last two of these spellings
seem to reflect their P origin, cf. P przyrodzony.
6. The loss of the initial unstressed [i] in the following words:
have 1 sg pres (HI , 3) / 2 sg imp (H2, 11) cf. OCS
I , MStU / dial, ; Saviour loc sg
(H2, 9)cf. OCS , MStU .
7. The loss of [w] from [1] before [v] in the original sequences.
This is seen in several spellings with instead of : fore
word (HI , 1; H2, 5) cf. MStU , OCS shout
ing, tumult; say / ( ) 3sg pres / / ger (HI , 4, 2,
3, 6) cf. OCS , MStU . The [w] < [1] before
[v] here seems to have coalesced with the latter rather than dropping out
completely.9
8. The assimilation of [j] to the preceding palatalized consonant and
the change of [e] into [a] in the sequences [C + je] which arose after
the loss of [] I [i] between them. This is reflected by the following
spellings: / ( ) singing instr sg (HI , 2), / for singing
(HI , 1, 4) (H2, 6), ( ) / / ( ) /
/ ( ) with singing (Hl, 1; H2, 6), in
singing and interpreting / (Hl, 3), /\ for a
meeting (HI , 2), in that creation of His /
(H2, 6, 7), happiness sg (2, 7). As
consequence of this assimilation, the palatalized post-vocalic dentals
(except [r]) and post-dentals became geminated (lengthened) in MStU
cf. , , , but . The fact that the
gemination of palatalized consonants from [j] clusters is not recorded
in SBI suggests two possible explanations: a) that the non-geminated
spellings are a reflection of the WU dialects to which the gemination
was alien, or b) that the scribe of the text, due to his orthographical
difficulties, failed to render the gemination in writing. J udging by the
location of the monastery where the manuscripts were written and used,
it is more logical to assume that the text reflects the WU feature. How
ever, the second explanation should not be ruled out here, since the
9 A ccording to S hevelov, A Historical Phonology o f the Ukrainian Language, p. 417,
the U mov(a) forms developed under a strong influence of P.
143
gemination is rarely marked in other manuscripts of the seventeenth-
eighteenth centuries, including the manuscripts from the regions where
only the forms with double (long) consonants are known.10
9. The use of the [ro] (< or) sequence in word- initial position before
a consonant, e.g. ( ) () (), follow
ing only [their] innate intelligence (H2, 5) cf. OCS ,
MStU ; TopzHbixb from different flowers (H2, 8)cf.
OCS , MStU (< [ ] )\ ( ) ( )
in the clefts of the rock (H2, 9) cf. OCS ,
MStU / dial. \ ( )
through ceaseless meditation (H2, 9)cf. OCS , MStU
.
10. The dispalatalization of the original r\ It is evidenced by several
spellings with o instead of e, instead of , and instead of after p ,
e.g. ( ) sexton instr sg (HI , 3)cf. OU ; -
perceive ger, ( ) 3pi pres (H2, 6, 7) / -
/\ look attentively ger (2, 7)cf. R , look
(at); king (Hl, 461, 491; H2, 89) / dat sg (2, 128) /
( ) ruling dat pi (Hl, 492)cf. R , MStU , but
, ; storm sg (2, 606)cf. MStU ; etc.
As seen from the comparisons, in MStU is not dispalatalized in the
prevocalic position.
11. The use of [or] I [ol] / [er] sequences instead of the original /
/ between consonants a feature shared with R and Br, e.g.
( ) celebrate 1 pi imp (HI , 2) cf. OCS ,
MStU ; throat (HI , 4) / larynx dat sg
(H2, 8) cf. OCS ^ , MStU / ; (
( ) Bulgarian gen sg masc (Hl, 101; H2, 11; , 103) /
nom sg neut (H2, 11) cf. ChSl , MStU
\ pillar (2, 10) cf. OCS , MStU
; red loc sg neut (HI , 2) cf. OCS ,
10 C f. S .P. S amijlenko, D o xarakterystyky poltavsko-kyjivskoho dialektu za parrTjat-
kamy XVI I st., Poltavsko-kyjivsJcyj dialektosnova ukrajinskoji nacionalnoji movy
(K iev: A N U R S R , 1954), pp. 34-35; Je.M. Markovskyj, D o xarakterystyky movy ukra-
jinskyx intermedij XVI I -XVI I I stolit, Pytannja istorynoho rozvytku ukrajinskoji
movy (K harkiv: XD U , 1962), p. 108.
MStU ; in church (H2, 11) cf. OCS ,
MStU ; etc.
12. The reflexes [] < tj, [] / [d] < dj. They are attested by several
spellings with and / resp., e.g. & thousand acc sg (HI ,
2) cf. OCS / , MStU ; / return pi prt
(HI, 2) cf. ChSl , MStU turn; na-
( ) smelling (good) acc sg (H2, 8); running instr sg
fern (H2, 9) cf. OCS \ blowing gen
pi (H2, 11)cf. OCS ; playing (psaltery)
gen pi (H2, 13); among (H2, 5) cf. OCS , MStU
, \ ( ) innate instr sg masc / nom
sg fern (H2, 5, 6) I podecmet birth loc sg (H2, 645)cf. OCS
gave birth (to), 1 sg pres, MStU podmu,
; ( ) induce 3 sg pres (H2, 6) cf. OCS
wake, 1 sg pres, MStU , ; ( )
affirmation acc sg (H2, 23, 632) / ( ) voc sg (H2, 62)cf.
OCS , MStU ; etc. The two spell
ings with d, the only of the kind found in SBI, are rather peculiar since
the Ukrainian spelling required as the reflex of dj. If these are not
erronous spellings, the d in the words of this type could have resulted
from an earlier / (< dj) by analogy to other forms with d (cf.
MStU cold / dial, cool 1 sg pres <
past part pass / resp. by analogy to cmydmu cool, 2
sg pres, etc., ( eaten < ( ) by analogy to they
eat, meal, eating, eater etc.; Bg born < by
analogy to give birth (to) 2 sg pres, podm 3sg pres, etc.).11
13. The changes in consonant clusters. These are confined to simplifi
cation, unvoicing and voicing, and assimilation in the articulation place.
Instances of the simplification of consonant groups are observed in a
few isolated spellings with , , instead of , , resp., as
in other Slavic languages: ( ) celebrating gen pi (H2, 13)
/ ( ) ecu abolish 2 sg perf (H2, 133)cf. OCS
11 On the reflexes [d*] < dj, [ ] < tj in U and Bg, see P.O. Buzuk, Narys istoriji ukra
jinskoji movy (K iev, 1927), pp. 28-29; Je.K . T ymenko, Kurs istoriji ukrajinskoho jazyka
(K iev, 1927), p. 147; S t. S tojanov, Gramatika na balgarskija knioven ezik (S ofia: N auka
izkustvo, 1964), p. 103; S . Mladenov, Istorija na bdlgarskija ezik (S ofia: BA N , 1979), p.
156.
145
celebrate I empty; ( ) heart (H2, 586,644,648)
( ) acc pi (H2, 626) cf. OCS ; in the
first place, first of all (HI , 1)cf. OCS , MStU / dial.
, P pierwszy.
Unvoicing and voicing are reflected in bee (H2, 8) and
z6 bipaw4u gather ger (H2, 8) resp. cf. OCS /
, . It is interesting to note that the prefix/pre
position z / (< sb) also occurs before sonants and sometimes before
vowels and voiceless consonants, e.g. rolled up acc sg fem
(HI , 3) cf. OCS ; z with music (HI , 4); z
from the sky / z with faith (H2, 6); with him /
wink, blink 3 sg (H2, 7) cf. OCS close
(the eyes); ( ) / zofeJcbMu 'mth all (his) (HI , 2; H2, 9); zocmatou
remain ger (H2, 5); ( ) u ( ) with palms and
crowns (H2, 10); etc. In three spellings, the preposition (< sb) appears
as uz I u3, and in one spelling as u[c](i.e. with [2:] fully assimilated to
the following [s]): uz / ( ) / ( ) (twice) with singing
(HI , 1) / ^ ( ) (H2, 6). The word-initial u in these examples
apparently functioned as a cluster-breaker, cf. MStU / ,
/ with fear, ) with sunrise, etc.
Assimilation in the articulation place is evident in / happiness
acc sg (H2, 7) cf. ChSl & participating, R ,
MStU (< *sbstbje).
14. The dispalatalization of word-final labials in substantivesa fea
ture shared with Bg and other Slavic languages. This is evidenced by
spellings with post-liabial and instead of the original :
dove (H2, 7, 8) cf. OCS , MStU ; church
nom sg / acc sg (H2, 11, 620) cf. OCS / acc sg
, MStU / ; blood acc sg (H2, 9)
cf. OCS , MStU ; love instr sg (H2, 651)
cf. OCS / MStU / .
15. The pleophonic formsa feature shared with Br and R, e.g.
( ) ( ) / ( ) surpass 3 sg pres (HI , 1; H2, 6),
return, come back 3 pi pret / ( ) voice instr sg
(Hi, 2), nepexodmu pass, exceed (Hi, 3), precious
gen pi (H2, 10).
146
MORPHOLOGI CAL FEATURES
Among distinctive morphological features found in SBI which are
characteristic of U, the most important are:
1. The masculine noun ending - (- ) in the genitive singular, e.g.
triumph (HI , 2), sleep (HI , 3), time (H2, 7),
gift (H2, 11), ( ) talent (H2, 12), peace, rest
(H2, 12), year (H2, 15; H3, 16).
2. The ending - / in the instrumental singular of the neuter nouns in
- \ / ( ) singing (Hl, 2, 1; H2, 6).
3. The adjectival ending - in the genitive singular masculine, e.g.
old (HI , 1), new (HI , 1), ( ) definite, certain
(H2, 5), ( ) ( ) Bulgarian (H2, 11), great gen sg in
acc function (HI , 2), true gen sg in acc function (H2, 5),
cursed, damned gen sginacc function (H2, 9),
() golden-tongue gen sg in acc function (H2, 189).
4. The ending -o in the genitive singular of feminine adjectives, e.g.
u church and spiritual (HI , 1; H2,6), npmoii most
holy (HI , 3), (omuiHou peaceful (H2, 9), strong, firm (H2,
9), / eternal (H2, 10, 12), angelic (H2, 12),
heavenly (H2, 12).12
5. The adjectival ending - in the accusative plural feminine, e.g.
( ) temporal pleasures of this world (H2,
7).
6. The use of the following pronominal forms: ( ) that acc pi
(HI , 1) [ ] (at) that acc sg masc (HI , 2) / ( ) instr sg (H2,
6) I dat pi (H2, 7), his, their, its instr sg fem (HI , 1; H2,
7, 12), ( ) / every (Hl ,l ) / [ ] ( ) (at) every loc sg neut
(HI , 4), ( ) no, not any gen sg fem (HI , 3), what gen sg
(HI , 4), which gen sg neut (H2, 5) / ( ) instr sg neut
(H2, 6) I Kompe nom sg neut (H2, 6) / [ ] gen sg fem (H2, 6)
I nom pi (H2, 7), ( ) other acc pi (HI , 3) / ( ) dat
12 Judging by the symbols u and which are regularly used in S BI to indicate the
sounds [i] and [j] resp., one may assume that the letters u (with the supralinear dot and the
horizontal line over it) and u (with the supralinear spiritus lenis and acute accent mark) in
these spellings stand for the jotated vowel, as i'[ji] in MS tU .
147
pi (HI , 3) instr pi (H2, 5) / ( ) gen pi (H2, 9),
themselves, himself dat (H2, 5, 7), itself gen sg fern (H2, 6),
which (H2, 7) / [ ] (at) something acc sg (H2, 7),
nothing else gen sg (H2, 7, 9), JKk u (m) which instr sg mase (H2, 11),
[e]c (in) these acc pi (H2, 12), a.o.
7. -mo as the ending of the 1st person plural present/future tense and
imperative: we can, we shall praise,
( ) we shall end (HI , 4); we offer, we
sing (H2, 10, 11); let us sing (HI ,3,1, 2; H2, 9); /
let us praise (HI , 2)cf. MStU , , ,
, , , .
8. The present gerund forms in - : teaching (Hl, 1),
praising (Hl, 1, 2; H2, 5), / saying (Hl, 3; H2, 6),
being (Hl, 3; H2, 5), following, imitating (Hl,
4), praising ( 1,4), singing (Hl, 4),
remaining (2, 5), perceiving, seeing (2, 6), -
/ looking closely (attentively) a (2,7),
not admitting, not allowing (H2, 7, 9), gathering (H2, 8),
remembering, thinking of, entering (H2,
9), resting (H2, 9), ( ) conquering (H2, 9).
9. The past gerund forms in -etuu: Znycm(e)uiu having left,
having shone (H2, 7); (SpuMa(e)mu having received, (H2,
10).
10. Verbs with the postfix -ca, e.g. / return 3pi pret(Hl,
2), / appear 3sg prt fern (Hl, 3), / go,follow 3pi
prt (H2, 7), A rejoice (2, 7), a rejoice (2, 10),
etc.
11. The past-tense ver.bs in - , e.g. () ,
()... Famous J ob, who arranged
the instrumental music... / 1<*> ... ( )
J ohn Damascenus ... invented the note(s) for singing /
... Prophet David wrote ... / ( )
() St. J ohn Damascenus fulfilled
that prophecy ... (HI , 1), (),
() () , () -
Caa , () () ... When [they]
were returning to their homes, at that time the people, girls and women,
were coming out of the cities of Israel, hailing in a loud voice, to meet
Saul and David (HI , 2), . / :
Then the most Holy Lady, the Virgin Mary appeared in his
dream when he was sleeping (HI , 3), etc.
12. The preservation of the infinitive suffix -mu, e.g. praise
(HI , 1, 4), sing / uzbcmu eat / nepexodmu surpass (HI ,
3), say / write (HI , 4), eudbmu see / znmu
know ( ) (H2, 5, 6), / look at,examine / aJ
give (H2, 6), praise (H2, 7), sing (H2, 11, 13).
13. The use of the particle le in the analytic form of the third
person imperative: ( ) () let them ask the
Virgin Mary (HI , 1).
SY NTACTIC FEATURES
Among distinctive syntactic features attested in SBI which are charac
teristic of U, it is necessary to note:
1. The use of the preposition do with the genitive in the following
functions: a) to denote the direction of a movement, e.g.
() for as they were returning to their
homes (HI , 2), > ( ) () Xc do [J esus] Christ will take us to
Heaven (Hl, 4); b) to express the meaning of approximation which
does not exceed the named quantity, e.g. ()() ()
/ about one thousand troparions and kondakions (HI , 3); c)
to convey the meaning of purpose, e.g. 1< ... ()
cnbensk J ohn Damascenus ... invented the note(s) for singing
(HI , 1; H2, 6); d) to show the indirect object toward which an action or
an attribute is directed, e.g. ... ...
... ... Prophet J onah ... sang to God saying, () ()
... ( ) ( ) and St. Roman the Singer ... was
devout to the most Holy Lady (HI , 3), () ()
( ) St. Paul in his letter to the Romans (H2, 5); e) to render
a temporal meaning, e.g. do , a () here
only for the time being, and then forever (H2, 7).
2. The use of such conjuctions and conjunctive words as because,
but, in order that, how, / what, which,
149
which, e.g. ()
() ()(), ()
and our St. Reverend Father J ohn Damascenus
surpasses all those authors with his fame, because he is the author of
sacred and spiritual music (HI , 1)in this complex sentence, the con-
juction is used to introduce the adverbial clause of cause;
: () () ... ()
f -, ~
, () () to that I
answer that St. Roman the Singer also did not know how to sing any
note and song, but he was devout to the most Holy Lady (HI , 3)in
this sentence, the conjunction joins two coordinate predicates;
... () () ... ...
Our Lord and God ... created the visible world so that man
would glorify God (H2, 5)in this complex sentence, the conjunction
is used to introduce the adverbial clause of purpose;
() .. ( ) ()
() () /& ( ) ()
St. J ohn Damascenus ... wrote the note(s) on five lines and five spaces
and arranged on those how to glorify God on ten strings (HI , 1)in
this complex sentence, the conjunctive word introduces the subor
dinate object clause; / ( ) ()
() we do not know what and in what voice and tongue they sing
(H2, 11)in this example, the conjunctive word / introduces
the subordinate object clause; , () -
, , / ,
, -
() () ()() so that man created in the image and
likeness of His would glorify God, and glorifying him would earn himself
eternal blessedness, for which, just as for his definite end, he was
created (H2, 5)in this complex sentence, the conjunctive word
is used to introduce the subordinate attri butive clause.
3. The use of the -participles without the copula in the function of
the past tense (for examples, see item 11 under Morphological fea
tures). It should be noted here that these seem to be the only past-tense
forms used in the vernacular language of the two forewords. However,
whenever there is a reference to the Holy Scriptures (i.e. psalmist,
prophet, apostle, etc), ChSl is used and the past tense is, as a rule,
rendered by the aorist, and sporadically, by the imperfect, e.g.
( ) >: ()
, () () :
() So did the prophet
J onah, when he was cast into the sea and was devoured by a whale, then
in that sorrow he sang to God saying: I appealed in my sorrow to my
Lord God (HI , 3)in this example, the vernacular corre
sponds to the ChSl ( ) (aorist); () ,
(), () ().
, () : () ()
: / /
And the three youths, Shadrach, Meshah, and Abed-nego, when
they were cast into a burning fiery furnace in Babylon, at that time they
sang glorifying God, so says the prophet Daniel: Then these three
youths as though with one mouth were singing and glorifying God (HI ,
3)in this example, the vernacular corresponds to
the ChSl noxy (imperfect forms).
4. The use of the particle in combination with the third per
son indicative in the function of the third person imperative (for an
illustration, see item 13under Morphological features).
LEXICAL FEATURES
Although the text, on which our observations regarding lexicon are
based, is limited to the two forewords, it still abundantly reflects vocab
ulary, which is characteristic of U, e.g. (for purposes of comparison,
each illustration is provided with parallel forms in the present-day four
standard(ized) languages: U, Bg, R, and P):
a) Words recorded in citation forms:
U
Bg
R
first of (Hl, 1) -

najpierw
( ) also, too (Hl, 1, 2) te
151
because ( , 1, 2, , bo
3, . .)
how; as, like , jak
(Hl, 1; H2, 7)
glorify, praise chwali
(HI , 1)
that (HI , 2) , ten

T (HI , 3)
ja
sing (HI , 3) piewa
( ) let (HI , 3) niech
say (HI , 4) mwi
write (HI , 4) napisa
pigeon (H2, 7) gob
throat (HI , 4) gardo
znmu know (H2, 5) zna
/ look at, see, view - oglda
(H2, 6)
glorify, praise - wychwala
(H2, 7)
happiness (H2, 7) szczcie
in order that, a6 aby
to (H2, 7)
what; that (H2, 7) co
( ) alertly, intently, - - pilno
attentively (H2, 7)
from afar (H2, 7) , , z daleka

b) Words recorded in non-citation forms:
old gen sg masc , stary,
(HI , 1) starego
new gen sg masc , , nowy
(HI , 1) nowego
some, any acc sg , , , jaka,
fern (HI , 1) jak
thankful acc sg , - - wdziczna
fern (HI , 1) , - wdziczn

red loc sg neut , czerwone
(HI , 2) , czerwonyn

city gen pi (H2, 2) , miasto,
place place miast

( ) voice inst sg , , gos,
( 2, 2) gosem
have 1 sg pres , , mie, mam
( 2, 3)
( ) not any, no gen , , adna, adnej
sg fern (HI , 3)
ornament gen sg , - ozdoba,
(HI , 4) ozdob
which gen sg neut , , , ktre,
(H2, 5) ktrego
( ) definite gen sg , - - pewny,
mase (H2, 5) , - pewnego

0 \' ( ) mind instr sg , , rozum,
(H2, 5) rozumem
eye nom pi (H2,7) , , , oko, oczy
arch ,

nothing elsegen sg , nic innego
neut (H2, 7, 9) nic
innego
*cursed, damned , przeklty
gen sg masc in acc przekltego
function (HH2, 9)
offer 1 pl pres , przynosi
(H2, 10) przynosimy
year gen sg , , rok, roku
(H2, 15; H3, 16)
It must be added that the analyzed text has a considerable quantity of
Polish words.
* * *
The features which we have analyzed allow us to conclude that 1) the
phonetic system of the Ukrainian language of the second half of the
seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth centuries, as well as the
grammatical structure and lexicon as a whole, were substantially the
same as what we know of Ukrainian today, and 2) the analyzed text
should be considered as an important source for the study of the history
of the Ukrainian language and Ukrainian Church Slavonic.
Syracuse University
Zum sprachlichen Erbe des 17.
Jahrhunderts aus der U kraine
im R ussischen
GERTA HTTL-FOLTER
Vor mehr als zwei J ahrzehnten prgte G.Y. Shevelov treffend den
Ausdruck dritter kirchenslavischer Einflu fr die spte ukrainische
Redaktion des Kirchenslavischen, die durch die ukrainische und wei
russische Geistlichkeit im 17. J h. nach Ruland bertragen wurde (She
velov 1960:78ff.). Die Hauptursache fr eine Renaissance des Kirchen
slavischen in der Ukraine zu Beginn des J ahrhunderts sieht dieser in der
Zersetzung der auf der Umgangssprache basierenden Literatursprache,
prostaja mova (Shevelov 1956:75). Die spte ksl. Redaktion wurde in
der Grammatik von Meletij Smotryckyj (1619) und in Pamva Beryndas
Wrterbuch (1627) kodifiziert und warmit einigen Abnderungen
auch in Moskau richtunggebend.
Der dritte kirchenslavische Einflu wurde wohl von einigen Gelehrten
in groen Zgen beschrieben, so z.B. von N.S. Trubetzkoy (1927:24f.)
und N.I. Tostoj (1962:258-265), doch bleibt nach wie vor G.Y. Sheve-
lovs Feststellung gltig: Wie auch im Falle des zweiten sdslavischen
Einflusses sind wir nicht in der Lage, zu sagen, welche Elemente des
Wortschatzes gerade whrend dieses dritten kirchenslavischen Einflusses
von der russischen Sprache aufgenommen wurden. Um diese Frage zu
beantworten, wren Spezialuntersuchungen erforderlich und mte es
vor allen Dingen ein historisches Wrterbuch der russischen Sprache
geben, das das Material des 16. und 17. J h.s umfassen wrde (Shevelov
1960:78f.). 1
Seit 1975 erscheint allerdings ein historisches russisches Wrterbuch,
XI-XVII bb. (=SRJ a, bisher 9 Bnde, A - M),
doch bietet dieses keine Hilfe fr die Abgrenzung des russischen, ukrain-
ischen, weirussischen und kirchenslavischen Wortschatzes der verschie
denen regionalen Redaktionen. Als Quellen werden nmlich auer rus
sischen auch Texte aller genannten Sprachen und Varietten herange
zogen, wie die Erstausgabe von Smotryckyjs Grammatikund nicht
etwa der in Moskau redigierte Nachdruck von 1648oder verschiedene
in der Ukraine verfate Lexika. Weiters ist unklar, nach welchen Prin
zipien solche Denkmler exzerpiert wurden. Ihr Wortschatz ist nmlich
in SR J a ganz sporadisch registriert. An anderer Stelle zeigten wir krz
lich in Einzelheiten, welche Wrter aus dem Ukrainisch-Kirchenslavi-
schen und/oder der prostaja mova dem SRJ a einverleibt wurden (Httl-
Folter 1983), daher folgt hier nur ein kurzer berblick. Es handelt sich
nicht nur um Kirchenslavismen, sondern besonders um Polonismen,
Latinismen und andere Fremdwrter, die in der Ukraine und in Wei
ruland frher als in Ruland verbreitet waren. Beryndas Lexikon
(1627) bildet z.B. im SRJ a die lteste Quelle fr lediglich rund 20
Stichwrter, fr ebenso viele das (=LSL,
Ausg. Nimuk 1973) von Slavyneckyj und Koreckyj-Satanovskyj. Fr
42 Stichwrter imSRJ a stammen die einzigen Belege aus den Werken
Simeon Polockijs. Es fiel uns nicht schwer, mit Hilfe von Wrterb
chern zustzlich lexikalische Parallelen im Ukrainisch-Kirchenslavischen
und in der neueren russischen Literatursprache festzustellen. So ergab
ein Vergleich von LSL mit dem (=
SAR, 2, Ausg., 1806-1822) fr die Buchstaben A - L, da ber 50 W
rter in beiden Werken mit gleicher Form und Bedeutung registriert sind,
die in Sreznevskijs Wrterbuch und imSRJ a fehlen. Es ist daher anzu
nehmen, da diese in der Ukraine gebruchlich waren und in die neuere
russ. Literatursprache bernommen wurden.
Das Gesagte zeigt, da uns das neue historische Wrterbuch des Rus
sischen der Lsung des Problems einer Abgrenzung des sprachlichen
Erbes nicht nher bringt. Dies ist jedoch m.E. fr die historische Erfor
schung des Wortschatzes der neueren russischen Literatursprache unbe
dingt erforderlich, denn man luft sonst Gefahr, bernommenes Wort
gut als Neologismen der letzteren Sprache anzusehen. Wie vordringlich
dieses Problem tatschlich ist, bewies krzlich wieder H. Keipert fr
Adjektive mit dem Suffix -. Viele solcher Bildungen, die in der
Fachliteratur als russische Neuschpfungen des 18. J h. angesehen
SPRACHL I CHES ERBE AUS UK RAI NE I M RUSSI SCHEN 155
werden, konnte er aufgrund selbst gesammelten Materials besonders in
der bersetzungsliteratur vorangehender Perioden nachweisen (Keipert
1977: 19Iff.).
Bei diesem vllig unbefriedigenden Stand der Erforschung des sprach
lichen Erbes bleibt derzeit nur der andere, von G.Y. Shevelov postu
lierte Weg brig, nmlich durch eine Spezialuntersuchung ein wenig zur
Aufhellung dieses Problems beizutragen.
Im folgenden versuchen wir zu zeigen, wie ein besonders populres
Denkmal aus der zweiten Hlfte des 17. J h. zur Verbreitung solchen
Wortgutes beitrug, das in der Ukraine heimisch war und in den Wrter
bchern von Zyzanij, Berynda und/oder Slavyneckyj in der Regel ver
merkt ist.
loanikij Galjatovskyjs Predigtsammlung Klju Razumnija (1.
Ausgabe Kiev 1659, zu den weiteren vgl. Bida 1975: S. XLI1I-LI, Voz-
njak 1975:333f.) erfreute sich mit Recht grter Beliebtheit bei Ukrai
nern und Russen, zhlte dieser Schriftsteller doch zu den bedeutendsten
und fruchtbarsten Vertretern der ukrainischen Gelehrsamkeit des 17. J h.
Auf die Bedeutung dieses Werkes fr die Entwicklung der Literatur auf
russischem Boden wurde wiederholt hingewiesen (z.B. Cievskij 1960:
365), seinen sprachlichen Einflu hebt V.V. Vinogradov ausdrcklich
hervor: Ho -
XVII . (.
). , -
- -
-
, , -
. ,
,
- , -
(. ). (Vinogradov
1938: 25). Es kann also kein Zweifel bestehen, da gerade dieses Werk zur
Verbreitung von Wortgut beitrug, das in der Ukraine eingebrgert war.
K. Bida verdanken wir eine Faksimile-Edition der Erstausgabe des
Klju Razumnija mit einer eingehenden literarisch-kulturgeschicht-
lichen Beschreibung dieses rhetorischen Barockwerkes und einen ber
blick ber die Fachliteratur (Bida 1975:IIl-CIV,Text 1-512, Indices). Die
Sprache Galjatovskyjs berhrt K. Bida lediglich in folgenden Zeilen:
,
, -
, ,
, -
.
,
. (ibid. LXXX).
W. Witkowski widmete der Sprache Galjatovskyjs eine Monographie
im Rahmen eines Vergleiches mit anderen zeitgenssischen, in prostaja
mova abgpfaten Werken (Witkowski 1969:164 S.). Einleitend wird die
Sprachsituation der Epoche sowie Auffassungen ber diese Sprache in
der Fachliteratur errtert. Die Phonetik, Morphologie und Syntax Ga
ljatovskyjs werden ausfhrlich beschrieben,-der Wortschartz wird nicht
behandelt. Wie fruchtbar jedoch lexikalische Studien auf diesem Gebiet
sein knnen, zeigte W. Witkowski in seiner Arbeit ber die Bezeichnun
gen der Edelsteine in den ostslavischen Sprachen (Witkowski 1974:7-
17). Hier wird nachgewiesen, da diese fast ausschlielich aus dem
Weirussischen und Ukrainischen des 16.-17. J h. stammen, soweit nicht
direkte Entlehnung aus dem Orient vorliegt. Deshalb fordert der Autor
zu einer grndlichen Untersuchung des Einflusses dieser Sprachen auf
das Russische auf.
Nach Ansicht von K. Bida und W. Witkowski ist also Klu Razu-
mnija in der prostaja mova abgefat. V.V. Vinogradov ordnet dieses
Werk offensichtlich dem Ukrainisch-Kirchenslavischen zu, da es unter
Paragraph 5 besprochen wird, namens -
-
. Die auseinander
gehenden Meinungen erklren sich wohl dadurch, da Bida sich nicht
nher mit der Sprache Galjatovskyjs auseinandersetzte und Witkowski
dessen Wortschatz aus seiner Untersuchung ausklammerte, whrend in
Vinogradovs Oerki Lexikalisches einen besonderen Schwerpunkt
bildet.
Was die Lexik des Klju Razumnija anbelangt, so erscheint mir
G.Y. Shevelovs allgemeine Auffassung am zutreffendsten zu sein, wenn
auch unser Autor nicht erwhnt wird: Die meisten damaligen Werke
spiegeln die ganze Skala von Nuancen und bergngen zwischen Mele-
tijs Kirchenslavisch und der prostaja mova wider, wie es dem vorherr
schenden Barockstil entsprach (Shevelov 1979:568f.). Somit umfat der
dritte kirchenslavische Einflu zweifellos auch weitgehend Komponenten
der prostaja mova.
In einem Sammelband der Studien des ukrainischen Slavisten Vasyl
Simovy, den G.Y. Shevelov krzlich herausgab, findet sich ein Artikel,
der in diesem Zusammenhang von besonderem Interesse ist:
. .. (Simovy 1981:119-
143). Einleitend wird festgestellt:
, -
XVII . In der Funote wird ver
merkt, da sich das Gesagte besonders auf die in l. und 2. Ausgabe des
Klju Razumnija bezieht, whrend in der dritten viele Zitate unber-
setzt blieben. Da dies auch in der Erstausgabe der Fall ist, wenn auch
weniger hufig, deutet Simovy selbst durch an. Der
Artikel enthlt nicht nur eine Gegenberstellung von Stellen aus der
Ostroger und polnischen Bibeln mit Galjatovskyjs oft freien volkssprach
lichen Wiedergaben, sondern auch einen berblick ber sprachliche und
stilistische Eigenheiten dieses Autors mit einer Aufzhlung von Substitu
tionen fr Kirchenslavisches, wie .
Allgemein gesagt, ist die Lexik des Klju Razumnija sehr bunt: sie
umfat Kirchenslavismen aller Perioden, solche, die spezifisch fr die
ukrainische Redaktion des 16.-17. J h. sind, ukrainische Wrter, Poloni-
smen, weirussische Elemente und zahlreiche Europismen. Fr unser
Thema sind vor allem solche Lexeme interessant, die fr die ltere Peri
ode nicht registriert sind (vgl. Sreznevskijs Wrterbuch), wohl aber im
Russischen Vorkommen und im SRJ a fehlen. Es ist anzunehmen, da
solche Wrter bereits vor dem 18. J h. in das Russische gelangten, und
zwar durch die Vermittlung von so verbreiteter Werken wie Klju
Razumnija. Dazu kommt, da hufige Wiederholung derselben Wr
ter fr diese Predigten charakteristisch sind, (vgl. z.B. die Auslegung
der einzelnen Sakramente S. 58ff.).
Folgende Wrter, die Galjatovskyj in den ersten sechzehn Predigten
verwendet, werden in SRJ a nicht genannt1: 171, Bira-
1 D ie Orthographie ist aus technischen G rnden modernisiert. D ie Zahl nach jedem Wort
158
kovadass. 1724, mit Verweis auf ukr. Vermittlung, vgl. weiter H FW
unter ; 134, 180, Sobik 1673, Birakova 1696;
123, Vasmer 1645, Polikarpov, SAR: 8, Birakova 1724;
101, Sobik (Akty Zap 1600-05), in den ersten Moskauer
Dramen 1673; 194, dass. Smirnov; 217,
Birakova ber Poln. 1707; 128, Vasmer zuerst Peter 1703;
83, Vasmer 1694; Smirnov (Kurakin); 60,
Berynda auch , vgl. H FW und Vasmer; 171, H FW
1721; 36, Berynda , Weiteres H FW.
Der Polonismus 65 scheint tatschlich erst im 18. J h.
in das Russische eingedrungen zu sein, obwohl . seit dem 16. J h. im
Ukrainischen belegt ist; zu den Grnden vgl. Kochman (1975:54), der
1765 nachweist.
Eine ganze Reihe von Wrtern, die Galjatovskyj in seinen Predigten
verwendet, werden in SRJ a angefhrt, allerdings mit spteren Datier
ungen2 oder lediglich mit Angabe des J ahrhunderts. Das zeigt den
starken Einflu der Lexik aus Werken ukrainischer Provenienz. Es han
delt sich hier hnlich wie bei der vorhergehenden Gruppe ganz vorwie
gend um Polonismen und Europismen: 188, dass. Zyzanij und
Berynda, SRJ a 1698; 122, dass. Berynda, SRJ a 1699 (18.
J h.); 103, SRJ a 1670 (18. J h.), vgl. weiter H FW
und Witkowski 1974:8f.; 30 Unmensch, SRJ a 17. J h. (18. J h.),
dass. Birakova um 1700, in anderer Bedeutung Zyzanij und Berynda;
160, SRJ a 1688; 10, SRJ a 1672, Be
rynda , vgl. weitere Varianten Witkowski 1974:10; -
99, SRJ a 17. J h.; 82, Berynda dass., SRJ a 17. J h.;
, SRJ a 17. J h., LSL dass.; 75, SRJ a 1679; -
27, 79, 186 Verhrtung, immer figurativ, dass. SAR, SRJ a nur
1672; 174 {ibid. ), SRJ a 1676,
dass. LSL; 14, vgl. ukr. Belege H FW, SRJ a 1679;
Edelstein 100, SRJ a 1670 (18. J h.), 17. J h.,
gibt die S eite des Vorkommens in der Faksimile-A usg. an; ihr folgen Verweise auf die
Fachliteratur ber Belege im R ussischen und U krainischen, ohne S eitenangaben im Falle
von G lossaren; angefhrte D aten beziehen sich auf das A uftreten.
2 Es ist zu beachten, da z.T . K opien aus dem 18. Jh. von Originalen des 17. Jh. exzer
piert wurden; in solchen Fllen fgen wir 18. Jh. in K lammern hinzu.
SPRACHL I CHES ERBE AUS UK RAI NE I M RUSSI SCHEN
159
Vasmer nur Geschwr ohne Datum; 131,
dass. Berynda und LSL, SRJ a 1668; 167 ( ibid.), LSL
dass., SRJ a 17. J h.; 129, SRJ a 1687, . ist ostslav. Ursprungs,
vgl. Kochman 1975:77f.; 127,151, SRJ a 1688, vgl. ukr. und
russ. Belege H FW; 60 ( 30), SRJ a das erstere 1668
mit nicht aufgelster Quelle; 174, Berynda , SRJ a
1681, 1688; 53, 228, SRJ a 1672; 40,
SRJ a dass. 1678, 1681, doch ist die letztere Form seit dem 14.
J h. belegt, vgl. Sreznevskij; 61, SRJ a 1665. Weiters
enthalten die ersten 16 Predigten des Klju Razumnija noch rund 90
Wrter mit den Anfangsbuchstaben H-, die in Sreznevskijs Wrter
buch nicht belegt sind und im Russischen des 17.-18. J h. Vorkommen,
also mglicherweise durch dieses Werk verbreitet wurden. Es ist anzu
nehmen, da ein guter Teil von diesen Lexemen in dem im Druck
befindlichen folgenden Bnden des historischen Wrterbuches des Rus
sischen verzeichnet sein wird, daher hat es derzeit wenig Sinn diese auch
noch aufzuzhlen.
Abschlieend soll noch erwhnt werden, da Klu Razumnija
nicht nur eine lexikologische Fundgrube ist, sondern auch fr Volks
etymologien (S. 45), Sagenhaftes, wie wunderttige Wirkungen der Edel
steine (99-104), die Nomenklatur der klassischen Mythologie (40) und
vieles mehr.
Universitt Wien
ZITIERTE FACHLITERATUR UND WRTERBCHER
Bida 1975
Birakova
Cievskij 1960
H FW
Httl-Folter 1983
Keipert 1977
K. ,
,
-. . 1. (
. .
), Rom, 1975.
. . , J I.A. , .. ,

XVIII . -
, , 1972; alphabetisches Glos
sar 334-408.
Dm. Cievskij, History of Russian Literature from
the Eleventh Century to the End of the Baroque,
S-Gravenhage.
G. Httl-Worth, Foreign Words in Russian. A
Historical Sketch, 1550-1800 (University of Cali
fornia, Publications in Linguistics, vol. XXVIII),
Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1963; alphabetisches
Glossar 55-123.
. -,
XVII . -
(XVIII .), in: Wiener Slavi-
stisches J ahrbuch, Bd. 28.
H. Keipert, Die Adjektive auf - . Studien zu
einem kirchenslavischen Wortbildungstyp, I. Teil.
(Verffentlichungen der Abteilung fr slavische
Sprachen und Literaturen des Osteuropa-Instituts
Kochman 1967
Kochman 1975
LSL
SAR
Shevelov 1956
Shevelov 1960
Shevelov 1979
(Slavisches Seminar) an der Freien Universitt
Berlin), Wiesbaden.
St. Kochman, Polsko-rosyjskie kontakty jzykowe
w zakresie sownictwa w XVII wieku (Prace
Opolskiego towarzystwa przyjaci nauk, Wydzia
jzyka i literatury), WrocawWarszawaKra
kw; Glossar 102-156.
St. Kochman, Polsko-rosyjskie stosunki jzykowe
od XVI do XVIII w. Sownictwo. (Opolskie
towarzystwo przyjaci nauk, Wydzia II jzyka i
literatury), Opole; Glossar 28-140.
- in: C.
. --
. .. (
XVII .
), , 1973, S. 423-540.
,
, -, ., 1806-1822.
Y. Shevelov, Lukrainien littraire, Revue des
tudes slaves, t. 33, 68-83.
G.Y. Shevelov, Die kirchenslavischen Elemente in
der russischen Literatursprache und die Rolle A.
Sachmatovs bei ihrer Erforschung, in: A. Sachma-
tovG.Y. Shevelov, Die kirchenslavischen Ele
mente in der modernen russischen L iteratur
sprache (Slavistische Studienbcher), Wiesbaden,
43-106.
G.Y. Shevelov, A Historical Phonology of the
Ukrainian Language, Heidelberg.
Smirnov
Sobik
Sreznevskij
SRJ a
Tostoj 1962
Trubetzkoy 1927
Vasmer
Simovy 1981 . , .
. .
(University of Ottawa Ukrainian Stu
dies No. 4), Ottawa.
H.A. ,
( .
LXXXVIII, Nr. 2), 1910.
.. Sobik, Polnisch-russische Beziehungen im
Spiegel des russischen Wortschatzes des 17. und
der ersten Hlfte des 18. J ahrhunderts (Slavisch-
Baltisches Seminar der Westflischen Wilhelms-
Universitt Mnster (Westf.), Nr. 13), Meisen
heim am Glan, 1969; Glossar 168-375.
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- , 3 Bd., ., 1893-1903.
XI-XVII .
.. , , Bd. 1-9,
1975-1982.
.. , -
,
-
., in: -
. . . ..
.. , .
.. ,
, in:
, Paris; 54-94.
M. Vasmer, Russisches etymologisches Wrterbuch,
Bd. I-III, Heidelberg, 1953-1958.
Vinogradov 1938 .. ,
Voznjak 1975
Witkowski 1969
Witkowski 1974
XVIl-XIX . 2- .,
.
M. Voznjak, Geschichte der ukrainischen Lite
ratur Band II: 16. bis 18. J ahrhundert. 1. Teil
(Lemberg 1921) bersetzt v. K. Horbatsch (Bau
steine zur Geschichte der Literatur bei den Slawen,
Bd. 4,1 und 4,2), Giessen.
W. Witkowski, J zyk utworw J oannicjusza Gala-
towskiego na tle jzyka pimiennictwa ukrai
skiego XVII wieku (Zeszyty naukowe Uniwersytetu
J agielloskiego CCXI, Prace jzykoznawcze, z.
25), Krakw.
W. Witkowski, Nazwy niektrych mineraw w
jzykach wschodniosowiask ch (Zeszyty naukowe
Uniwersytetu J agielloskiego CCCLXVIII, Prace
jzykoznawcze z. 42), 7-17.
D everbal S uffixless Masculine N ouns
in Modern U krainian
WASYL J ASZCZUN
1. In Modern Ukrainian, as in other Slavic languages, there are two
kinds of noun formation: paradigmatic and derivational, 1 the latter
being both syntactic and lexical. The meaning of a syntactic derivative is
identical with the meaning of its deriving word; the derived word differs
from the deriving one only by belonging to different part of speech, and
subsequently, by its different syntactic function in the context. Here
belong deverbal nouns denoting action (ytnnja reading, likuvnnja
medical treatment); adjectival nouns with the meaning of an abstract
feature (bilyzn whiteness, omot blackness, veslist ' gaiety, cheer
fulness); and denominal adjectives denoting an abstract, non-concretized
relationship to the content of the deriving base (nebsnyj heavenly,
zemnj earthly).
Lexical derivatives are those whose lexical meaning differs from the
meaning of their base words, e.g., ytc reader, ytty, likar physician
< likuvty, vynaxidnyk inventor < vynaxdyty.
In both types of derivatives, lexical and syntactic, the presence of
1 Opinions differ as to whether derivation belongs to lexicology or morphology. T he
first view is advocated, e.g., by A .V. I saenko: D ie Bildung neuer Wrter hat mit der
Morphologie, welche die Bildung von Formen ein und desselben Wortes untersucht,
nichts zu schaffen, Die Russische Sprache der Gegenwart, T eil I: Formenlehre (Halle/
S aale, 1962), p. 9. However, this view has no firm grounds and cannot be accepted. More
convincing is S tankiewiczs view that the derivation and paradigmatic levels are both
synchronically and diachronically in a state of interdependence, and neither level can be
fully understood without considering the ways in which it circumscribes and modifies the
other. (T he I nterdependence of Paradigmatic and D erivational Patterns, Word, XVI I I
(1962), 3.) A lso D ean S . Worth regards derivation as an integral part of the morphologi
cal system, whose relation to the flectional system is one not of autonomy but of interde
pendence. (T he N otion of S tem in R ussian Flection and D erivation, On the Structure
and History of Russian, Mnchen: Otto S agner, 1977, pp. 101-120.)
166
semantic derivativeness is obligatory and sufficient indication of deriva
tional relationship. This general statement made by some linguists, e.g.,
by I. I. Kovalyk, 2 is correct with regard to affixal word-building but it
does not explain the direction of the derivational process with regard to
deverbative masculine nouns with no suffixal morpheme. This is one of
questions raised in this article. Other questions include the genetic
aspect of the formation of the above nouns and their lexical -semantic
relationship to their motivating verbs; morphonemic changes accom
panying this formation and irregularities in these changes; and the ques
tion of the productivity of the nouns discussed.
So far these questions in regard to Modern Ukrainian have not been
given proper attention. Some grammarians do not mention such nouns
in their books, 3 at all and some indicate their existence but do not dis
cuss them. 4 O. F. Pinuk in his chapter Slovotvirna struktura viddijes-
livnyx immenykiv suasnoji ukrajinskoji literaturnoji movy 5 gives
somewhat more information but it too is limited and superficial. Some
valuable observations with regard to the semantic difference between
this type of noun and deverbal nouns with the suffixes -nn(ja), -tt(ja)
have been made by Yurij Serex (= George Y. Shevelov) . 6
1.1 The main source of the material investigated in this paper has
been the eleven volume Slovnyk ukrajinskoji movy of the AN URSR. 7
Also consulted were Ukrajins'ko-nimeckyj slovnyk by Z. Kuzelja and J .
2 A n U R S R , Slovotvir suasnoji ukrajinskoji mow (K iev: N aukova dumka, 1979), p.
10.
3 e.g., O. M. Parxomenko, Ukrajinska mova (K iev: R adjanska kola, 1954), pp.
199-218.
4 M. P. I venko, Suasna ukrajinska literaturna mova (K iev: Vyd. K yjivskoho univer-
sytetu, 1965), p. 240; O. S ynjavskyj, Normy ukrajinskoji literaturnoji mow, 3 vyd. (S tate
C ollege: Zyttja i kola, 1967), p. 115; M. A . ovtobrjux and . M. K ulyk, Kurs suas
noji ukrajinskoji literaturnoji mow, 3 vyd. (K iev: R adjanska kola, 1965), p. 204; I. K.
Bilodid, Suasna ukrajinska literaturna mova (K iev: A N U R S R , 1969), pp. 46-47; O. T.
Volox, M. T. C emerysov Je. I. ernov, Suasna ukrajinska literaturna mova (K iev:
Vya kola, 1976), p. 145.
5 A N U R S R , Morfolohina budova suasnoji ukrajinskoji movy (K iev: N aukova
dumka, 1975), pp. 45-46.
6 Yurij S erex (= G eorge Y. S hevelov), Narvs suasnoji ukrajinskoji literaturnoji mow
(Munich, N T S , 1951), pp. 208-209.
7 A N U R S R , Slovnyk ukrajinskoji movy. Il vols. (K iev: A N U R S R , 1970-1981).
DEVERBAL SUFFI XL ESS MASCUL I NE NOUNS 167
. Rudnyckyj, 8 Ukrajinsko-anhlijs'kyj slovnyk by M.L. Podvezko, 9
Anhlo-ukrajins'kyj slovnyk by M.L. Podvezko, M.L Balia, 10 Ukra-
j insko-rosijskyj slovnyk by cV.S. Iljin and others, 11 Pravopysnyj slov
nyk, 8 ed., by H. Holoskevy, 12 Handwrterbuch zu der altkirchenslavi-
schen Texten by L. Sadnik, 13 and Leksycnyj fond literaturnoji movy
kyjivs'koho periodu XXIVst by P. Kovaliv. 14
1.2. Formal conventions. In this paper the following notations are
used: hyphens separate structural parts (morphemes). Zero morpheme is
indicated by #, and addition of a morpheme by +. Morphonemic tran
scriptions are given in curved brackets { }, phonemic transcriptions in
slants / /, alternation is indicated by These notations are used only
in the examples illustrating derivational processes; otherwise they are
omitted and the transliteration of Cyrillic used by the Slavic and East
European Journal is supplied. An * before a word denotes a recon
structed word or element. Marks > or < denote direction of the devel
opment, namely, the word or form listed beyond the edge of the angle
or before it developed from the word or form listed before the wide part
of the angle or beyond it. The abbreviations impf, pf, and inf denote
imperfective aspect, perfective aspect, and infinitive respectively.
The letters C and V stand for consonant and vowel respectively.
Ukrainian words consisting of two or more syllables are stressed.
2. Suffixless masculine nouns in the Slavic languages originally deve
loped on the basis of the suffixal formation of nouns in the prehistoric
period of Slavic by means of the thematic suffix -o- which was trans
formed into the ending - after the final morphological suffix -s in that
period was dropped due to the tendency towards open syllables. Cf.
8 Zenon K uzelja and Jarosaw . R udnyckyj, Ukrajins'ko-nimeckyj slovnyk (L eipzig:
Otto Harrasowitz, 1943).
4 M. L. Podvezko, Ukrajinsko-anhlijs'kyj slovnyk, (N ew York, 1954).
10 M. L. Podvezko and M. I. Balia, Anhlo-ukrajinskyj slovnyk (K iev: R adjanska
kola, 1974).
11 V. S . I ljin, K. P. D orosenko, S . P. L evenko and others, Ukrajins'ko-rosijskyj slov
nyk (K iev: N aukova dumka, 1965).
12 H. Holoskevy, Pravopysnyj slovnyk, 8 ed. (N ew York, 1955).
13 L inda S adnik and R. AizetmCiller, Handwrterbuch zu den alt kirchenslavischen
Texten (s- G ravenhage and Heidelberg, 1955).
14 P. K ovaliv, Leksvcnvj fond literaturnoji mow kvjivskoho periodu X-XIV st. (N ew
York: N T S , 1962).
*voz--s > *voz--s > *voz- > *voz-b.]5 On this model many mascu
line nouns were formed from verbal roots and formed prefixed verbal
stems in all Slavic languages. They are found in Old Church Slavonic,
e.g. in unprefixed form: begb, blodb, govorb, , , , svarb,
skokb, sporb, tvorb, tokb etc., and in prefixed form: vbsxodb, istokb,
, otbvetb, ponosb, sbborb, uasb, and others; in the language of
Kievan Rus: begb, bludb, govorb, , , , svarb, sudb, tokb,
istokb, nazdb, otbvtb, ponosb, sbborb, uasb, etc. Eventually the ending
-b was lost, first in South Slavic, then in East Slavic,16 and the nouns
acquired a zero suffix and zero ending in the nominative/accusative sin
gular. The original small stock of such nouns increased in all Slavic
languages in the course of their development in concomitance with
morphonemic changes in each language. Here are some examples in
four modern languages.
Ukrainian Russian Polish Czech
svyst svist wist hvizd whistling
trisk tresk trzask ehrst crack, snap
bih beg bieg bh run, running
rist rost wzrost rust growth
kryk krik krzyk kik cry, scream
xov - chow chov raise
rozdil razdel rozdzia rozdl division
3. There are two groups of suffixless masculine nouns whose base
correlates with or is identical to the base of the corresponding verbs:
15 L inguists such as Milo D okulil ( Tvoen slov v etin, I, Teorie odvozovn slov,
Prague: eskoslovensk A kademie Vd, 1962, p. 592), V. P. Besedina-N evzorova (Staro -
slavjanskij jazyk, K harkiv, 1963, p. 266) and many others state that the suffix -o- together
with the ending -s gave - . However, more correct is G. Y. S hevelovs opinion that final -.y
was lost in C ommon S lavic approximately by the sixth century ( Prehistory of Slavic, N ew
York, 1965, pp. 227-229): arose onlv by the beginning of the 9th century (ibid, pp.
436-439).
16 T he loss ofb, (jers) for S lavic as a whole is to be placed in the period between the
early tenth century and the middle of the thirteenth; see S hevelovs Prehistory of Slavic, p.
459.
nouns whose base is equal to the verbal root (with possible alternation
of vowels), e.g., bih run, running and bihty 4o run; and nouns whose
base contains the verbal root together with prefix, e.g., vdyx expira
tion and vydyxty to expire. Most linguists call these nouns deverbal
(or verbal) suffixless nouns.
The first group of these nouns in Modern Ukrainian is represented by
about 90 examples, the other by about 710 examples, based on the
eleven-volume Slovnyk ukrajinskoji movy, AN URSR. 17 Dialectal,
regional and low colloquial expressions are not included in the dis
cussion.
3.1 Suffixless nouns with the stem corresponding to the verb root.
From the etymological point of view one may also consider as suffixless
nouns such examples as stil-#-# table, plit-#-# fence etc., whose stems
are traced to the verb roots *stbl-(a-ti) and *plet-rti) respectively. How
ever, these nouns have undergone a total semantic divergence from the
corresponding verbs, losing all verbal features; therefore they cannot be
considered now as deverbal nouns.
The stems of other examples of the first group of nouns and the roots
of the corresponding verbs are the same but one cannot determine with
absolute certainty the sequence of the derivational process for each
noun. In many cases we follow our linguistic feeling to make the
determination which seems to have psycholinguistic grounds. Nouns of
this type are abstract and, in relationship to their corresponding verbs,
present a higher stage of thinking; that is, abstract notion is built on its
lower stageconcrete verbal meanings. For instance, we feel strongly
that the noun xid going, motion, bih running, rist growth, hin
impulse, drive, hnit oppression, let flight etc. are formed from the
corresponding verbs xodty to go, walk, bihaty to run, rost to
grow, honty to drive, hnitty to oppress, letity to fly; however, one
would hesitate to make such a statement in case of the noun spix a
hurry and its correlative verb spity to hurry', or bunt revolt and
buntuvaty to revolt. From the synchronic point of view wewould con
17 T he K uzelja and R udnyckyj Ukrajinsko-nimeckyj slovnyk lists about the same
number of the unprefixed nouns with verbal roots and about 750 nouns formed from
prefixed verbs.
sider spix the derivative of spity (with the historical alternation
/x~s/, but from the diachronical standpoint spity was formed from
spx- which in its turn was formed from spe-ti. Even more uncertainty
arises with regard to bunt and buntuvty(sja). It is difficult to determine
whether the noun was derived from the verb or vice versa. According to
the Etymological Dictionary of the Ukrainian Language by J . B. Rud-
nyckyj this noun appeared in Ukrainian in the 16th century. Unfortu
nately, the dictionary does not indicate the time of the appearance of
the verb buntavty(sja). However, since the noun bunt was borrowed
from the German noun Bund and the suffix uva- and infinitive
formant ty(sja) are characteristic of Ukrainian, not German, these
elements must have been attached to the noun bunt after it had been
borrowed. Therefore it isjustifiable to state that the verb buntuvty(sja)
was derived from the noun bunt and not vice versa. However, such
cases seem to be rare in the realm of unprefixed masculine nouns identi
cal with the corresponding unprefixed verb roots; in general, we con
sider verb roots as the motivating bases of such nouns.
3.1.1. Since many nouns of the first group, that is, nouns
formed from unprefixed verbs, are motivated by both aspectual variants
of the verb, their aspectual meaning depends on the context in which
they are used. For instance, the noun {kryk}-{#}-{#} shout, {ax}-{#}-{#}
dismay, fright, {rysk}-{#}-}#! 'risk may indicate durative and iterative
action, or an instantaneous, single action. In the first case our linguistic
feeling associates them with the impf aspect verbs {kry}-{}-{ty}
(/k~/ ) 18 to shout ou, {ax}-{}-{ty}to frighten {rysk}-{uv}-{ty} to
risk expressing durative, continuous or repeated action, and in the
second casewith the pf aspect verbs {krk}-{nu }-{ty}to shout once
(single time), {ax}-{n}-{tyj to have frightened, {rysk}-{n}-{ty}to
have risked; cf. Zdaleka donosyvsja sumnj kryk uravlv (durative
action); Z hrudj prostrlenoho bijcj pronssja ostnnij kryk (instan
taneous action). Nevertheless, impf aspect verbs with the suffix -nu-
which have no pf aspect partner serve as bases for the formation of
18 / k / : a reflection of the first palatalization; *krik--ti > *kri--ti *kri-a-ti >
kry-a-ty.
nouns tending to indicate durative action, e.g.. tysk pressure from
tysnty press. 19
The first group of nouns includes those at whose base lies an
aspectual pair of single verbs differentiated only by the stem-forming
suffixes (and possible alternating final root consonants), namely, suffix
-a-(-uva-) in the impf aspect, and suffix -nu- in the pf aspect. The
general shape of the roots is (C)CVC(V)(C). Most roots are monosyllabic
and identical in the verb and in the derived noun, with the exception of
some examples involving vowel or consonant alternation. Typically
verbs serving as deriving bases of these nouns belong to the first
conjugation, of the type pe, taje.
3.1.2. Many nouns of this group have a tendency to express an
instantaneous action even if they have coexisting aspectual pairs of
simple verbs. This interpretation occurs especially in those cases where
we envisage durative action as a repetition of instantaneous sounds or
movements and particularly when we express sjch nouns as isolated
units, that is, without context. Nouns of this group expressing sounds or
movements are: blysk lustre, glitter'<blsk-a-ty, bls-nu-ty, 19 hrjuk
bang, slam, huk hail, whoop, hyk hoop, klyk call, cry, klip wink,
kop kick, kyv nod, bed, lusk]9 crash, noise, max stroke, wave, myh
wink, blink, plesk19 splash, lap, pysk'9 squeak, chirp, ryk roaring,
ryp creak, skryp squeak, scroop, stuk knock, svyst20 whistle, elest20
rustle, trisk]9 crash, crack, trosk19 striking, flogging, trus shaking;
search, jclost20 whip, xljup splash, jcrusk'9 'crackling, xlyp sob,
whimper, xux blow, puff, xryp wheeze, rattle, xrjask19 crash, crackle,
xyt shake, sway, zojk wail, yell. Many of these nouns are often used
as interjections with the stylistic function of onomatopoeic expressions.
3.1.3. Some nouns of this group are motivated by impf aspect verbs
possessing a suffix other than -nu-, namely, - -, -uva-, and having no
pf aspect variants to form aspectual pairs; although prfixai pf forms
exist, they do not form aspectual pairs with these impf verbs. In some
cases the derivational process of these nouns involves the morphonemic
alternation {o~i}. Examples (the number by the noun in parentheses
19 k of the sequence sk is dropped before the suffix -nu-; *tisknti > *tisnqti > tisnuty.
20 of the sequence st is dropped before the suffix -nu-: svystty, svsnuy.
indicates first or/and second conjugation of the deriving verb): bij{ 1)
battle, combat (bj-u, byty, ubyty), bih( 1) run (bihaty/pobihaty, bihtyj
pobihty), xid(2) going, motion (xodty/ poxodty). Other examples
include: hart( 1) hardening, temper, hin(2) drive, hlum(2) mockery,
hhit( 1 or 2 ) cackle, hnit(2) press; oppression, hmin{2) sound of
voices, hovir{2) sound of talking, hhit( 1) ring, boom, hud{ 1) hum,
drone, kvas{2) sour fermented drink, lment(2) cry, lpet(l) babble,
let(2) flight, ljak{ 1) fright, lov{2) catching, catch, take, pal{ 1) heat,
plav( 1) flow, stream; litter floating on the rivers surface, spir(2)
dispute, s/?iv(l) singing, spix(2) hurry, sthin{2) buzzing, drone,
sum( 1) sadness, strum(\) current, sum(2) noise, bet( 1) twitter,
sal(\) frenzy, fury, tjah{ 1) pull(ing), torh( 1) bargain; trade, trpet{ 1
or 2 ) tremble, vhav(l) cease, stop, var(2) intense heat; pitch (=tremble,
vhav( 1) cease, stop, var{2) intense heat; pitch (=cooked tar) . 21
Twenty-five of these nouns are motivated by impf intransitive verbs.
Those having intransitive verbs as their base tend to express durative
action or state, especially when used out of context. Nouns motivated
by transitive verbs usually denote durative action, but some can also
acquire a specific or concrete meaning. This process of concretization is
called by Charles E. Townsend hypostasis . 22 Hypostasis takes place
when the object in mind is inanimate; e.g., lov (lovty) can mean
catching, huntig and also that which was caught; catch, take. Cf. Lov
vnahorodyv ryblok. Za dobu vpovnyly von barkas po bort (Tulub,
Liudolovy) Catch (=the amount of caught fish) rewarded the fishermen.
Within twenty four hours they filled the launch up to the boards.
It is tempting to accept Dokulils assumption with regard to the
evolution of lexical meanings of deverbal suffixless masculine nouns.
According to him, such nouns originally did not differentiate the
meaning of action from that of the material object on which the action
was demonstrated. Only later, with the evolution of human thinking,
did these meanings began to differ: some nouns coming to denote
21 In S oviet U krainian dictionaries: 1) intense heat; 2) pitch (= cooked tar). In the
Ukrajins'ko-nimec'kyj slovnyk by K uzelja and R udnyckyj: I) juice extracted from fruits
by boiling; 2) intense heat.
22 C harles E. T ownsend, Russian Word Formation (N ew York: McG raw-Hill, 1968), p.
152.
concrete objects, e.g., plit fence (<*pletti), stil table (<*stblati), some
acquiring the meaning of an action, e.g., dviz delivery. In some, both
meanings developed, that of abstract action and that of concrete object. 23
The root of the verb lov-y-ty was lexicalized, because a noun lov-ff-
# with the original meaning of the action catching which then passed
over to the object, most frequently fish; gradually, the result of the
action, that is, the amount of caught fish, took the form of the noun of
action lov. As Yurij Serex (= George Shevelov) correctly observed,
deverbal nouns with zero suffix denote the action in a more abstract
way, the action as such, beyond the time of its course. 24 which allows
them to become objectivized.
4. Deverbal suffixless masculine nouns formed from prefixed verbs.
Example: {v-xd-y-ty}>{vxod-}>~{vxid-}+{#suffix} +{#ending} entrance.
The headword vxid in this string becomes an abstract noun with the
primary meaning of action and the secondary concrete meaning of
an opening or space for entrance into the interior of a lodging; the
whole string serves for further types of derivation, namely, the generation
of the flectional stem of vxid {vxid-} on one hand, and the generation of
all derived words on the other (e.g., vxid-n-vj).
Whereas suffixless masculine nouns correlative with unprefixed verbs
can sometimes create uncertainty with regard to the chronological
aspect of their derivational process, masculine nouns with zero suffix
correlative with prefixed verbs are not concomitant with such un
certainty. In such instances, the verbs comprise the motivating, deriving
base of the corresponding nouns. Cf. perpyt repeated inquiry and
pereptuvaty to inquire over again. As for the formation of the noun
perpyt one cannot consider it to be result of the addition of the prefix
pere- to the noun pyt because such a noun does not exist; consequently,
the prefix must have been added to the verbal stem. Secondly, the noun
perpyt cannot be considered deriving base of the verb pereptuvaty
because semantically it is identical with the abstract noun pereptuvannja
23 M. D okulil, Tvoen slov v etin, 1,... p. 592. (D okulili article transi, by Margaret
Bayuk, M. A . , U niversity of Pittsburgh).
24 Yurij S erex (= G eorge Y. S hevelov), Narys sucasnoji ukrajinskoji literaturnoji movy
(Munich: N T S , 1951), p. 209.
repeated questioning. The only difference between them consists in that
perepvtuvannja denotes a durative or iterative action, while perpyt can
indicate durative as well as completed action. Since pereptuvannja is a
derivative of pereptuvaty, the noun perpyt, with almost identical
meaning, leads us to infer that it also is a derivative of that verb.
However, there are instances where the root of the prefixed verb
exists in the form of an independent noun, e.g. -xod- in the verb
vxodyty 4o enter exists as the noun xid (with o changed to in closed
syllable; see below). Thus, it may seem that the noun vxid-#-# entrance
could be formed by adjoining the prefix v to the noun xid-#-#. But this
is not the case. The first of these nouns was formed from the verb
vxodyty to enter and not by way of v + j c id-#-#, as is evidenced by their
close semantic relationship, much closer than that between vxid and
xid. The semantic closeness between two words is one of the most
significant criteria for determining their derivational relationship to one
another. In addition, the formation of nouns by prefixation (pre-
fix+noun>noun) has never been productive in Ukrainian.
4.1. The stems of zero-suffix masculine nouns formed from prefixed
verbs can coincide: a) with the bases of the prefixed impf aspect verbs
only, the prefixed pf verbs not existing; b) with the bases of the prefixed
pf aspect verbs only, the prefixed impf verbs not existing; c) with both
bases: of the prefixed impf and the prefixed pf verbs; d) with the bases
of the prefixed impf verbs, certain morphonemic changes having occurred
in the bases of the prefixed pf verbs; e) with the bases of the prefixed pf
verbs, certain morphonemic changes having occurred in the bases of the
prefixed impf verbs; 0 *n addition, the noun can differ morphonemically
from both verbal bases.
The general shape of the roots of prefixed deriving verb is the same as
that of unprefixed deriving verbs (see 3.1.1.). Deriving verbs are
transitive, intransitive, or (a relatively small number) reflexive. Prefixes
participating in their formation are (according to frequency): vy-, roz-
(rozi-), po-t za-, pro-, na-, pry-, s-, vid-(vidi-), pere-, do-, v-, z-, u-, pid-
(pidi-), ob-, o-, nad-. Most roots are monosyllabic.
Nouns under a) are motivated by impf aspect verbs of the first
conjugation which have no pf partners. The number of such nouns is
very limited. They are: ndzir supervision <nadzyrty; nsmix mock-
DEVERBAL SUFFI XL ESS MASCUL I NE NOUNS
175
ery< nasmixtysja; bzir field of view (milit.) <obzyrty; poviv soft
blowing of wind <ipovivty; podyv admiration Kpodyvljty; poryv
gust; passion <poryvty; poysk lustre, gleam <polskuvaty; posmix
derision, mockery <posmixtysja; prdyx aspiration <prydyxty; uhv
interruption <.uhavty; strij regime, order <ustrjuvaty; vdblysk
reflection, gleam <vidblskuvaty; vblysk flare, flash <yyblskuvaty.
These nouns have a tendency to express durative or iterative action with
the exception of the last two which are usually understood as instan
taneous actions.
Under group b) fall about 25 nouns according to the eleven-volume
Slovnyk ukrajins'koji movy. The overwhelming majority of the mo
tivating verbs belong to the first conjugation (the number in parentheses
indicates the conjugation): npys inscription <napysty( 1); narys
outline <narysuvty( 1); pryvit regard <pryvitty( 1); polt flight
<poletity(2); pohovir gossip <pohovorty{2); pokis reaped (mowed)
strip of field (meadow) <pokosyty(2); ponjux pinch of snuff <po-
njxaty{2)\ poz cut, wound <porzaty( 1); porub forest-offence </?o-
rubtyi 1); pslux obedience <Lposlxaty; potop flood <potopty{2);
pcerk hand-writing <Lpoerkty( 1); pereljk fright, shock <perelja-
kty( 1); posti/ quartering <ipostjaty(2); rozbrat enmity <rozbrat-
ty(sjaX 1); rozhnv anger <rozhnvaty(sja)(\); skin death <skonty( 1);
sxov keeping, storing <sxovty( 1); uks hay harvest <ukosty(2);
ukl prick <ukolty{\)\ vvyx dislocation <vvyxnuty( 1); zpax smell,
odor <zapxnuty{\)\ zblud confusion, losing ones way; error <zablu-
dytysja{2) and a few more. Almost all of them are abstract and denote
completed action or its result; only a few of them, namely, npys, narys,
poks, poz, porub are hypostasized, that is, have concrete meaning.
The group of nouns under c) is the largest, comprising about 190
members. Examples include: vpys entry vpsuvaty, vpysty; vstup
proem vstupty, vstupty; vzysk exploitation < vyzskuvaty, vzys-
katy; nsyp bank < nasypty, naspaty; pokaz show < pokzuvaty,
pokazty; pdpys signature < pidpsuvaty, pidpysty, etc. The motivat
ing impf aspect verbs with the thematic suffixes -a-, -uva- belong to the
first conjugation and their pf partners have thematic suffixes -y-, -nu-.
As for the nouns of this group there is a tendency to use them more
often in the durative aspectual meaning, a fact which reflects the prevail
ing influence of the impf aspect verbs. However, a secondary meaning,
referring to the result of the action or its hypostasization, is characteris
tic of many of these nouns. Cf. (Engelhardt) za vkup evenka zapr-
vyv 2500 karbvanciv (P. Myrnyj), and Engelhardtu dal banyj v
kup. In the first sentence vkup redemption is used as abstract noun
with durative aspectual meaning; in the second sentence vkup is a
hypostasized noun meaning ransom (i.e., amount of 2500 karb.).
Some nouns of this group tend to denote instantaneous action, e.g.,
vbux explosion, poklyk call, shout, vdyx expiration, pkryk call,
cry. Cf. Z desjatkiv hrudj vxopyvs rdisnyj pkryk (M. Kocjubyns-
kyj). The meaning of durative or instantaneous action with these nouns
often depends on the greater frequency of use of the aspectual verbs; for
example, we understand more often the foregoing nouns as expressions
of instantaneous action but the noun bih circulation as referring to
durative imperfective action. This group also contains hypostasized
nouns, e.g., vriz notch; low neck (of dress). The important factor in
determining the above lexical meanings of these nouns is the context in
which they occur.
Second largest group of the nouns discussed are those of type d).
Their total number is about 180. Some examples include vhyn fold <
vhynty, uhnty; vjizd entry, drive < vjizdty, vjixaty. The following
prefixes are contained in the verbs motivating the suffixless nouns with
the root -j i z d d o - , na-, ob-, pere-, pid-, pry-, pro-, roz-, v-, vid-, vy-,
za-, z-.
The overwhelming majority of the deriving verbs of these nouns
belong to the first conjugation and have the thematic vowel -a-\ a small
number with the thematic vowel-^- (e.g., vjizd--ty) belong to the
second conjugation. Nouns of this group have a tendency to be used in
the meaning of durative action or its result, the latter being particularly
characteristic of nouns derived from verbs with prefixes na-, nad-, and
vy- (cf. nakaz, nadrz, vtysk etc.). The total number of nouns of group
e) found in the Slovnyk ukrajinskoji movy is about 120. Examples
include: vvar decoction < vvaryty; dslid experiment < doslidty;
zahn death, destruction < zahnuty; bslid inspection < obslidty;
perepl overburning; slag, scoria < perepalty; rozlad dissonance, dis
cord < rozldyty; umolt yield of grain < umolotty and others.
Some deriving verbs belong to the first conjugation, and some to the
second. Some nouns are used in abstract meaning only (bslid, zahn,
rozlad etc.) while in some also a secondary meaning of concrete object
has developed {vvar, perepl, vms etc.).
If the motivating verbs of these nouns are transi tive and the object on
which the action passes over is concrete and inanimate, the primary
tendency of these nouns is to express the action; a secondary tendency is
to denote the concrete object one has in mind. If the motivating verb is
intransitive, the corresponding noun has an abstract meaning of action
or state (e.g., zahn).
The last group of deverbal suffixless masculine nouns formed from
prefixed verbs, nouns differing morphonemiccaly from both bases, impf
and pf aspect verbs, numbers around 150. A few examples would be:
vviz import < vvzyty, vvezt; vbij pot-hole' < vybyvty, vbyty,
vbju; vxid entrance; portal < vxdyty, vvijt; vbir choice, selection
< vybyrty, vbraty; vhin common pasture < vyhnyty and vyha-
njty, vhnaty; prux movement < poruvaty, poryty and others.
Deriving verbs belong to the first or second conjugation. Nouns of this
group tend to be used primarily as abstract denominals; many of them
have developed by hypostasized meaning. Cf. Pry vxdi v rik novj
pohljnmo vzad, na t, co my probly (I. Franko), the noun vxid
denotes action, and Smyj mnyj, moldyj syd kolo vxdu u peru
(M. Vovok), where vxid refers to place.
5. Morphonemic alternations between derivational stems and deriva
tive nouns.
5.1. {o}in an open syllable of the root of an un prefixed deriving verb
changes to {i} in the closed syllable of the root of the corresponding
suffixless noun. 25 This alternation, characteristic of the Ukrainian lan
25 E tymological o and e in closed syllables in S outh Western U krainian changed into u
> > in syllables after which a jer was lost, in N orth U krainian into diphthongs. T his
occurred by assimilation of o, e to , in the next syllable, an assimilation which resulted
in the narrowing of the vowels (K urylo); see G. Y. S hevelov, A Prehistory o f Slavic, p.
447. T he o then through a series of monophthongal or diphthongal stages developed into
i. T here are other views on the development of such / from o in different dialects. A n
extensive treatment of this question is given by P. K ovaliv in his book Osnovy formuvan-
nja ukrajinskoji movy (N ew York, 1958), pp. 59-73. T he etymological e, when followed
by a syllable with , first changed to the latter giving the reflex i. T he reflex of the
178
guage and comprising one of the features differentiating it from all
other Slavic languages, occurs in the following verb-noun correlatives:
brodty > brid ford, honty(sja) > hin drive, hohotty > hhit
cackle, loud laughter, homonty > hmin sound of voices, hovorty >
hovir rumour, huhotity > huhit rumble, boom, dzvonty > dzvin
ringing; bell, klekotity > klkit gurgle, bubbling; scream, klopotaly >
klopit trouble, worry, loskotty > lskit tickling, krjity > krij cut;
shape, rost > rist height, growth, skrehotty > skrhit gritting of
teeth, stuhonty > sthin rumble, buzz, xyxotty > xxit giggling,
rehotity > rhit hearty laugh, hee-haw, spryty(sja) > spir dispute;
wrangle.
The above alternation also occurs between the following prefixed de
riving verbs and derived suffixless nouns:26 dohovorty(sja) > dhovr
agreement, dozvlyty > dozvil permission, dokorty > dkr reproach;
twit; blame, doxdyty > doxid,27income, napojty > napij beverage,
narostty > nrist excrescence, nastrjity > nstrij mood, nedosolty
> nedosil insufficient salting, obhnyty > obhin outdistancing, out
strip, obkosty > obkis mowing round, obvdyty > bvid circuit,
circumference, obxdyty > obxid going round, round about way,
perebrdyty > perebrid wading through, ford, perevodyty > perevid
transfer, perevzyty > pereviz ferriage; transport perehonyty > perehin
outrunning; overdriving, perekosty(sja) > perekis bending, pereko-
puvaty > perekip cross-ditch, canal, perekrojuvaty > perekrij cutting
out again, peresolty > peresil excess of salt, perestojuvaty(sja) >
perestij standing too long, pererostty > pererist outgrowing, proko-
sty > prokis mowing, perezolty > perezil exceeding wash in lye,
perexdyty > perexid passage; crossing, pidvozyty > pidviz supply by
transport, pidhnyty >.pidhin motive, impulse, pidxdyty > pidxid
discussed o and e began to appear in U krainian written monuments in sixteenth century
and in some dialects even earlier. T his phonetic process connected with the fall of weak
jers was applied by analogy to many other nouns in which o and e were not followed by a
syllable withb orb. T hus many new nouns were built by analogy.
26 If the alternating root vowel o is contained in both aspectual forms of the infinitive
with no consonant morphonemic alternation exhibited between these forms, only the impf
infinitive is given; otherwise only one of the verb forms containing root vowel o is given.
27 Figurative meaning: income.
approach, pokrjity > pokrij cut; style, porostty > prist verdure,
postjaty postij quartering, billeting, pryvzyty > pryviz bringing,
import, pryhnyty > pryhin bringing/driving (of the cattle), pryros-
ty > prrist growth, increase, prystrjuvaty > prstrij device; at
tachment, pryxdyty > pryxid coming, arrival, provdyty > prvid
leadership, pryhovorty > pryhovir saying, proverb, pryzvdyty >
przvid guidance, prorostty > prrist sprouting, proxdyty > proxd
passage, rozvzyty > rzviz transport, rozvdyty > rzvid divorce,
rozhnytysja > rozhn running start, rozdjuvaty > rozdj milking,
rozporty > rzpir thrust, rozpldyty > rzplid stock-breeding, roz-
rosttysja > rzrist growth, increase, rozxdyysja > rzxid going
asunder; expenditure, skonty > skin death, sxdyty > sxid rise, ris
ing, suprovdyty > sprovid concomitance, udjuvaty > udj milk
yield, ukosty > ukis swath, uklontysja > ukln bow, greeting,
ustrjity > strij regime, order, utvorty > tvir creation, product,
vynaxdyty > vnaxid invention, vvzyty > wiz import, w dyty >
w i d input, inlet, vxodyty > vxid entrance, vyvdyty > vvid leading
off; (electr.) bushing, vyvzyty > vviz exportation, vyhnyty > vhin
common pasture, vzvolyty > vzvil liberation, vpotity > vypit
perspiration, vplodyty > vplid fruit, vslovyty(sja) > vsliv expres
sion, vtvorvty > vtvir creation, product, vyxdyty > vxid exit,
vkolyty > vkil formation, education, vidhnyty > vidhn driving
away (of cattle), vidxdyty > vidxid setting off, zvozy ty > zavz
delivery, zakrjuvaty > zakrj cu, zarostty > zrist vegetation, za-
stjuvatysja > zastj standstill, deadlock, zaxdyty > zaxd stopping
(at a place), zhnyty > z/ driving together (caittle), zrostaty > zrist
stature, size.
5.2. The above root vowel alternation {o~i} does not extend to all
deverbal masculine nouns. Some retain o of the deriving verbal stem,
whether unprefixed or prefixed. Among unprefixed nouns are: kop dig
ging, lov catching, catch, kovz gliding, lom 'breaking; ache, kor
cramp, losk clap, rumbling, trosk flogging, skok jump, xov
breeding.
Among masculine nouns derived from prefixed verbs the following
retain o in their root: a) Those whose deriving verb contains combina
tion -olo- in the root. Here belong: spolox alarm* < spoloxaty, perepo-
lx alarm, jumble < perepolxaty, nadkl slight split < nadkolty,
rozkol split < rozkolty, prokl hole, puncture < prokolty, ukl
prick; injection < ukolty, vholos enunciation < vholosyy, rzho-
los spreading the news < rozholosty, namol grain output < namo-
lotty, obmolt trashing < obmolotty, umolt yield of grain < umo-
lotty, vmolot trashed corn < vmolotyty, zakolot rebellion <
zakolotty. b) Other nouns retaining o of the prefixed derivational verb
stems are: donos denunciation, nanos alluvium, perens28 transfer,
pidns tray, pryns28 offering, roznos28 bearing about, vnos bearing
out, znos wear, dtork touch, prtork touch, dozr28 supervision,
nskok28 raid, inroad, pidskok and p'ldskik leap, jump, doxid2*
income, pryxd2* credit, perelm28 break, prolom28 gap, rozlom
(and rozlm) 28 break, zalm28 fold, vlom28 break in/out, upr28
rest; lug, perer ploughing again, rozkop digging out, pohrom mas
sacre, rozhrm utter defeat, law suit, przov levy, potp
flood, ptovx push, pryjm reception, prykv chain, prysmkt
sticking to, sxov keeping, storing, vtop melting out, vtorh gains;
receipts, zmorh loop, zkot top (of boots etc.), zark and zarik28
vow, pledge.
The lack of the change of o of the verbal unprefixed and prefixed
derivational bass to in the derived suffixless nouns as a rule is not
conditioned by the phonological environment of these vowels (or at
least the phonological conditioning has never been demonstrated).
In certain rare cases the root vowel alternation i~o affects the lexical
meaning of two deverbal masculine suffixless nouns, e.g., drib small
shot and drob roll of drum, nabir assemblage and nabr composition
(in printing), uklin bow and ukln declivity.
5.3. Some noun stems formed from verbal nonsyllabic present or
future tense stems with the root morphoneme {#} vocalize {#} to full
vowel {i} before zero ending, e.g., b-ty, z-v-ty: b#j-u, bij-#-# battle,
28 In Ukrajinsko-nimec'kyj slovnyk by K uzelja and R udnyckyj: perenis, prynis and
pryns, rozns, dozr, nskik and nskok, doxid, pryxid credit and arrival; Slovnyk
ukrajins'koji movy, A N U R S R : pryxid arrival (only); K uzelja and R udnyckyj: perelim,
prolim and prolom, rozlim and rozlm, vlim and vlom, upr; in K uzelja-R udnyckyj and
in Holoskevy dictionaries: zalim and zarik (only).
zivj- zvij-#-# winding, bend. Other nouns of this group are those
formed from prefixed verbs containing the prefixes: na-, pid-, pro-, pry-,
pere-, roz-, vid-, za-, and the root -bij-; and the prefixes za-, z-, roz- in
combination with the root -vij-.
Verbal root morphonemes {y, e, #}alternate with {i}in the root of the
derived noun, {y} occurs in the impf infinitive, {e} in the future tense,
and {#} in the pf infinitive. The examples include nouns derived from
prefixed verbs only, containing prefixes do-, na-, nedo-, pere-, pid-, u-,
vid-, za-, z- plus the root -bir-, e.g., dbir-tt-i choice < dobyrty,
dobrty, dober. In two examples {y}occurs in the impf infinitive, {#}in
the future tense stem, and {e}in the pf infinitive: napir pressure, rzpir
thrust.
5.4. Other morphophonemic changes in roots. Vowel {#} of the root
of the verb is vocalized to full vowel {e} in the root of the noun:
domysel-#-# conjecture < domsttlytysja, nedomysel thoughtlessness
< ne domsttlytysja, pmysel idea, rzmysel meditation. {#} of the
root of the verb is vocalized to full vowel {o}in the root of the noun and
affects the loss of the preceding vowel {i}: pidjm-t-# lift < pidijttmaty,
pryjm reception, pidnajm sublease, {y, #} of the root of the verb
alternate with {o} in the root of the noun: posl ambassador < posyl-
ty, postl-ty, przov levy < pryzyvty, pryzffv-ty, lawsuit <
pozyvty, poz#v-ty.
Vowel alternations in the roots of the nouns carry no grammatical
meaning because such meaning is expressed by the desinences. These
alternations only strengthen the opposition between the nominative/ac
cusative singular and the rest of the cases in the singular and plural.
There are no changes in the boundary of the prefixes and roots of the
derivational verbal stems reflected in the derivative nouns.
5.5. Consonantal changes. The final root consonants // / n/ //
/r/ / bl/ /ml/ / pi/ // of the impf verbs before suffixes -uva- and
-a- alternate with / 1/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / v/ before the suffix -y- of
the pf verbs and before the zero ending of the corresponding deverbal
suffixless nouns, e.g., /vhuljaty, vyhluvaty/ vs. /vhul/. The final
root consonant // of the verb before suffixes -uva-, -y- alternates with
/ k/ of the noun before the zero ending, e.g., /perelicuvaty, perity/
vs. /perlik/, /skyty/ vs. /skok/ . 29
6 . Productivity. A word is productive when it serves as a model for
building new words. The concept of productivity can refer to the whole
of the word formative structure of the word or to any of its compo
nents. There are two kinds of productivity in word-building: systemic
and empiric. Systemic productivity involves phonological, morphologi
cal and lexical-semantic limitations connected with the internal laws of
the development of the language. Empiric productivity involves, so to
speak, external factors; a new word is formed according to the existing
model. Systemic productivity is prerequisite of empiric productivity, i.e.,
systemic limitations directly affect empiric productivity.
As for the formation of deverbal suffixless masculine nouns in con
temporary Ukrainian, there are some structural and semantic limita
tions. Unprefixed verb stems are not active at all in the formation of
such nouns. Among prefixed verbs, on the whole, stems with thematic
vowels -a- and -y- serve as deriving bases. The other structural types of
verbs are not active in the formation of this type of noun. Also inactive
are verbs existing only in one aspectimpf or pf. Also inactive are pre
fixed verbs of the type poxdyty, pobhaly, povozty etc. walk for a
while, 4o run for awhile, drive (to cart, to draw) for some time.
Nonfunctional are stems of the verbs containing more than one prefix,
e.g., pererozpodiljty, pererozpodiltv redistribute. Nouns are not
formed at all from verbs in which the prefixes po-, na- are attached to
already existing prfixai stems, e.g., popryyvty sew on, naskladty
pile.
Linguists distinguish five determinations of the productivity of a
word: very productive, medially productive, slightly productive, unpro
ductive and dead. Between these two polesvery productive and
deadas we can see, liethree determinative positions, and the bounda
ries between them are not fixed. Therefore ones opinion regarding the
degree of productivity of a word can be rather subjective and vacillating.
24 In the above A N U R S U dictionary: skok, nskok, pidskik and pidskk, vdskik; in
the above K uzelja R udnyckyj dictionary: skik and skok, nskik and nskok, pidskik and
pidskk; in Podvezkos dictionary: pidskk, vidskk.
The type of nouns discussed in this article seems to be only slightly
productive in contemporary Ukrainian. The stock of already existing
nouns is used frequently in the colloquial and artistic languages, but
new nouns are seldom built. New formations represent rare occurences,
characteristic of writers and speakers (zmah, povstrm, vhad, zljak, v-
trym, vdij, vriz and others) . 30
University o f Pittsburgh
30 T hese and some other nouns occur predominantly in the language of the people of
Western U kraine.
T he Musical T erminology
of Mikoaj D ilecki:
S ome Observations
HENRY LEEMING
With the publication in 1970 of the 1723 St. Petersburg manuscript of
Mikoaj Dileckis1 Musical grammar 2 a second version of the treatise
became available to add to the 1681 Moscow version published in 1910
by the Society of Friends of Ancient Literature, 3 the two together pres
enting rich materials for the history of musical terminology in the East
Slavonic languages. No doubt the importance of these sources will even
tually be realised and their vocabulary taken into account by lexico
graphers. At the moment it is disappointing to find that the editors of
the Soviet Academys dictionary of Russian from the eleventh to the
seventeenth century, 4 while including Dileckis work among sources sur
veyed, have no settled policy. Of the three voices wi th initials covered by
the first five volumes alt and bas appear, quoted incidentally from
different sources;5 diskant does not, although the treble voice is referred
to at least as frequently as the two others. Another example of inconsis
1 S uch is the autograph spelling of the name in ms. 173 (fundamentalnyj)/107 of the
L enin L ibrary, Moscow, henceforth Idea\ it appears on p. 233, written in L atin letters,
accompanied by the word T vorec in C yrillic.
2 Mykola D yleckyj, Hramatyka muzykaina. Fotokopija rv.kopysu 1723 roku, edited
with commentary by O.S . C alaj-Jakymenko (K iev, 1970). (Henceforth HM\ numbers refer
to the pages of the manuscript; the transcription used in this article differs from the
U krainian editors in retaining e (= ) and ( , ) and not bringing these into line with
modern U krainian orthography; C yrillic r is transcribed as h\ for the plosive g D ilecki
uses the L atin letter. S upralinear letters are not indicated.)
3 S t. S molenskij, ed., Musikijskaja gramatika Nikoaja Dileckogo (S t. Petersburg,
1910).
4 Slovar' russkogo jazyka Xl-XVll vv. (Moscow: A N S S R , 1975-). (Henceforth Slovar)
5 Op. cit., vol. I, p. 33 (1679) and p. 76 (1681). T he former is a citation from materials
collected by A .A . K ot lj are vs kij, published in Drevnosti, vol. 1 (Moscow, 1865); his source
was Idea.
186
tency is the inclusion of dijezis sharp against the omission of bemol'
flat. The adjective derived from dijezis is included as a separate head
word: dijezisovyj; aVtovyj and basovyj do not appear. This delinquency,
probably the result of conflicting interpretations of their brief by the
collaborators, casts on to others shoulders the responsibility for pres
enting Dileckis musical terminology to the wide readership it deserves,
particularly among those interested in the history of European music
and the development of the vocabulary of the East Slavonic languages.
The linguistic interest of the various versions of the treatise is not
confined to its lexicological aspect, although this is paramount. There is
the question of Belorussian vestiges in copies of the Smolensk version;6
the influence of the scribe Vasilej Rezanec on the language of the Mos
cow version written for and dedicated to Grigorij Dmitrijevi Stroga-
nov;7 the Ukrainian of the St. Petersburg version and its possible reflec
tion of the personal idiom of Mikoaj Dilecki, itel grada Kijeva . 8
Other matters awaiting clarification are the biographical details of
Dileckis life, starting with his dates of birth and death; the content of
Toga zota, his only known printed work, the sole copy of which reg
istered by the Polish bibliographer, Karol Estreicher, 9 was lost by fire in
the Second World War; Dileckis relations with the J esuits, his teachers,
and the Franciscans, his publishers, during his days in Vilno; the earlier
models for his work. These tasks should be deferred no longer, for
Dileckis treatise on the composition and performance of choral music
in the Western polyphonic style marks, perhaps more clearly than any
other work, the cultural reorientation of Muscovy in the second half of
the seventeenth century, while the successive locations of the various
versions, Vilno (1675-76?), Smolensk (1677), Moscow (1681), St. Pe
tersburg (1723), are significant milestones in the rising tide of Western
influence, reaching the old capital during the reign of Fedor Aleksejevi,
when interest in Polish culture was at its highest, and the new capital in
the reign of his mighty successor.
6 For example in ms. 210/5 of the L enin L ibrary, Moscow; henceforth O; numbers
refer to folia.
7 Idea, 233.
8 S molenskij, op. cit., p. 53; N . Findejzen, Oerki po istorii muzyki v Rossii, vol. 1
(Moscow-L eningrad, 1928), p. 293.
9 Bibliografia polska, vol. 15 (C racow, 1872-1951), p. 207.
MUSI CAL TERMI NOL OGY OF DI L ECKI
187
The traditional East Slavonic musical terminology was quite inade
quate to answer the needs of Dilecki as teacher of part-song when he
embarked on his mission. Elements of the Western terminology which
could not be omitted, replaced or even translated were the pitch names
of the notes, the names of the clefs, the syllables of the sol-fa system, the
names of the vocal ranges, especially when these served to denote a
particular clef, and also certain key words from the vocabulary of
rhythm and mensuration. His most essential tool, linear notation on the
five-line stave, left the neumes and quilismas of the znamennoje pnije
with their quaint nomenclature stranded and redundant. Although
efforts had been made to achieve greater precision in that system, 10 the
advantages of the five-line stave over the traditional hieroglyphics
required no special pleading, especially when written parallel. 11 However,
with the new system the student had to learn a new vocabulary. Some
words of Common Slavonic stock continued to express basic concepts,
while the Church Slavonic thesaurus could be drawn on to provide ad
hoc renderings of translatable foreign technical terms.
Comparison of the most essential and elemental terminology of the
art with that of literacy reveals some interesting parellels. 12 J ust as the
activities of reading and writing are denoted in Common Slavonic by
words which were earlier used of non-literary or pre-literary skills such
as counting (*bt, * isti) and painting or decoration (*pis, *pbsati), so
here dance, song and instrumental playing are catered for by existing
words ( *plsq, *plsati;*pojq, *pti; * igraj, *igrati). The parallels are
not too close, however, in view of the murky etymology of these roots,
the emergence by the seventeenth century of prefixed derivatives (sp-
vati) and regional deviations (hrati), and the competition of foreign
synonyms (tancevati).
Common Slavonic also supplied a number of onomatopoeic roots
which were exploited in the nomenclature of mus eal instruments: *b-
in the duplicated *bbbnb, ES buben; *gd- in gusli; *du- in dudy;
10 A . Mezenec, Azbuka znamennago pnija, ed. S t. S molenskij (K azan, 1888).
11 Pervoje uenije musikijskix soglasij, no. 6 of the publications of the Obestvo Ijubi-
telej drevnejpis'mennosti (S t. Petersburg, 1877), f. 20 onwards. (Henceforth PU)
12 For some observations on the topic see: H. L eeming, Origins of S lavonic literacy:
the lexical evidence, Slavonic and East European Review (S E E R ), vol 49 (L ondon) pp
327-338.
188
*pisk- in piaV, pialka. The last mentioned, an extension of an imita
tive root */?/-, rendering the high pitch of bird song or the notes of a
pipe (cf. Romance *pipa), suggests a possible onomatopoeic origin for
the root of *peti, although Trubacevs interpretation of this word as a
causative to *pitin is so ben trovato that one hesitates to challenge it.
In the extensive use of borrowed items in a newly imported graphic
system we note a further parallel to the terminology of literacy. Of two
loanwords from Latin via Polish the first, noty, is primarily and closely
associated with the musical context, denoting notes written on a stave;
its singular, nota, also defines a particular length: semibreve (English);
whole note (American). The second word, litery, whose primary refer
ence was to an alphabetical system, was readily adapted to the musical
context. The transplant was painless and easy in view of the use of Latin
letters as pitch names of the notes: , ( flat), C, D, E, F, G (with H,
in origin a graphic variant of B, 14 used to denote natural); bukvy has
not been noted in this sense and this is not unexpected, for the discre
pant alphabetical sequence of the Cyrillic letters would inhibit their
simple substitution. The notation of the znamennoje pnije was called
znamja by Aleksandr Mezenec; 15 a fourteenth-century source quoted by
Sreznevskij uses the plural of znamenije: znamenija,16 a semantic equival
ent to the Latin notae, and an apt illustration of the fact that innova
tions in vocabulary are frequently reincarnations of the familiar in a
new guise. 17 Dilecki does not use the older names when writing about the
new system; in a reference to the old chant he uses the word kulizmy
quilismas. 18
In order to learn a scale the choristers would memorise the compo
nent notes not only by pitch but also by function in the lower and upper
13 M. Fasmer [Vasmer], imologieskij slovar russkogo jazyka, translated from the
G erman with additions by O.N . T rubacev (Moscow, 1964-1973), vol. 3, p. 350, s.v. poj\
14 T he natural sign t* has the same origin, as its names in French (bcarre) and I talian
(bequadro) indicate.
15 Op. cit., pp. 2, 7, etc.
16 A se imena znamenije(m), 1.1. S neznevskij, Materiay dlja slovarja drevnerusskogo
jazyka (S t. Petersburg, 1893-1912), vol. l,col. 1322, s.v. krib.
17 On the discreet salep against the explicit vulpis testiculi, see H. L eeming, A
seventeenth-century Polish cookery book and its R ussian manuscript translation, SEER,
vol. 42, 1974, pp. 500-515.
18 HM, 19; also kulimi, ibidem, 63.
MUSI CAL TERMI NOL OGY OF DI L ECKI 189
hexachords which spanned the scale. The names defining position in a
hexachord were the syllables still familiar today in the sol-fa system
with two important provisos: the original name ut was used instead of
doh, and ti, the name of the seventh rung, had not yet been introduced
to complete the scale as we know it today. In fact Dileckis choristers
were learning scales in an apparently systematic but most complicated
way, in each case starting on A or one of its inflections and finishing on
G. Thus the scale of C major ran as follows: A la re, H mi, C fa ut, D
sol re, E la mi, F fa, G sol ut; and the key of F major as: A la mi; fa,
C sol ut, D la re, E mi, F fa sol ut, C sol re la. The solmising syllables
refer in the first case to the hexachords of C and G: in the second case
to the hexachords of C and F. The singers learnt the various scales by
constant repetition of these sequences in which the first component of
each step was one of the first seven letters of the Latin alphabet, with H
as an ingenious gatecrasher. Where inflections of the basic notes inter
vened these were indicated by the addition to the letter of -is for sharps
and -es after consonants, -s after vowels, for flats; thus the first steps in
the keys of major and A flat major were: Ais la mi, and As fa ut,
respectively. In view of the leading role of the Latin letters it is not
surprising that the primer or section thereof dealing with scales was
called an A.B.C. There were already a number of terms available for the
purpose: azbuka (from the sixteenth century) ; 19 alfavit (from the fif
teenth) ; 20 bukvar ' (1664 in Moscow; earlier in Belorussia and Ukraine) . 21
For the job in hand a custom-built synonym from Polish was intro
duced. This was abecado, a word which cunningly combines the names
of the first three letters of the Latin and Polish alphabet with a Slavonic
suffix of nomina instrumenti, which in its West Slavonic form begins
with the fourth letter: -do. On East Slavonic ground this could undergo
two modifications. Firstly, the native form of the well-known suffix
could be substituted, giving -lo instead of -do. Secondly, in areas
where unstressed o was reduced to a, namely South Russia and Belorus
sia where Dilecki began his teaching career, the initial unstressed a of
19 Slovar\ vol. 1, p. 24.
20 Ibidem, vol. 1, p. 32.
21 I .U . Budovnic, Slovar russkoj, ukrainskoj, belorusskoj p i s mennosti i literatury
(Moscow, 1962), p. 32.
the Polish original could be corrected to o. Thereby the first syllable
could be rationalised as the Slavonic prefix ob-, and bilingual speakers
with a knowledge of Polish could relate the whole of the remade obe-
calo to the Polish verb obieca to promise, although what they made of
the semantics of this relationship one can only surmise. With this spe
cific label for a particular graphic system we may compare another
seventeenth-century example: azvdi, used with pedantic precision to
denote either the Greek alphabet, or the Cyrillic letters functioning as
numerals. 22 Apart from the Polish loanword, azbuka and bukvarare also
met, but apparently in the more general sense of musical primer:
azbuka notnogo tenija (Moscow, 1688);23 bukvar grammatika pnija
musikijskago.24Yet another variant, bukvica, occurs in the undated, but
undoubtedly seventeenth-century primer published in facsimile by the
Society of Friends of Ancient Literature, which explicity recommends
the prior learning of the Latin alphabet: xotjaj e uitisja pervoje da
izuit bukvicu rimskimi litery: sedm liter, kotoryje na sedmi linejnyx
soglasijax stanovjatsja,let him who wishes to learn (music) first mas
ter the A.B.C. with Roman letters: the seven letters which are set on the
seven linear accords (?usage of soglasije here not clear) . 25
The letters C, F and G had yet another function: to mark on the stave
the position of one of these notes. In modern vocal or instrumental
scores the G, or treble clef is permanently anchored tc the second line
up; the F, or bass clef to the second line down. The C clef continues to
be used for voices or instruments whose range straddles the G and F
clefs. The chosen position of the clef enables the stave to span the core
of a vocal or instrumental range and reduce the use of the so-called
leger lines, short additional lines written as required above or below the
stave. Allowing the use of one upper and one lower leger line and the
spaces above and below these, the modern G, or treble clef covers two
octaves upwards from below middle C, a reasonable soprano or treble
range. Dileckis system enjoyed great freedom in the location of the clef
to suit a particular range. Not only dikant descant or treble, alt alto,
22 Slovar \ vol. 1, p. 24.
23 Budovnic, op. cit., p. 12.
24 O, f. 25: Bukvar grammatika pnija musikijskago.
25 PU, f. 12.
MUSI CAL TERMI NOL OGY OF DI L ECKI
191
tenor and bas are met, but also altembas (I talian altobasso), bas eksce-
lent, bas geref and so on. The singers were expected to know all the clef
positions associated with particular voices. This had its practical advan
tages, since by making the appropriate mental adjustment or substitu
tion in clef or clef position the singers were enabled to read the music as
if it were in the key of C major, untrammelled by bothersome flats or
sharps. Thus for example a passage in flat major on the tenor clef
could be read as C major on the treble clef. As with the pitch names of
the notes the Latin letters are retained for clef marks. The Latin noun
clavis, channeled through Polish klawisz serves as technical term for
clef: kljavi. The Slavonic synonym klju is used in the sense of key:
bemoljarnyj / duralnyj / dijezisovyj klju flat / natural / sharp key.
However, the functional distinction is not as clear-cut as between clef
(of French origin) and key (its native counterpart) in English.
While the nomenclature of voices by range is of Italian origin and
Polish transmission, voice itself in the general sense is represented by a
word of Common Slavonic stock and probable onomatopoeic root:
*golsb. Choice between the East Slavonic golosh and Church Slavonic
glasb may be dictated by context rather than semantic distinction: ne
vdaje jakij holos, i tenor, i bas (HM 7) you do not know what the
voice (is), tenor or bass; hrubim holosom zavije (Hm 46) will burst
out howling in a coarse voice; me derza na umisl, to je(st) [] na
rozum, fana jazyku, v hlase (HM5) to have mi in mind or under
standing, but fa on your tongue, in your voice. The same root was used
in adjectives denoting -part, 4-part or other choral music: tretioholos-
nij ... etveroholosnij... pjatoholosnij [koncert] ( HM 14). The Latin plu
ral partes supplied the root of an adjective: partesnoje (pnije) part-
song, an expression in use before Dileckis day. 26
Slavonic adjectives are used to characterise major and minor: veselaja
muzyka, smutnaja muzyka.21The same adjectives denote chords: veselyj
ton (ut -mi - sol), smutnyj ton (re - fa - lja)2%The Slavonic adjective
26 First noted in 1656; H. L eeming, Rola jzyka polskiego rozwoju leksyki rosyjskiej
do roku 1696. Wyrazy romaskiego i aciskiego pochodzenia (Prace komisji sowiano-
znawstwa, no. 44) (Wroofaw-Warsaw-C racow-G dask, 1976), p. 86. (Henceforth Rola)
27 HM, 3.
28 HM, 4.
prostyj appears as an equivalent for duralnyj but the names of the flat
and sharp keys defy translation. 29 The intervals are named by Latin ordi
nals: sekunda, tercija, kvinta, kvarta, seksta, septima, oktava. These
give rise to adjectives in the compound suffix -alnyj, which combines
Latin -al(is) with Slavonic -(b)nyj, and is of frequent occurence in
Dileckis work: sekundaVnyj, etc. Variants also occur with Slavonic
roots: vtoraVnyj, trojaVnyj, cetveralnyj, pjatalnyj, estaVnyj, semaVnyj,
osmalnyp0 The names of the notes by length are, like their modern
American and German equivalents, logically descriptive of time-values:
takt whole-note; Ganze Taktnote; poltakta half-note; Halbenote;
vertka quarter-note; Viertel; these correspond to English semibreve,
minim and crotchet. For eight-note and sixteenth-note, English quaver
and semiquaver, vertka is qualified by vjazanaja and dva razy vjazan-
aja; here the principle has changed, coming more into line with the
French descriptive type: croche, double-croche, triple-croche, although
the latter refer to hooks and not to binding lines. The generic term for
rest is palza,31 which presents an unusual graphic representation of the
asyllabic u in Polish pauza, from Greek pausis stop via Latin pausa.
For the shorter rests yet another Latin letter name was pressed into
service: es, presumably as the initial of suspirium breath, equivalent to
a crotchet; and polesok, equivalent to a quaver. 32 In the Smolensk version
Dilecki made use of Polish numerals for the longer rests: jedna, druga,
tretca, varta, pionta and usta,33 Pol. jedna, druga, trzecia, czwarta,
pita, szsta.
While we cannot be sure that Dilecki with his Polish cultural back
ground had anything more than an elementary knowledge of Church
Slavonic, it is obvious that he soon encountered it as language of learn
ing and instruction in Belorussia and Muscovy. In his hands it seems to
serve as a medium of explanation, not a means of embellishing his text
with the venerable trappings of a high literary style, such as we meet in
the musical treatise of Mezenec, the polyphilosyllabic champion of the
29 PUJ. 16 v.)
30 idea, 92-98.
31 O, f. 6 v., HM 72; I dea, 193 has pavza.
32 O, f. 7 and 72.
33 Ibidem, f. 7.
MU S I C A L T E R MI N OL OG Y OF D I L E C K I
193
znamennoje pnije. Here is an extract from his criticism of those who
wish to modernise the old chant: mnjat sije staroslavenorossijskoje v
tajno-sokrovennolinom znamen pnije prevoditi vo organnoglasov-
noje, glasonotnoje pnije(I gnorant and presumptuous people) are
thinking of converting this Palaeo-Slavono-Russian chant with its arca-
nomystical symbols into organovocal, vocalo-linear music. 34 Nor does
Dilecki indulge in such unnecessary inventions or displays of etymologi
cal erudition as sladkopnije for melodia, which occurs in the section on
music in chapters 99 and 100 of the early nighteenth-century Russian
version of Comenius Orbis pictus.35This word, whi ch arose by erroneous
association of the first syllable with Latin mel honey, instead of Greek
melos song, is given in J epifanij Slavyneckyjs Latin lexicon as the
equivalent of melodia.
The following examples of Dileckis caiques refer mostly to the theory
and rules of composition; a few concern notation and performance.
They are based on Latin, Italian or Greek models. Some are perhaps to
be regarded as translations or explanations, rather than caiques; a
number are adaptations to the musical context of existing words. Two
examples {canon, scala) are qualified as hidden because they do not
have an explicit model in Dileckis text.
allegro (It.) alegro po vlosku, po naemu skoro, albo veselo
{HM, 7); two interpretations, referring either to
speed or mood, are offered.
amplificare {Lat.) amplfkova, to jest razira fantazju (HM,
59); the verb is registered by Sreznevskij, op. cit.,
vol. 3, cols. 99 and 112, in more concrete senses,
including middle-age spread.
amplificatio (Lat.) de amplifykacione [in Latin script], si jest o raz-
irennju fantazii {HM, 59).
34 Mezenec, op. cit., p. 7.
35 H. K lueting, ed., Das Leidener russich-deutsche Gesprchswrterbuch von ca. 1730
(Christian Gottlieb Wolf-Lexicon). Bibliotheca academiae Lugduno-Batavae Msc. LTK
584 (A msterdam, 1978), p. 143, line 10. for the correct identification of this important
monument see my review in SEER. vol. 58, 1980, pp. 272-274.
as eens io (Lat.)
atextalis (Lat.)
basis (G k.)
cadentia (Lat.)
cadenza (It.)
cadentialis (Lat.)
canon (Gk-Lat.)
c lavis (Lat.)
componere (Lat.)
concert are (Lat.)
concerto (It.)
vozestvije (O, f. 58 v.; Idea, 49; 54); vosxo-
denije (HM, 16). Both words were already in use
in other contexts.
pravilo bezrnojeregua atextalis (Idea, 77);
tuju regulu nazivaju, eto bez tekstu komponuje,
fantazjeju atekstals (HM, 33); a mode of com
position whereby the musical theme is constructed
before a suitable text is found for it.
basis ... osnovanije (Idea, 181); also replaced by
fundament from Latin and Polish.
bassovaja pade ... kogda bass tvorit
kadenciju (Idea, 38); adaptation of an existing
word.
pravilo imenujemoje latinski kadencialnoje, slav-
janski z padenoje (Idea, 70).
Since the first four of Dileckis rules are con
cerned with canon or imitation, there is a suspi
cion that rgula or pravilo may here be a hidden
caique of Gk. kanon. (HM, 16-27)
kljavis latinski, slavenskie klju (Idea, 26);
kljavi po lacn, po polsku klju ( , ).
slagati occurs frequently in the sense of combin
ing one note with another or others; it has not
been noted in the sense of artistic creation.
This is frequently met in the Slavicised form kon-
certovati or reflexive koncertovati sja. The Sla
vonic prefix s- may replace Latin con-: kogda
bas z basom zcertujutsja (HM, 26); in the same
passage a form without prefix occurs: dikanti ...
z svoim basom certujut. This could be a borrow
ing of the Latin certare, with the same meaning as
the prefixed verbto contend. This may also be
translated by an East Slavonic form: borot sja.
Apart from the loanword koncer , with adjective
koncertovyj, which occurs frequently in the sense
of passage of polyphonic music, where the voices
MUSI CAL TERMI NOL OGY OF DI L ECK I 195
concordantia (Lat.)
concordanza (It.)
descensio (Lat.)
dispositio (Lat.)
contrapunctum (Lat.)
contraria (Lat.)
elegantia (Lat.)
finalis (Lat.)
fuga (Lat.)
liga (Lt.)
contend; specifically, not a passage of parallel
motion, we find a rendering of the meaning in
Church Slavonic: koncerta, sir glasa so gla-
som borenije {Idea, 44).
o konkordancijax, sir, o soglasujuixsja no
tax {Idea, 33); an explanation rather than a
caique.
snisxodenije (HM, 21); nizestvije pervoje
imenujemoje latinski descensio {Idea, 55); niz
estvije (O, f. 55). The loanword is also used
(misspelt with dis- in HM, 20, etc.), together with
verb discendovati {HM, 22).
o dispozicii ... razloenii pnija {Idea, 108).
o protivotoii (O, f. 76); an ingenious and gen
uine caique; the loanword is much more frequent,
together with derived adjective and verb: kontra
punkt, kontrapunktov], kontrapunktovat\ e.g.
proii eglasy kontrapunktujut sekundami {Idea,
120).
pravilo protivnoje, ie imenujetsja latinski regulja
kontrarija {Idea, 76).
eleganciju latinski, slavenskie krasotu {Idea,
205).
o padeax finalnyx, sir, konenyx {Idea, 72).
bganije, kogda glasy svjazannymi notami jedin
po drugim ili vkup bgaju {Idea, 80)a run,
when the voices run in bound notes (i.e. quavers)
either one after another or together. The word
has not been noted in the sense of composition in
fugal style. Elsewhere the verb is met: vjazanimi
razi dva albo tri i dalej holosi... fugujutsja(#A/,
34)the voices are running in twice, thrice, etc.
bound notes (i.e. semiquavers, demisemiquavers,
etc.).
liga latinski, slavenskie sojuz {Idea, 122); liga
linea (Lat.)
muzyczny (Pol.)
naturalis (Lat.)
punctum (Lat.)
regua (Lat.)
scala (Lat.)
semitonium (Lat.)
sumphonia (Gk.)
po lacin, po polsku svionzek (i.e. Pol. zwizek;
HM, 51).
vo mnogix linjex, sir erticax (Idea, 133); an
explanation of the stave is given elsewhere: linii
su lstvicy so stepenjami (Idea, 146)the lines
are ladders with rungs. Here may be a hidden
caique of Lat. scala.
sluit do skripic inix roznix instrumentov hral-
nix (HM, 33); a neologim, rather than a caique.
Late sixteenth-century Polish had not only in
strument muzyczny (Mczyski, etc.) but also g-
dziebne naczynienie (Mczyski) and naczynie g-
dzieckie (Crescentius); S. Reczek, Podrczny sow
nik dawnej polszczyzny, WroclawWarsaw-Cra-
cow, 1968, p. 108.
pravilo jest jestvennoje, latinski imenujemoje na-
turalnoje (Idea, 6 6 ).
punkt, sir toka (Idea, 125); the loanword is
more frequent, also occurring in a diminutive
form: punktik ( HM, 53).
The rules of composition given by Dilecki are
referred to either as reguly or pravila, e.g. pra
vilo xoralnoje (Idea, 65) against rgula xorals
( HM, 26).
seelinea above.
semitonium ... polnoty (Idea, 21); dijezis po
grecku a po lacin semitonum, polnoti do hori
(HM, 5).
The earlier caique soglasije, already in use in the
sense of agreement, accord, becomes a musical
term in both Mezenec and Dileckis writings. Mo-
vilem o sohlasii (HM, 42)I have spoken about
agreement; this refers to information on the
composition of chords given at HM, 10-11, where
the general heading is: o konkordanci.
MU S I C A L T E R MI N OL OG Y OF D I L E C K I
197
taktus (Lat.) The word takt is used, as in Polish musical termi
nology, with two senses: 1. beat; 2. semibreve. In
the former sense it is explained by Slavonic equi
valents: takt: latinski taktus, slavenski emra iii
vaha (Idea, 26; O, f. 11 v.); takt noho inoho
ne jest tylko mra: jako ale njakije (#M , 7)
the beat is nothing else, only the measure, a sort
of scales as it were. (The reading abl, offered
by the Ukrainian editors, is erroneous; Dileckis
script does not clearly distinguish between Cyrillic
and .)
transposition (Lat.) transpoziciju ... preloenije kljuev (Idea, 150).
In the instructions for trans position simpler phra
seology is used: alta mjes pt tenorom dural-
nim {HM, 7)you are to read (the key of flat
on) the alto (clef) as C major on the tenor (clef)
The verbprevratitis also used in this sense.
The above examples may help to correct the impression given by
Unbegauns pioneering article on comparative Slavonic loan-translation
that seventeenth-century Russian did not favour the practice. 36 One
imagines that such a connoisseur of the language would have come to a
rather different conclusion if Dileckis musical treatise had been accessi
ble. 37 Certain principles are suggested by the material. Derivatives seem
to be more amenable to the treatment than simple words: adjective ref
erring to musical intervals, secundalis, etc., may be calqued but secunda,
etc. are not. The more abstract or figurative the meaning, the more
liable the expression to calquing, even when this produces such a
paradox as bas vo vlasnix svoix kadencjax spadajet do hori na kvar-
tax (, 31)in its proper cadences the bass voice drops upwards a
fourth, where spadajet renders an underlying Latin cadit.
36 B.O. U nbegaun, Le calque dans les langues slaves littraires, Revue des tudes
slaves, vol. 12 (Paris, 1932), pp. 19-48; reprinted in B.C . U nbegaun, Selected papers on
Russian and Slavonic philology (Oxford, 1969), pp. 27-57: L<;s calques du russe ne rem
ontent pas au del du XVI I I e siecle. (p. 47)
Rola, pp. 111-115, gives an appendix of 98 calques from prepetrine sources.
I close with a note on the unexpected elevation of the name of a
primitive folksy instrument, usually associated with incompetence or
stupidity, to the status of epithet qualifying a rule of composition, where
it not only wins the distinction of a modish suffixpravilo dudalnoje,
but is even transmuted into a classical form: rgula dudals (, 29).
Ex pauperrimo divesthere is hope for us all!
* * *
Since preparing this article for publication I have realized that I over
looked the existence of a Polish form obiecado, already current in the
15th century, with the then typical substitution of Polish o for Latin
initial a. The poet Norwid seems to have exploited for his own purposes
the accidental (or analogical?) connection with obieca, see I. Fik,
Uwagi nad jzykiem Cypriana Norwida (=Prace historyczno-literackie,
no. 34), Cracow, 1930, p. 71.
University of London
D er Zusammenhang zwischen dem
Phonem Jat und den N asalvokalen in
der E ntwicklung des slavischen
Vokalismus
FRANTIEK VACLAV MARE
Der J ubilar gehrt zu den fhrenden Forschem auf dem Gebiet der
vergleichenden slavischen Sprachwissenschaft. So, zum Beispiel, stellt
sein Werk A Prehistory o f Slavic einen der Gipfel der vergleichenden
slavischen Phonologie unserer Zeit dar. Es ist meines Erachtens dignum
et iustum, da in der vorliegenden Festschrift auch ein bescheidener
Aufsatz aus diesem Zweig seines vielfltigen Opus erscheine.
1. Die urslavischen Lautgesetze (Entlabialisierung der idg. Vokale in
Verbindung mit dem darauf folgenden Gesetz der offenen Silben,
Reduktion der J erlaute) 1 haben zu einem berreichen Vokalsystem im
Spturslavischen, bzw. im Frhslavischen gefhrt. Die ganze Weiter
entwicklung ist durch die Tendenz zur Vereinfachung im Sinne des
klassischen Vokaldreiecks gekennzeichnet; die Hauptlinie dieser Evo
lution ist grundstzlich durch die Struktur der Archiphonemfelder
bedingt2.In diesem Aufsatz wollen wir auf einen Zusammenhang
nher eingehen, der, u. E., bisher nicht klar genug untersucht wurde.
2. Es ist wohl bekannt, da das ursl. Phonem Jt, d.h. / / oder / /
(in der Folge schreiben wir e), in den Einzelslavinen eine maximale
Skala von Reflexen aufweistvom tiefen a (z. B. poln. lato < *leta
1 Vgl., z. B.: G. Y. S HE VE L OV, A Prehistory of SlavicThe Historical Phonology of
Common Slavic, Heidelberg 1964, 150-163, 264-293, 311-337, 376-390, 422-465 ( 10,
18-20, 22, 26, 28-29); F. V. MA R E , Diachronische Phonologie des Ur- und Frhslavi
schen, Mnchen 1969, 32-40, 93-97 ( 20-26, 60-62).
2 Vgl. . , j ,
] 34 (1983) 5-21.
200
aestas) ber das mittlere und erhhte e (z. ., : skr. ekavisch leto; #e:
sin. lto) ber die ie- und ^/-artigen Diphthonge (z. B., skr. jekavisch
Ijeto < l{eto, slk. biely albus, sin. dial. le{t) bis zum tieferen (offenen)
und hohen i (z. B., phonetisch bi: oso./nso. lto; i: skr. ikavisch lito,
ukr. )3.
2.1. Auer Acht lassen wir, selbstverstndlich, das J at nach palatalen
Konsonanten und Sonanten: In dieser schon im Ursl. neutralisierten
Position ist es berall mit // zusammengeflossen; dies betrifft den
Typus asb < *sb < idg. *qs-o- tempus, ajati < *jti exspectare,
hierher gehren auch die Flle mit einer alten y-Prothesis, wie skr. dial.
jazditi equitare, mit gn > g, wie gnjazdo < gzdo nidus 4 usw.
Relevant ist die Entwicklung des J at in derjenigen Stellung, wo es keine
Neutralisierung gab, d. h., nach den Alveolaren und Labialen. Es ent
fallen auch die Beispiele, wo () auf morphonologischem Wege zu a
geworden ist {rce Lsg. manus vs. ovis) .
3. Das ursl. e gehrte zum Archiphonem , seine konkrete Realisie
rung schwebte zwischen # (- #a vorderen Timbres) und \>e .
3.1. In sechs Slavinen sind klare Spuren dieses ursprnglichen Status
erkennbar, dort nmlich, wo e teilweise -artige Reflexe aufweist: (1) Im
Bg. ergibt das betonte J at vor ursprnglich harten Konsonanten und
3 D ie Bezeichnung der erhhten (engen) Vokale mit dem musikalischen Zeichen #
und der gesenkten (offenen) mit b halte ich fr vorteilhaft: S o, z. B., klingen die L aute
#e und bi phonetisch nicht ganz gleich (hnlich wie fis und ges im natrlichen S timmsy-
stem) und dabei knnen sie in phonologischer S icht als enharmonisch (=praktisch iden
tisch) gewertet werden, etwa wie fis-ges im temperierten S ystem; zugleich ist es klar, wel
chem A rchiphonemfeld sie angehren. ber das skr. e < vgl. . 7 , -
/' / , 1956, 209-212 ( 220-226), L iteratur
dazu: 212-215 ( 227-229); in diesem Buch ist auch eine gute bersicht des Zustandes in
allen skr. D ialekten.-- ber die monophonematischen (einsilbigen) skr. Jat-R eflexe vgl.
D . BR OZOVI C , Refleksi starohrvatskoga drugog jata u standardnoj novotokavtini
problem njihova fonolokog statusa, -C ontributions ( ) I I I /1: -
( -
] ja3Hun), Ciconje 1978,
7-20;E. BA R I -M. L ON C A R I -D . MA L I -S . PA VE S I C -M. - . ZE E VI -M.
ZN I K A , Priruna gramatika hrvatskoga knjievnog jezika, Zagreb 1979, 472-474 (
1404-1409).
4 ber gn > g vgl. FVM, Diachron. Phonol. (s. A nm. 1), 78 ( 51B).akavische
Belege: . JU R I S I , Rjenik govora otoka Vrgade, Zagreb 1973, s.v. gmzdo
5 Vgl. ibid., 101 (65).
6 S HE VE L OV, o. c.. 164-180, 388-389, 585-586 ( 11, 26.11, 34.4)S hevelov bietet da
auch eine vollstndige und anschauliche D arstellung der L age auf dem ganzen slavischen
S prachgebiet.
J ATU N D N A S A L VOK A L E I M S L A VI S C HE N 201
Sonanten ein *a, z. ., (aber und Pl.); in den Dia
lekten ist der -Reflex des alten noch mehr (in etlichen wieder
weniger) verbreitet.(2) In den mak. Dialekten der Drfer Suho, Vi-
soka, Zarovo und Boboica (die ersten drei Ortschaften liegen auf
griechischem, die letzte auf albanischem Staatsgebiet) reflektiert sich J at
in betonten Silben als : . (3) Im Polnischen geht vor harten
Alveolaren in // ber8: lato, las silva.(4) hnliches gilt fr die
beiden pomoranischen Restsprachen, d.h., fr Kaschubisch und Slowin-
zisch9 (lato) und ebenso fr (5) das Polabische10: l o t (< lato < lto).
(6 ) Nach J . R i g 1e r existiert imslavischen Sprachraum noch ein wei
teres Gebiet, wo lange tief war, nmlich in den nordwestlichen
slowenischen Dialekten11.
3.2. D ieselbe E ntwicklung des -Vokals ist in den jetzt ausgestorbenen stli
chen D ialekten des N iedersorbischen belegt: im S orauer (Zorawa) und G ubener
(G ubin) D ialekt. D es ersten der beiden D ialekte bediente sich M. Jukubica
(1548), der zweite spiegelt sich im Thesaurus polygloHus H. Megisers (1603)
7 Zum Bulgarischen vgl.: W. VON D R K , Vergleichende slavische Grammatik, 2.
A ufl., G ttingen 1924, 89-90 ( 53);K. ,
, 3- ., 1978, 118-122.Zu den makedonischen D ialekten
vgl.: . im S ammelband Fonoloki opisi srpskchrvatskih/hrvatskosrpskih,
slovenakih i makedonskih govora obuhvacenih Opteslovemkim lingvistikim atlasom,
gl. red. P. , S arajevo 1981, 753, 754 ( 2.16), 801, 803 ( 2.14);ders., Die Entwick
lungsstufen der mundarlichen Differenzierung im Mazedonischen, D ie Welt der S laven
21/1 (1976) 165-172;ders., \ ,
ja3HK 11-12/1-2 ( 1960-1961 ) 13-31, besonders S . 23 ( > in den ostmakedonischen
D ialekten im allgemeinen);ders., /
/ , ibid. 13-14/1-2(1962-1963)87-107 (bes. 95);ders., -
] ] ] , '. ,
^ , Ciconje 1970, 27-39; . ,
/ \ , Ciconje 1965, 43-45 ( 50-51).
8 S HE VE L OV, o.e.. 586 ( 34.4); T . BE N N I -J. O-K . N I T S C H-J. R OZWA -
D OWS K I -H. U A S ZYN , Gramatyka jzyka polskiego, K rakw 1923, 143-144 ( 53);
Z. K L E ME N S I E WI C Z-T . L E HR -S PA WI S K I -S . U R BA C ZYK , Gramatyka histo
ryczna jzyka polskiego, Warszawa 1955, 81-83 ( 22).
9 F. L OR E N T Z, Gramatyka pomorska, : Fonetyka, Wrocaw 1958, 77 ( 7.2).
1() T . L E HR -S PA WI K I , Gramatyka poabska, L ww, 1929, 34-36 f 25-26).
11 J. R I G L E R , Rozwj e w jzyku soweskim, R ocznik S lawistyczny 2 4 / 1 (1965) 79-92
(bes. 80-82). D iese grndliche S tudie bringt eine genaue bersicht der L age auch in an
deren slavischen D ialekten (besonders im skr. S prachraum). D ort findet man auch eine
reiche Bibliographie zum ganzen Problem der E ntwicklung des Phonems / / . Vgl. auch
ders., Pregled osnovnih razvojnih etap v slovenskem vokalizmu, S lavistina revija 14
(1963) 25-78 (bes. 29-30, 42-43, 65-70). A uf diesen wichtigen A ufsatz hat mich mein K ol
lege und Freund F. S awski aufmerksam gemacht, wofr ich ihm herzlich danke.
wieder. Diese Erscheinung ist eindeutig als eine I soglossenberlappung aus dem
polnischen Sprachgebiet zu verstehen12.
4. Der Nasalvokal gehrte im Spturslavischen zu den Vokalen
mittlerer Hhe (vgl. auch das glagolitische Graphem dafr, eine Ligatur
+013, z. B.: rka rnanus.
4.1.1.In derselben Hhenlage entwickelte sich dieses Phonem im
Bulgarischen ( ) und im Makedonischen, wo es allerdings auf einem
Teil des Sprachgebiets (die Schriftsprache inbegriffen) nachtrglich zu
// gesunken ist ( ), und ebenso im Polnischen. Die altpolnischen
Nasalvokale sind in einem einzigen Phonem zusammengeflossen (d. h.,
im Allophonpaar hinteren Timbres vs. vorderen Timbres); bekann
terweise kam es nachtrglich zur Labialisierung der langen Nasalvo
kale zu {rka, aber Gpl. rk, db quercus, wobei das Graphem
wie bekannt nasales o und seine weiteren Reflexe bezeichnet);
historisch und dialektal kommt auch (=nasales a), und vor14. Auch
in den nordwestlichen slowenischen Dialekten, wo sich die Nasale lange
hielten und in einer Mundart noch immer bestehen, war (ist) ebenso ein
mittleres Q vorhanden15.
4.1.2.Die Entwicklung q > #, event, bis zu , ist ein verhltnismig
sptes Phnomenon (XV.-XVI. J ahruhundert) und hngt mit der polni
schen Vokalverengung (pochylenie) zusammen16.
4.1.3.Auch im Kaschubischen und Slowinzischen reflektiert sich q
12 K. E. MU C K E , Historische Laut- und Formenlehre der niedersorbischen (nieder-
lausitzisch-wendischen) Sprache, L eipzig 1891 (N achdruck: L eipzig 1965), 63-64 ( 32/11);-
VON D R K , o. c. (s. A nm.7), 29, 97 ( 16, 60). D en weirussischen R eflex (e > ) a/a in
Vortonsilben lassen wir auer A cht, denn das ist eine verhltnismig spte E rscheinung
des weirussischen A kanie; Beispiele: silva - im Plural, lamniculus-pa/<-fl
fluvius.
" S HE VE L OV, o. c.. 311-331, 336-337, 584 ( 22.1-11, 34.2) - eine vollstndige ber-
sicht der G eschichte der beiden N asalvokale auf dem ganzen slavischen S prachgebiet.
Vgl. auch FVM, Diachron. Phonol. (s. A nm. I), 105-106 ( 68); in D etails habe ich die
dort geuerten A nsichten ber die Weiterentwicklung dieses Phonems gendert, vgl. o. c.
(s. A nm. 2), 5.2.2.2 und 5.2.3.
14 S HE VE L OV, ibid.;R OZWA D OWS K I in der Fnf- A utoren-G rammatik (s. A nm.
8), 130-135 ( 45-47);K L E ME N S I E WI C ZL E HR -S PA WI S K I -U R BA C ZYK ,
o.e. (s. A nm. 8), 102-111 ( 31); VON D R A K , o. c. (A nm. 7), 154-156 ( 96).
15 R I G L E R , Pregled ... (s. A nm. 11), bes. 66 (nachtrgliche Hebung:), 67.
16 K. D E JN A , Dialekty polskie, Wrocaw-Warszawa-K rakw-G dask 1975, 188-192
( 62-63); S. U R BA C ZYK , Zarvs dialektologii polskiej, 2 wyd., Warszawa 1962, 26-
29 (19).
J A T UND NASAL VOK AL E I M SL AVI SCHEN 203
als ein Nasal mittlerer Hhe; wo es zur Erhhung kam (tt, ), ist es
wieder eine allgemeine und sptere Evolution der mittelhohen Vokale17.
4.1.4. Im Polabischen ist q imallgemeinen geblieben, nach palatalen
(Kon)Sonanten ist es zu geworden: rka, zar < *zbrj video18. In
Anlehnung an die Schreibart der Quellen (un) setzt L eh r - S p a-
w i s k die phonetische Realisierung # an; dieser Laut hat jedoch
nie den Wert eines Phonems gehabt und seine Verengung lt sich von
den allgemeinen Entwicklungsprozessen der polabischen mittelhohen
Vokale nicht trennen19.
4.2.In allen brigen Slavinen sind die Reflexe des Nasalvokals
hher als die normale horizontale mittlere Vokalreihe.
4.2.1. ImSlowenischen ergab dieser Nasalvokal in betonten (=langen)
Silben ein #: rka. Der graphische Usus der Freisinger Denkmler (X.-
XI. J ahrhundert) bezeugt, da die Erhhung uralt ist: wir finden dort
nebeneinander poronjo || porujo (< porc) commendo, bodi und
bodo (< bd-) II Juni (< sqtb) formae verbi esse, mujenicom (< mce-
) martyribus20. ln den nordakavischen Dialekten kommt in lan
gen Silben uo vor (ruoka )1]. ber die Nordwest-Dialekte s. oben
4.1.1.
4.2.In den nordmakedonischen Dialekten, imSkr., Tsch., Slk., Oso.,
Nso., Ukr., Wr. und Russ. ist der hohe Vokal u das allgemeine Ergebnis
der Entwicklung des Nasals q: ruka - .
5. Beim Vergleich der beiden dargestellten Entwicklungsprozesse,
d.h., der Evolution des ursl. und des Nasalvokals g lt sich eine auf
fallende Parallelitt feststellen: In allen Systemen, wo in der Entwick
lung ber die Linie der normal mittleren Vokale gehoben wurde (q
'' L OR E N T Z, o. c. (s. A nm. 9), 164-165, 336-383 ( 188, 555-680), ber die Verengung
des oralen o s. S. 284-296 ( 456-482).
IK K. POL A S K I -J. A. S E HN E R T , Polabian-English Dictionary, T he Hague-Paris
1967, 24 (E infhrungskapitel: II. Polabian phonology).
14 L E HR -S PA WI S K I , Gram, poab. (s. A nm. 10), 36-38 ( 27-28), ber die E nt
wicklung des oralen o s. S. 40-44 ( 32-35; die phonologische I rrelevanz des N asals #>
erwhnt L ehr-S pawiski nicht, vgl. jedoch POL A S K I , /. e.).
20 Vgl. V. VON D R K , Frisinsk pamtky, jich vznik a vznam v slovanskm psem
nictv, Praha 1896,33.
21 VON D R K , Vgl. slav. Gramm, (s. A nm. 7), 153 ( 93); ber den kajkavischen
R eflex ( >) Uo vgl., z. B., BA R I et coauct., /. c. (s. A nm. 3).
> #o, oder - auf dem grten Gebiet - > u), ist das J at wenigstens in
gewissen Positionen -artig, d.h., u n t er dieser horizontalen Linie ge
blieben (e > a ). Dies gilt auch vice versa.-Wo q nicht gestiegen ist, dort
wurde berall und restlos mindestens in die Reihe der mittelhohen
Vokale erhoben. Diese Konstatierung gilt ausnahmslos (ber die einzige
scheinbare Abweichung s. 3.2).brigens ist diese Feststellung schon
vor mehr als fnfzig J ahren von T. L ehr - S p a w i s k i kurz
formuliert worden22.
Diese parallele Koinzidenz der Entwicklung zweier Phoneme kann
kaum als Zufall gewertet werden; umso weniger, weil da geographisch
getrennte, ja weit voneinander entfernte Gebiete bereinstimmen: (1)
Bulgarisch-Makedonisch, (2) Polnisch -Kaschubisch-Slowinzisch-Pola-
bisch, (3) nordwestslowenische Dialekte. Deswegen halten wir das Ver
gleichsergebnis fr zuverlssig: Zwischen der Entwicklung der Phoneme
// und / 9 / besteht eine kausale systembedingte Verbindung.
6 . Eine konkrete Erklrung dieser Parallelentwicklung bleibt einst
weilen noch im Rahmen einer wahrscheinlichen Hypothese: Der Laut
wandel des J at war nicht direkt von der Verschiebung des Nasals
beeinflut, sondern indirektdurch die Verschiebung des Nasalvokals
\ die Entwicklung der beiden Nasale hngt unmittelbar zusammen.
Solange die Nasalvokale als kurzer Vokal + aufgefat wurden (vgl.,
z. B., die Struktur der glagolitischen Grapheme fr die Nasalvokale: o +
N, e +N), standen sie in einfacher asymmetrischer Korrelation mit den
kurzen o und e (Vokal o/e + nasales Element TV), also mit den Vokalen
mittlerer Hhe. Sobald sie jedoch phonologisch monophthongiert
waren23, muten sie sich einem l an g en Vokal phonologisch an
schlieen und mit diesem in eine einfache asymmetrische Korrelation ein-
treten: ergab und hat sich dem langen (hohen) u angeschlossen { -
+nasales Merkmal); ist dagegen durch die zum Mittelpunkt des
Vokaldreiecks symmetrische Rotation zum langen gesunken ( - a +
nasales Merkmal)24. Dadurch wurde das Archiphonem A berlastet und
22 T. L E HR -S PA WI S K I , O dialektach prasowiaskich, S bornk prac 1. sjezdu slo
vanskch filolog v Praze, Praha 1929, 577-585 (diesbezglich: 5837584);vgl. auch
R I G L E R , Rozwj... (s. A nm 11), 81.
23 Vgl. A nm. 13 (FVM).
24 D en T erminus R otation hat J. HA MM eingefhrt (viva voce).
JA T UND NASAL VOK AL E I M SL AVI SCHEN 205
wurde nach oben zum Archiphonem E gedrngt, welches durch den
Untergang des Phonems und durch die eben erwhnte Verschiebung
des Phonems entlastet worden war25.
Die Entwicklung der beiden Nasalvokale in entgegengesetzter Hhen
richtung und den kausalen Zusammenhang zwischen den Reflexen der
Phoneme // und // hat vor einem halben J ahrhundert R. J a k o b
son festgestellt26. (Zu einer endgltigen Lsung des Problems wird es,
m. E., notwendig sein, die komplizierten Verhltnisse zwischen den
Phonemen // und // in diachroner Sicht genau zu erschlieen,
besonders die Chronologie des eventuellen Zusammenflusses der beiden
Laute, z. B., imSkr. und Nso.)
7. Abschlieend fassen wir zusammen: Bei der allmhlichen (aber
konsequenten) Vereinfachung des spturslavischen und frhslavischen
Vokalsystems in der Richtung zum klassischen Vokaldreieck, das im
System der Archiphoneme seit dem Spturslavischen vorhanden war, ist
wenigstens teilweise (in gewissen Positionen) im Bereich, des Archi-
phonems A b er al l dort (aber auch n u r dort) geblieben, wo der
Nasalvokal ber die mittelhohe Vokalreihe gestiegen ist. Wo nicht
nach oben verschoben wurde, dort ist aus dem Bereich der tiefen
Vokale emporgestiegenzum Archiphonem E, bzw. bis zum Archipho
nem /. Di es e F e s t s t e l l u n g gi l t ei ndeut i g. Eine
Erklrungshypothese: Wo q gestiegen ist, dort ist gesunken; dadurch
wurde das Archiphonem A berlastet, eines seiner Phoneme, nmlich ,
ist in der Richtung nach oben ausgewichen.
Im Sinne der wissenschaftlichen Redlichkeit sei bemerkt, da auf
diese Fakten und auf die vorgeschlagene Erklrungsmglichkeit schon
von T. L e h r - S p a w i s k i und von R. J a k o b s o n kurz
hingewiesen wurde; vgl. Anm. 22 und 26.
Universitt Wien
25 Es ist kaum ein bloer Zufall, da eben die S prachen, welche die N asalvokale nicht
beseitigt haben oder in denen die E ntnasalisierung verhltnismig spt eingetreten ist,
keine Verschiebung des T ypus > aufweisen; die N asale blieben dort lange Zeit als
phonologische Verbindungen kurzes oje + N".
26 R. JA K OBS ON , Remarques sur l volution phonologique du russe compare celle
des autres langues slaves, Prague 1929 (= T ravaux du C ercle L inguistique de Prague;
N achdruck: N endeln/L iechtenstein 1968), 36-37.
T he N umeral as an I nflectional Word
C lass in Modern U krainian
J I MARVAN
0. INTRODUCTION
It would be hard to imagine modern linguistic theory ignoring the
basic stratification of language, comprising such levels as inflection,
word-formation, syntax and semantics. Yet, one of the corner-stones of
grammar, the theory of word classes (parts of speech, partes orationis,
Ukr astyny movy) applies an approach which goes back to the time
when the rigidity and clarity of such stratification were not established.
We observe, e.g., that the representative description of Ukrainian gram
mar, Suasna ukrajinska literaturna mova (henceforth, SULM) ; 1 claims
to apply the morphological (inflectional) treatment complemented by
syntactic and lexical-semantic criteria (p. 24), but modifies the term
parts of speech used up to this point (cf. p. 23) to read lexical-
grammatical classes (leksyko-hramatyni klasy, p. 24) in which gram
matical means both inflectional and syntactic.
The class of numerals is a particularly useful criterion for establishing
the theoretical framework applied in word classification. Here, the
temptation of an exceptionally clear-cut semantic definition brings to
gether words which, by criteria applied in other classes, are nouns,
adjectives, indeclinable adverbs and even syntactic structures. It is to the
credit of SULM that it largely resists this temptation: e.g., it ignores the
ordinals as a traditional category of numerals and interprets them to be
ordinal (!) or referential adjectives. 2 Unfortunately, disappointment with
this approach is not far off: fractions (odna pjata, dvi pjati one fifth,
1 V. M. R usanivskyj, ed., Vol. 2 (K iev, 1969).
2 C f. p. 250. T his solution seems to be reinforced by the observation that the numeral
does not dispose of the standard declensional categories of gender and number, p. 246.
208
two fifths), though patently violating the rule of no number opposition
singular : plural, are included hereapparently, though not explicitly,
for the same reason, namely their syntactic function, the ordinals are
excluded.
It is easy to see that traditional word classification is not, in terms of
modern theory, a linguistic term at all, as it does notfor historical
reasonsobserve elementary linguistic stratification. It is equally easy
to see that a correct, modern definition can be achieved only by
respecting this stratification: the overall word classification can be
attempted only as a follow-up synthesis of the word classifications
within the relevant levels, i.e. inflection, syntax and semantics. Clearly
the inflectional approach, distinguished from others by the patently
finite character of the corpus of data at its disposal, must be the initial
and single most important step in this attempt.
In one of his recent articles, 3 G.Y. Shevelov brought to our attention
the origin of the segment -o- in numeral forms such as dv-o-x, tr-qo-x,
bahat-qo-x two, three, many i nG/L 4. However, latent and, as Shevelov
shows, difficult to grasp in its origin, it will be projected to the modern
language and demonstrated to be one of the most manifest exponents of
the inflectional class of numerals in Ukrainian.
1. NOMINAL CLASSES
Any linguistic entity comprises a message and its formal representa
tion (French signifi and signifiant respectively). On the level of inflec
tion the message corresponds to the traditional concept of (inflectional)
categories which are formally represented by a flecteme5. In declension,
3 G eorge Y. S hevelov, Why in U krainian sl'ozy T ears but zelenyj G reen, while in
R ussian sljozy and zeljonyp. (in:) The Slavonic and East European Review, vol. 57, N o.
1January, 1979, pp. 1-15, specially pp. 6 and 8, cf. also his A Historical Phonology of
the Ukrainian Language (Heidelberg, 1979), pp. 649 ff.
4 In the romanized transcription, we use symbol q to represent soft sign instead of tradi
tional diacritic () which, though suitable phonologically, does not lend itself for adequate
morphological segmentation.
5 T he term flecteme corresponds to the traditional ending, but encompasses all the cases
of inflectional exponentiation within the limits of one word. T hus, e.g., in the word zv+ -
tymemosja we will be called the second component is a flecteme containing two end
ings (-ty-, cf. nes-ty to carry and -mo-, cf. hovory-mo we speak) neither of which
appears here at the end of the word.
NUMERAL AS I NFL ECTI ONAL WORD CLASS 209
the flecteme represents the categories of case, number and gender, of
which only the first one is shared by all declensional paradigms.
If the category appears in all forms of the paradigm, it is an inflec
tional constant; if it changes, i.e., if it distinguishes some forms of the
paradigm from others, it is an inflectional variable. Thus case is the
variable of all nominal (declinable) classes while gender is a variable in
adjectives (cf. nov-yj, nov-e, nov-a new masc., nev., fem.) and a
constant in nouns (cf. stil masc., mor-e neu., vod-a fem. table, sea,
water). Using this definition of categories, the four traditional declen
sional classes6 are distributed as follows:
Case Number Gender
(*)
Nouns + +

+ variable
(ii)
Adjectives/pronouns + + + = constant
(iii) Numerals
+
category not use(
Table 1
2. STRUCTURE OF DECLENSIONAL FLECTEMES
If we consider Lpl flectemes in forms stol~\~a-x, nov+y-x, t+y-x,
dv+o-x tables, new, those, two we observe that they consist of two
components: the final segment, shared by all ::our flectemes, is the
exponent of Lpl while the penultimate segment., distinguishing three
flectemes, is the exponent of the declensional class (CE) which, follow
ing table 1 , yields
CE Lpl
(i)
Noun -a- -X
(ii)
Adjective / pronoun
~y~
-X
(iii) Numeral -o- -X
Table 2
6 Personal pronouns (five units) are not considered.
Each of CE has a soft variant (alloexponent) CE':
CE' Lpl Examples
()
Noun :ja- - X kon+ja-x horses
(ii)
Adjective/ ) (a) -i- -X syn+i-x, vs+i-x blue, all
pronoun ) (b) -ji- -X mo+ji-x my 7
(ii)
Numeral -qo- - X tr+qo-x three
Table 2'
3. INFLECTIONAL NUMERALS
Inflectional numerals can be defined by table 1(categories) as a word
class marked by the variable of case, the constant of number and no
category of gender, and by tables 2 , 2 ' as possessing the penultimate
exponent /'= o/qo. No word without this exponent can be classi
fied as an inflectional numeral. Following this:
(a) Unit odyn one and all ordinals are class (ii) Adjectives/pronouns
(cf. SULM 246-7). The same applies to fractions such as odna pjat+a,
dvi pjat+y-x one fifth, two fifths.
(b) Units nul+q, st+o, tysja+a, milqjon etc. , 100, 1000, 1,000,000
as well as polovyn + a, vert+q, par+a, djuzyn+a etc. half quarter,
couple, dozen are nouns (cf. SULM 247-9).
(c) Words such as piv, pivtora, malo, dvijko, half, one and half, few,
couple do not possess the category of case and are consequently
indclinables.
(d) On the other hand, two units skilqk~\-y, stilqk+y how many, so
many traditionally considered pronouns (SULM 271, 273) are inflec-
tionally regular numerals, skilqk+/ stilqk+ + o-x G/L , + o-m D,
+ o-ma I.
7 R are cases, for adjectives cf. t onkoy-]\-x thin-necke.
NUMERAL AS I NFL ECTI ONAL WORD CLASS
211
4. MAIN FEATURES OF INFLECTIONAL NUMERALS
While the final segment in tables, 2, 2' represents the integrity of all
declensional paradigms, the penultimate segment refers to their distinc
tiveness. Both properties of numerals can be summarized as follows:
A. (i) The integrity of the final segment enhances the plural character
of numeral constant as the segment is shared by the plural variable in
nouns and adjectives/pronouns.
(ii) The lack of gender in plural adjectives indicates the reason for the
same feature in numerals (in Table 1); here the plural is a constant,
hence inherent, implying the inherent lack of gender.
(iii) The inflectional plural in Ukrainian as an inherent feature,
though consistent with plural variable, is in the Slavic context quite rare
and, outside units two/both, three, four, shared by Slovak and Slovenian
only,* cf.
Ukrainian Slovak Slovenian
N(/A) pjat+q p a pet
G/L pjat+qo-x piat+i-ch pet+i-h
D pjat+qo-m piat+i-m pet+i-m
1 pjat+qo-ma piat+i-mi pet+i-mi
B. The distinctiveness, though yielded by the integrity, is more exten
sive and more prominent, as weseefrom the following features:
(i) a) The penultimate segment, according to tables 2/2, has two
variants CE/CE'. While in other classes CE' is clearly a positional
variant of CE, the relation in numerals is reversed: CE'= qo is a basic
(independent) variant (archimorpheme), while CE = o is the positional
alternation (allomorph); it appears after labials v, b, m (dv+ox,
ob~\~ox, sim+ox two, both, seven) or the velar k (kilqk~\~ox few), as
phonemically these sounds do not have fronted (soft) counterparts in
Ukrainian. The priority of the variant CE' = qo is obvious in the pair
bahat+o : bahat+qo-x in which o j qo appear in the same position; this
means that the distinction cannot be positional, hence must be inflec-
tionally relevant.
8 C f., e.g., R ussian and Belorussian in which numbers 5-20, 30, 50-80 are inflectionally
nouns, paradigm FE II (type kostq bone). In S erbo-C roatian, these numbers are not
declined at all.
212
b) The final morpheme of In -ma is for all numerals universal and
obligatory; this is opposed to the almost universal morpheme -my in
other classes; note that this distinction applies even if the pre-final
segment fails to display CE, cf. pjat+q-ma.
(ii) a) Each class has two or more paradigms; we establish two
paradigms in numerals as follows:
N(/A)
G/L
D
I
paradigm (1 )
bahat+o
bahat+qo-x
bahat+qo-m
bahat+q-ma
paradigm (2 )
(2 a) (2 b)
pjat+q
pjat+qo-x pjat+y
pjat+qo-m pjat+y
pjat+qo-ma pjat+q-ma
Corpus: dva, obydva two, both
tr+y, cotyr+y three, four
(de-)kilqk-a few
skilqk-y, stilqk-y
how/ so much
(ne)bahat-o (not) many
pjat~\~q five etc. (5-10)
odynadcat+q eleven etc. (11-19)
dvadcat+q, trydcat+q twenty,
thirty
pjatdesjat fifty etc. (50-80)
Table 4a
b) In contrast to other classes, two different declensions are not
distinguished by two different set of forms; it is the paradigm (2 )
comprising both sets in opposition to the paradigm (1) with only one set
of the forms.
c) The corpus as presented here is almost complete, 9 hence unlike
other classes, the class of numerals is a closed set comprising about 30
units.
(iii): a) This class displays the constant plural, however all definite
9 T here are additional rare derivatives which belong to the paradigm (2) such as kilqka-
nadcjat +q few over ten, teen, kilqkadesjat few tens, stonadcjat+q many; for pjatero
five (of a kind) and other collective numerals see (iii): a) and table 4b.
N U ME R A L A S I N FL E C T I ON A L WOR D C L A S S
213
numerals can be quantified yielding the collective counterparts: dva :
dvoje, pjatq : pjatero two, five (of a kind) cf. SULM 239. The
formation and use of the collective numerals (quantification) is an
inflectional (not word-formational) process; this follows from the fact
that it uses the same flectemes as other numerals but only within the
limits of paradigms (1) and (2 a)
b) Although the flectemes of paradigms (1), (2a) are universal, the
first component of the compound numerals 500-900 displays in G/L
and D only the paradigm (2b):
Considering a), b) we receive the following alternatives of the para
digm (2 ) (= indicates the boundary in compounds: pjatq = sot 500,
No)
paradigm
(2 a) 2 (b)
paradigm
(2 a)
paradigm
(2 b)
N(A) pjat+q pjat+ero pjat~\~q = sot
a
D
pjat~\~o-x
pjat+qo-mA
pjat+y
pjat+qo-x
pjat+qo-m
pjat+y
= sot
sta-x
. = sta-m
I
pjat+qo-ma pjat+q-ma
pjat~\-qo-ma
or
pjat+q-ma
pjat~\-q-ma
or sta-my
pjat+qo-ma /
Corpus: table 4a collective
numerals
500 - 900
Table 4b
(iv) The oppositions sist+q, sim six, seven, (2a) ist+qox, sim+ox :
(2 b) sest+y, sem+y indicate that the paradigm (2 a) has shallower mor-
phonological relations than the paradigm (2 b), involving complex rules
to reach the surface. This, in a diachronic perspective, implies that the
former paradigm is newer, in synchronic terms, more relevant for our
discussion; i.e. the former (shallower) paradigm is agglutinative, while
the later (deeper) paradigm is synthetic. The agglutinativity of the
paradigm (2 a) is the most important constitutive feature of the word
class of Ukrainian numerals.
5. TOWARDS SY NTHESIS IN WORD CLASSI FI CATION
(i) The inflectional status of numerals, outlined in this paper, suggests
some basic elements for constructing an overall word classification (see
introduction). The numerals as defined in tables 4a, 4b are treated by
tradition as a complement (a subordinate) in the nominal phrase (NP).
Thus in the following two kernel structures
(1 ) Xbooks are exciting
(2) buy X books
the kernel nominal phrase, with x = 0 can be expanded by applying the
complement x = the, these, other, all, old, Czech, secondhand, as well
as three, five, etc.
The extension of this formula to numerals in Slavic faces serious dif
ficulties. It is possible to claim that Russian tri knigi, Serbo-Croatian tri
knjige, Slovak tri knihy are proper counterparts of English three books
(German drei Bcher, Swedish tre bcker, and for (1) Latin tres libri,
Lith trys knygos, etc.). However, this correspondence is rather superfi
cial, as it imposes syntactic and semantic criteria on facts which in a
proper inflectional context have quite a different meaning.
First, if x = five (or more), the result yields, e.g., Russian pjatq knig,
Serbo-Croatian pet knjiga, Slovak pt knih with the noun in Gpl. The
substitution of the noun component with units as sestra, atom sister,
atom would yield for x = three, Russian tri sestry, tri atoma, with the
noun component in Gsg. The same results will be obtained in Serbo-
Croatian.
Clearly, the NP relation numeral + substantive (henceforth N+S) in
both languages is that of subordination in which the noun is governed
by the numeral and the government is manifested by the form (genitive)
of the subordinate component. The government is transformed into an
agreement in oblique cases (i.e., outside the subject/object area) which
might suggest that the subordination is reversed (cf. SULM 251 with a
reference), see(iii).
N U ME R A L A S I N FL E C T I ON A L WOR D C L A S S
215
(ii) Ukrainian, with the exception of some marginal cases (SULM
252, fn. 18), does not use sg form in the pair N+S. It is true that the
N+S construction as p jatq sester, atomiv five sisters, atoms (for
numerals five and above) use Gpl forms as their Russian (and other
Slavic) counterparts pjatq sester, atomov. But in contrast to Russian,
the relation is not that of government but of agreement as follows from
the following examination.
First, the pair N+S with numerals two, both, three, four yields almost
consistently only the Npl form, cf. try atom- three atoms as opposed
to Russian try atom-a.
Secondly, the plural flecteme is complemented with a non-flecteme
exponent of singularity which is expressed as follows:
(a) by the suprasegment, i.e. by the stress, the position of which s
always shared by the singular paradigm (cf. also SULM 127f, 252; e.g.
brat, knyka brother, book):
______ Singular______
N brat knk-a
G brt-a knk-y
D brt- knc-i
_______Plural_____
brat- knyk-
brat-v knyk
brat-m knyk-m
N+S
try brt-y knk-y
trqox brt- knok
trqom brt-am knk-am
Table 5a
(b) by the sg stem which is not otherwise used in pi (cf. SULM 67, 252;
e.g. perlyna, divyna pearl, girl):
Singular
Plural N+S
N perlyn-a divcyn-a perl-y divcat-a try perlyn-y divyn-y
G perlyn-y divcyn-y trqox perlyn divyn
D perlyn-i divcyn-i trqom perlyn-am divcyn-am
Table 5b
(c) rarely by both exponents (kurka chicken):
Singular Plural
standard rare
N+S
N krk-a kr-y kurk- try krk-y
G kiirk-y kur-j kurk trqox krok
D krc-i kr-jam kurk-m trqom krk-am
In krk-oju kur-m kurk-my trqoma krk-amy
Table 5c
The basic inflectional and syntactic feature of pair N+S is the distinc
tion of the noun form from its standard pi form. This is contrasted by
other Slavic languages which display the distinction only in direct cases
(subject/object area).
However, syntactically more important is the nature of the relation
N+S. Clearly, the numeral requires not the G form, but the pi flecteme
in the noun; moreover, the forms braty, knky, perlyny, krky (see
tables 5a, 5b, 5c, column N+S) do not exist independently, i.e. their use
in the pair N+S is motivated (hence preceded) by the corresponding
numeral.
Here we deal with agreement in which the noun is the subordinate.
The character of the subordination and its inflectional exponentiation is
the same as in the NP pair Adjective + Substantive wherein the subor
dination is expressed through gender; this must be inflectionally a vari
able in the subordinate (adjective) to accomodate the fixed gender, i.e.
the constant of its controlling counterpart (substantive).
In the same way, in the pair N+S, the number variable of the sub
stantive accomodates the fixed number of the numeral; it is conse
quently subordinate while the numeral occupies the position of the ker
nel nominal phrase.
(iii) This argument also applies in other Slavic languages; here the
subordination in the pair N+S is not reversed in oblique cases (cf. the
N U ME R A L A S I N FL E C T I ON A L WOR D C L A S S 217
conclusion in (i) but merely shifted from the government to agreement
in case and number. 10
The treatment suggested in this paper yields an essential distinction
between non-Slavic and Slavic, Slavic and Ukrainian syntactic struc
tures which within the framework of a traditional, semantically oriented
interpretation seemed to be in principle identical (cf. () English three
books + Russian tri knigi\ Russian tri sestry, pjatq sester = Ukrainian
try sestry, pjatq sester). The traditional interpretation, using extralin-
guistic (semantic) treatment, is not unuseful as it is based on the univer
sality of the objective world (cf., SULM 251). It can be, however, hardly
more relevant than an approach using purely linguistic entities (inflec
tion) to treat syntactic relations which, after all, are linguistic reality as
well.
Monash University
l()T he agreement in number in the pair N +S is not universal; apart from the languages
which do not have this category (e.g. C hinese) there are languages with the inflectional
opposition sg : pi using sg with the numeral, cf. Hungarian knyv sg, knyvek pi book
but hrom knyv literally tree book.
A T hirteenth-C entury U krainian Church
S lavonic T ext in L atin Letters
ROBERT MATHIESEN
Early Slavic texts written in Latin letters are of great interest to Slavic
historical phonologists, because they may provide evidence for phono
logical facts which are orthographically obscured in the large mass of
Cyrillic and Glagolitic texts. The text which is published here for the
first time is of more than usual interest, for it is a 35-letter Cyrillic
abecedarium in which the pronunciation and the Church Slavonic
names of the Cyrillic letters have been rendered by means of the Latin
alphabet, and the time and place of its writing can be determined with
considerable precision.
This abecedarium is one of four which have been written in columns
on two facing pages, originally blank, of a manuscript now in the Bam
berg City Library. The other three abecedaria are Hebrew, Greek and
Chaldeanthe last actually a Runic alphabet. This Runic alphabet
was examined by R. Derolez, who determined that it had been taken
from the anonymous Carolingian treatise De inventione litterarum
(usually, but wrongly, ascribed to Rabanus Maurus), and more precisely
that it derives from the form of the treatise which circulated in Germany
rather than the form which circulated in France. Following F. Leit-
schuh, Derolez dates the abecedaria to the beginning of the thirteenth
century. 1
There is good reason to believe that the four abecedaria are not quite
1 F. L eitschuh & H. Fischer, Katalog der Handschriften der k. Bibliothek zu Bamberg,
1:1 (Bamberg, 1895-1906), 514-518. R. D erolez, Runica Manuscpta: The English Tradi
tion (R ijks-universiteit te G ent, Werken uitgegeven door de Faculteit van de Wijsbegeerte
en L etteren, 118; Bruges, 1954), 326-329, also 275-278, 345 ff. P.E .D . R iant, Haymari
Monachi De Expugnata Accone Liber Tetrastichus, seu Rithmu? de Expeditione lerosoli-
mitana (L yons, 1866), xi-xv.
220
as old as the rest of the manuscript, and were added to it in S. Michels-
berg Monastery near Bamberg, where the manuscript remained for cen
turies afterward. This conclusion rests on certain facts which pertain to
the ways in which the manuscript has been bound during its history,
taken in connection with the places where the Monasterys ownership
inscriptions (Liber Sancti Michahelis in monte Babenbergensi) are
found in the volumes and the place where the abecedaria were added to
the manuscript.
At present the manuscript is bound in two volumes (Ms. patr. 130/1
and 130/2, formerly B. IV. 28 and B. IV. 29). The first volume contains
159 leaves, sewn in 20 quires numbered I-XX; leaf 159 is a later addi
tion, attached to the last leaf of quire XX. The second volume contains
165 leaves, sewn in 16 quires numbered XXI -XXVIII and IVIII;
leaves 1-2 are a later addition, sewn in front of quire XXI. The first
volume contains four works by the theologian Richard of St. Victor (t
1173). The last of them, De interiore hominis statu, now ends on leaf
159v, which is a later addition; in the absence of that leaf it would have
been interrupted about a page and a half before its end. The original
last leaf of De interiore hominis statu, from which the added leaf 159 of
volume I was copied, is still extant: it is leaf 3 in volume II, and it is
followed by two further works by Richard of St. Victor and some brief
anonymous texts of related content, ending on leaf 104r (the verso was
originally blank). These leaves (3-104) of the second volume are the
quires numbered XXI-XXVIII. The remaining 61 leaves (105-165) of
volume II are the quires numbered I-VIII, which contain miscellaneous
writings of various authors from St. Augustine down to the monk
Haymarus, who flourished at the end of the twelfth century. The first
two leaves of volume II were originally blank, but now bear the text of
an epistle by Pope Gregory I and (in another hand) a copy of a letter
written in 1193.
Although the present binding of the manuscript can hardly be much
older than the fifteenth century, this arrangement of the leaves in two
volumes of nearly equal size is much older, for the present first leaf of
each volume bears the ownership inscription of the S. Michelsberg
Monastery written in a hand which can hardly be younger than ca.
1250. However, the manuscript clearly was divided at first into two
U K R A I N I A N C HU R C H S L A VON I C T E XT
221
volumes in another way: the original first volume, with 260 leaves sewn
in 28 gatherings numbered I-XXVIII, contained writings by Richard of
St. Victor; and the original second volume, with 61 leaves sewn in 8
gatherings numbered I-VIII, contained writings by other authors. This
can be seen not only from the textual and codicological data already
given, but also from the fact that a third ownership inscription of the S.
Michelsberg Monastery, written in the same hand as the other two, is
found on the original last page of the first volume, now leaf 104v in
volume II.
From this we may conclude that the manuscript, written no earlier
than the late twelfth century, came into the posession of the S. Michels-
berg Monastery while it was still in its original form, viz. two volumes
of 260 and 61 leaves, respectively. Shortly thereafter it was rebound into
two volumes of nearly equal size, and the same monk who had inscribed
the name of the Monastery at the beginning and end of the original first
volume, now inscribed it at the beginning of the new second volume.
One consequence of the rebinding of the manuscript was that the last
page of the original first volume and the first page of the original second
volume, both still blank, came to face one another inside the present
second volume (leaves 104v-105r). These two pages are the very pages
on which the four abecedaria were later written; thus the four abeceda-
ria must have been written after the manuscript was rebound, and con
sequently while it was the property of S. Michelsberg Monastery near
Bamberg.
This chain of events, which cannot have started much before the end
of the twelfth century, must have been completed by the middle of the
thirteenth century, and probably several decades earlier, because all of
the hands found in the manuscriptoriginal text, added leaves at the
end of volume I and the beginning of volume II, ownership inscriptions,
and abecedariabelong to a type of Latin script which was hardly
employed much after ca. 1250, and had begun to give ground to Gothic
types of script perhaps as early as ca. 1200. This type of Latin script,
sometimes termed Proto-Gothic or Romanesque, is a relatively short
lived transitional form between Carolingian minuscule and Gothic
scripts; it is most characteristic of the twelfth century, and were it not
for its contents, the Bamberg manuscript (and the abecedaria in it)
222
might have been assigned more readily to the twelfth century than to the
thirteenth by many a paleographer.
Thus we may confidently state that the four abecedaria were written
in S. Michelsberg Monastery near Bamberg not much after the year
1200.
* * *
Having established this much, we can now examine the Cyrillic abe-
cedarium more closely. As can be seen on the plate, it is headed Alfabe-
tum Ruthenicum (with / for ph in the first word). There are 35 Cyrillic
letters in a vertical column, each with its Church Slavonic letter name in
another column to the right. (Two of these letter names are followed by
further notes in Latin). The pronunciation of most of the Cyrillic letters
(25 out of 35) is indicated by Latin letters placed in another column to
their left.
We observe immediately that the Cyrillic letters are, on the whole,
very well written. None of the other three alphabets is nearly as accurate
in this respect, although considering the late date of the manuscript,
the runes are remarkably well made (Derolez). Only a few details in a
few of the Cyrillic letters, such as ; and betray the fact that the
scribe was more accustomed to write Latin letters than Cyrillic ones.
Moreover, his Cyrillic letters have not been influenced in any way by
the forms of the corresponding letters in his Greek abecedarium. We
may conclude that the scribe was not aware of the historical relationship
between the Greek and Cyrillic alphabets.
A certain number of genuine blunders suggest that the scribe of the
abecedarium was not literate in Cyrillic, and that he did no more than
make a careful copy in vertical columns of an earlier Cyrillic abeceda-
rium written in horizontal lines. (Derolez reached the same conclusion,
arguing from the same kind of facts, about the Runic abecedarium.)
Thus, the sequence of Cyrillic letters occurs in that unusual
order, while their Church Slavonic names occur in the usual order, ior
iori iaer, so that the last two letters and names do not correspond to one
another. Similarly, the Cyrillic letter Z {zelo) is given the pronunciation
z, while the next letter ^ (zemle) is not given any pronunciation, but
only the note ista littera ponitur in numero this letter is put for a
223
number, just the reverse is what one might expect. Finally, the note
against the Cyrillic letter l (/) is obscure: ista followed by an unrecog
nizable letter (neither j nor y). The intended meaning is surely this
letter is and perhaps the original which the scribe copied had the
Cyrillic numeral *T (=1 0 ). One might also have expected the scribe, if
he were literate in Cyrillic and were composing a Cyrillic abecedarium,
to have given a table of the numerical use of the Cyrillic letters, since he
gives very full information concerning the numerical use of Greek
letters.
The accompanying Table gives the Bamberg Cyrillic abecedarium
together with several other Cyrillic and Glagolitic abecedaria for com
parison. A considerable number of early Slavic abecedaria are still
extant, and may be classified into five classes, as follows.
Class I. Here belong five acrostics, the partial alphabets in the earliest
two redactions of Monk Xrabrs treatise On Letters, and probably also
two graffiti from Preslav and the Glagolitic alphabets which serve to
link text and commentary in the Cyrillic Codex Christinopolitanus\
their evidence is confirmed by the attested portions of the Glagolitic
numerarium, which follows the order of the abecedarium. The common
testimony of these sources allows one to reconstruct an abecedarium of
36 Glagolitic letters, which in all likelihood represents the form which
that alphabet took when it was invented by Constantine-Cyril. The
other four classes of abecedaria all derive from this form, and provide
further evidence for it.
Class II. Here belong the younger Glagolitic abecedaria and numera-
ria, from the fourteenth century and later. The Glagolitic abecedarium
from Roc (ca. 1200) represents a transitional form between classes I and
II. The abecedaria in class II have 33 letters: letters 26 and 33 of the
original abecedarium have been lost, letter 30 has been moved to place
26, and letters 34 and 35 have merged into one letter with the name of
the former, but the shape of the latter.
Class III. Here belong only five abecedaria, all somehow connected
with the Bogumi religion. Four of the five are copies by non-Bogumils,
and show some confusion; the fifth is a cipher alphabet, and must be
decrypted before its evidence can be used. The abecedaria in question
are the Glagolitic Abecenarium Bulgaricum, the Cyrillic and Glagolitic
double abecedarium in a Latin manuscript at Munich, the mixed Cyril
lic/Glagolitic abecedaria copied by Abbot Divi and by Paul of Krbava,
and the cipher alphabet of Radosav. Radosavs abecedarium and the
Abecenarium Bulgaricum have lost the letters which occupied places 30
and 33 in the original abecedarium. The Abecenarium Bulgaricum and
the Munich Abecedarium are both extremely old, and thus have been
elevated to the rank of principal witnesses to the original Glagolitic abe
cedarium by the majority of researchers; but this is warranted neither by
their structure nor by their evident imperfections, which are easily seen
when they are compared with abecedaria of class I.
Class IV. Here belong a number of South Slavic Cyrillic abecedaria
(from the fourteenth century and later). These abecedaria generally have
36 letters, having lost the letters which occupied places 12, 31 and 33 in
the original abedecarium, having merged into one letter the letters
which occupied places 34 and 35, and usually having two consecutive
forms of the letters in places 23, 24, 25 and 32. The letter formerly in
place 26 has been replaced by Cyrillic , and Cyrillic 3 is usually
appended at the end of the abecedarium.
Class V. Here belong a great number of East Slavic abecedaria
(including the Bamberg Abecedarium) from the twelfth century on.
These abecedaria usually have 35 or 36 letters, having lost the letters
which originally occupied places 12, 26 and sometimes 33, and having
split the letter in place 31 into three letters. In later forms, another half-
dozen or so Cyrillic letters are appended at the end of the abecedarium,
including - w 3 V A V
In the accompanying Table, class I is represented by my reconstruc
tion, classes II and IV by generalized alphabets, each supported in detail
by the bulk of the sources, class III by Radosavs abecedarium (de
crypted), and class V by four of the oldest sources, as follows: (A) Nov
gorod Birchbark Document no. 460, (B) the Novgorod wooden alpha
bet tablet, (C) Novgorod Birchbark Document no. 201 (cf. nos. 199,
205), and (D) the abecedarium (letter names only) in the anonymous
Greek treatise on the baptism of Rus, usually referred to as Banduris
Anonymous Treatise. 2 It is clear that the Bamberg Abecedarium falls
2 I plan to treat this mass of material more fully elsewhere, and consequently omit its
bibliography here, except for W. R egel, Analecta Byzantino-Russica (S t. Petersburg,
U K R A I N I A N C HU R C H S L A VON I C T E XT 225
* ista litt'a point* f num'o
* ista
into Class V, and thus is most likely to be of East Slavic originas,
indeed, its title (Alphabetum Ruthenicum) indicates.
The term Ruthenus, it should be noted, is first used to refer to a
Slavic people toward the end of the eleventh century, and becomes
common in the course of the twelfth century; its derivatives Ruthenia
and Ruthenicus seem to be attested from the twelfth century on. In this
period it refers to all kinds of East Slavs; only during the sixteenth
century does its reference become restricted to Ukrainians (and Belo
russians) . 3
* * *
It is the Church Slavonic letter names in the Bamberg Abecedarium
which are of the greatest interest to the historical phonologist. They are
given in the Table, and may be compared with the somewhat younger
set of letter names rendered by Greek letters in Banduris text, as well as
with the earlier forms of the same names reconstructed for the abeceda
rium of class I. The letter names in the Bamberg Abecedarium clearly
reflect a Ukrainian pronunciation of Church Slavonic, whereas those in
Banduris text (first composed in the thirteenth or fourteenth century,
according to Regel) reflect a Russian pronunciation of Church Slavonic.
The phonetic interpretation of the Latin letters is in most instances
obvious, but a few points ought to be clarified. The orthography does
not record any contrast between palatalized and non-palatalized con
sonants, nor between voiced and voiceless dental and post-dental frica
tives. The letter z renders both [s] and [z], and the letter s, whether
round or long, renders both [] and [] . 4 The sound [] is also once
1891), 44-51, also xix-xxxii, who gives the best edition of Banduris A nonymous T reatise.
G lagolitic abecedaria are given in transliteration, following the system of N . T rubetzkoy,
Altkirchenslavische Grammatik (G raz,21968), 22; minor deviations from his system ought
not to perplex anyone who has attentively read his reconstruction of the original abeceda
rium, pp. 13-42. My reconstruction differs from his only in a few trivial points and on one
major issue: careful consideration of the evidence leads to the unexpected conclusion that
the original G lagolitic alphabet possessed just one /er, not two (as the 31st of its 36 let
ters), and that the distinction of back and front jer found in the extant early G lagolitic
manuscripts, though surely very old (and probably made before C onstantines death), is
the result of a modification made after the alphabets invention.
3 B.O. U nbegaun, L origine du nom des R uthnes, his Selected Papers on Russian
and Slavonic Philology (Oxford, 1969), 128-135.
4 T his fact, in its turn, supports the observations on Middle High G erman s and z made
by M. Joos, T he Medieval S ibilants, Language, 28(1952), 222-231.
U K R A I N I A N C HU R C H S L A VON I C T E XT 227
written sch. The isolated cases of [], [c] and |x] are written sh, c
(always before i) and ch, respectively. There seems to be no phonetic
contrast corresponding to the spelling pairs k and c (not before or e), t
and th, w and the v in tverdo, and the other cases of v and u. (The form
sheriv will be discussed below.) The Latin letters a, e, i/j, o, u/ v have to
suffice for a much greater number of vowels and gl ides. The significance
of in the letter name iaer is unclear. All in all, the abecedarium
employs the orthographic conventions current by the end of the twelfth
century for German texts written in Latin letters.
Word-final weak jer is everywhere omitted, as expected for such a
text written after ca. 1150. There is no indication of any change in the
vowel of any syllable preceding a lost weak jer. Strong front jer has
been rendered e in tverdo, fert and the first syllable of sheriv, again as
expected. The spelling sheriv at first glance reminds one of Cyrillic
spellings such as YfcpbBb, which are the subject of some controver
sy; but it is also possible that the form is a miscopied shervi, parallel to
the same letter name in Banduris text, , which may represent
Yep . If so, it has no bearing on any question of the second
pleophony. 5
The Bamberg Abecedarium serves to document the change [g] > [h],
reflected in hlahol, as well as the change of word-initial [je] > [jo] in ior
and iori (i.e. before an original non-front vowel of the following
syllable), but not in iaer (i.e. before an original front vowel of the
following syllable) . 6 Both of these changes have l:o be assigned to the
twelfth century or earlier (at least, in the dialect which the Bamberg
Abecedarium represents). The prothetic vowel in the form irci < *
is equally old. 7
The one truly surprising feature of the Bamberg Abecedarium is that
it consistently shows a change of [a] > [e] after post-dentals: zemle <
*zemla, sche < * a, and istse <*sca.8 This change apparently does not
5 G .Y. S hevelov, A Historical Phonology o f the Ukrainian Language (Historical Pho
nology of the S lavic L anguages, IV; Heidelberg, 1979), sec. 18.3.
6 Op. cit., chs. 9 and 25.
7 Op. cit., sec. 27.2, dating such forms from the late thirteenth century on.
8 T he form istse, rather than stse, has probably resulted from confusion of the letter
name see with the adverb ie, but the possibility of a prothetic vowel cannot entirely be
ruled out. Op. cit., p. 270.
take place after [j], to judge by the form ia < *ja < *j\ the form ieth
need not derive from *jatb, but may go back to *jetb. It appears that
this change had taken place by ca. 1 2 0 0 , and that the few early cases of
e for a after these consonants in Cyrillic manuscripts of the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries need not be explained as mere scribal blunders, but
may have been phonetically motivated. 9
This last change permits us to say something about the Ukrainian
dialect represented in the Bamberg Abecedarium, viz. that it is a South-
Western Ukrainian dialect of a type found even now chiefly within the
boundaries of the former Appanage Principality of Galicia, as it existed
during the twelfth century. Undoubtedly the Bamberg Abecedarium is a
source for a Galician pronunciation of Church Slavonic in the late
twelfth century or the very early thirteenth.
Brown University
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the courtesy and liberality with which
the Staatsbibliothek at Bamberg acceded to my request for photographs
to publish with this article.
9 Op. cit., sec. 41.3, tentatively dating the beginning of the change to the late fourteenth
century.
229
I
S
t
a
a
t
s
b
i
b
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k

B
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.

1
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2
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Staatsbibliotek Bamberg, Ms. pr. 130/2, f . I05r.
: A Prepositional Phrase
PETRO ODARCHENKO
The locative form of the geographical name Ukrajina in the literary
language of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries is found with either
the preposition {na Ukrajini; phonetic variants na Vkrajini, na
Ukrajni) or the preposition v (v Ukrajini; phonetic variants v Ukrajni).
The construction na Ukrajini appears in the vast majority of cases.
1. In the writings of Taras Sevenko the construction na Ukrajini
with its phonetic variants was used 46 times, that with the preposition v,
25 times. The exhaustive data are the following1:
na Ukrajini: 1, 48, 37; I, 65, 26; I, 6 8 , 10; I, 227, 48; 1, 306, 24; II, 9,
21; II, 24, 28; II, 25, 34; II, 25, 51; II, 40, 4; II, 6 8 , 10; II, 132, 37; II,
132, 51; II, 159, 6 8 ; II, 205, 24; II, 236, 46; II, 237, 75; II, 255, 25; II,
268, 25; II, 269, 67; II, 272, 197; II, 277, 384; II, 278, 405; II, 281, 8 6 ; II,
343, 650; II, 481, 28; VI, 13, 20; VI, 19, 17; VI, 23, 21; VI, 30, 11; VI, 31,
4; VI, 34, 13; VI, 62, 22; VI, 265, 12 (34 times);
na Ukrajni: I, 142, 34; II, 37, 11; II, 40, 15; II, 43, 8 6 ; II, 132, 47; II,
281, 85; 11,472, 11 (7 times);
na Vkrajini: I, 158, 18; I, 354, 4; I, 267, 1; I, 272, 182; I, 462, 33 (5
times). The sum total, as stated above is 46 times.
v Ukrajini: I, 19, 69; I, 64, 89; I, 65, 1; I, 65, 21; I, 90, 724; I, 105,
1183; I, 141, 2532; I, 141, 2555; I, 257, 15; I, 299, 296; I, 300, 317; II, 9,
2; II, 30, 257; II, 45, 152; II, 146, 8 ; II, 173, 12; II, 183, 76; II, 184, 21;
II, 236, 63 (19 times);
v Ukrajni: I, 8 , 45; I, 328, 163; I, 329 (the title): II, 16, 12; II, 16, 13;
II, 132, 63 ( 6 times). The sum total as stated above is 25 times.
1 T he data have been excerpted from T aras S evenko, Povne zibrannja tvoriv v est
tomax (K iev: A N U R S R 1963-1964). (S evcenkos works written in U krainian appear in
volumes I, II, and VI ). In references, the first figure shows , the second one, the
page, the third one, the line.
From this it follows that Metropolitan Ilarion in counting Sevcenkos
use of the prepositional phrases na vs. v Ukrajini (33 cases of na con
structions vs. 42 cases of v constructions) committed, clearly, an error. 2
It may be added that in his letters and his introduction to the poem
Hajdamaky the poet exclusively used the construction with na.
Most cases of the use of the v constructions in the poetic works of
Sevenko may be explained by considerations of style, meter, euphony,
orchestration and syntactic symmetry (e.g., in some anaphoric con
structions).
In his typical 14-syllable verse Sevenko uses the na constructions
when a five-syllable sequence is required and the v phrase when he
needs a four syllable sequence, e.g.:

(, 65, 26)

(IL 236, 46)
vs.

(1,65, 1)

(, 141, 2532)
The impact of sound organization (poetic euphony) may be illustrated
by such examples as:
He

(1,257, 15)
2 Mytropolyt I larion, Naa literaturna mova (Winnipeg: N aa kuFtura, 1959), p. 123.
In his Hramatyno-stylistynyj slovnyk evenkovoji movy (Winnipeg: Voly, 1961), p.
233 the corresponding numbers are resp., 33 and 41.
NA U KRAJ IN I: A PR E POS I T I ON A L PHR A S E
233
with its l abi al s and l abi al i zed sounds: v - u - v - u - v vs.:

(, 158, 18)
with its five a vowels. The impact of euphonic considerations probably
contributed to the replacement of na Vkrajini to v Ukrajini in the
verses:
,

(II, , 257)
which, after the change, contains six u vowels.
A more complex configuration of vowels characterizes many verses in
Sevcenkos poetry, e.g.:

(, 354, 4)
in which schematically, - /y -e- e/y are followed by - - , followed
by - a and completed by i - i - .
The part played by sound organization, melodiousness and musicality
in Sevcenkos poetry is a well-established fact. It has been discussed
many times3, and there is no need to dwell on it here.
The form Ukrajni was usually motivated by the necessity of a stress
shift, sometimes in conjunction with the sound organization of the
verse. This is the case in:
, ,

(, 43, 8 6 )
3 S ome random examples: S . L judkevy, Pro osnovy i znc.ennja spivnosty v poeziji
evenka, Moloda Ukrajina (L viv, 1902), 4, p. 125 (Quoted from H. S ydorenko, Ryt
mika evenka (K iev: K iev U niversity, 1967), p. 9); M. R ylVkyj, Poetyka evenka,
Naukov zapysky (A N U R S R , I nstytut movy i literatury), 2 (K iev, 1946), p. 25; 1 S emen
S axovskyj, Ohor v odei slova (K iev: D VXL , 1964), p. 153; V. Borodin, T voryj pro
ces, in the book: Tvoryj metod i poetyka evenka (K iev: N aukova dumka, 1980), p.
448f.
234
Further reduction, to a trisyllabic sequence, is provided by the syntac
tic group v Ukrajni:

(, 48, 45)
Finally, here is an example in which the anaphoric organization of
the text may have influenced the choice of a prepositional construction:
,

(11, 9, 11)
with its emphasis on the sounds a and n.
In addition, in his prose Sevcenkos exclusive use of the prepositional
phrase na Ukrajini shows that this was his preferred construction, which
has also been seen from the statistic prevalence of that construction in
his poetry. The construction v Ukrajini (as well as other variants)
occurred as a rule where there were specific motivations for such a
choice.
2. An exhaustive treatment of the language of writers of the nine
teenth and early twentieth centuries is impossible within the framework
of this article. Some of them used the na construction exclusively, oth
ers predominantly. The following random examples show that this con
struction was most typical of them. P. Kulis always used the na con
struction in his poetic work ( 311,
321, 341,
344) 4 and in his historical studies: ... (29),
... (53), ...
(55),
(151)5. Kulis also used the
construction in his fictional prose, especially in the novel orna rada,
4 Pantelejmon K ulis, Vybrni tvory (K iev: D nipro, 1969). A fter each quotation a
reference to the page follows.
5 Pantelejmon K ulis, Tvory (L viv: Prosvit, 1910), vol. 6. T he na constructions are
found in this volume also on pp. 28, 52, 55, 76, 151, 154, 162, 165, 198, 211, 233, 260, 263,
265, 269, 271, 310, 333, 384, 388, 394, 431 a.o.
NA U KRAJ INI: A PR E POS I T I ON A L PHR A S E 235
e.g.: (56),
(72), ... (75), ...
(118), ...
(176), ... (246).6
The above observations also hold true for many other writers: M.
Kostomarov ( )7, Marko Vovok
( )8, D. Mordovec ( )9, L.
Hlibov ( )10, M. Staryckyj ( )11,
Olena Pilka ( ...
)12, N. Kobrynska (... 13, . Manura
(, )14, Uljana Kravenko (
)15, . Necuj-Levyckyj ( ,
, )16, Panas Myrnyj (...
, )17, . Hrinenko (,
..., ... )18, V. Samijlenko
( , , )19.
The constructions also characterize works by I. Franko, M. Ko-
cjubynskyj and Lesja Ukrajinka. They are especially typical of Frankos
scholarly work. A few samples follow. In Franko: Ox, ,
, , ,
, 80- ,
6 Vybrni tvory.
7 . K ostomarov, Tvory, vol. I (K iev: D nipro, 1967), p. 249.
8 Marko Vovok, Tvory v semy tomax, vol. I (K iev: N aukova dumka, 1964), p. 419.
9 D anylo Mordovec, Tvory, vol. 1 (K iev: D VXL , 1957), p. 187. S ee also pp. 148, 187,
189, 193,214,215,553 a.o.
10 L. 1. Hlibov, Vybrni tvory (K iev: D VXL , 1957), p. 255.
11 Myxajlo S taryckyj, Tvory v vosmy tomax, vol. I (K iev: D VXL , 1963), p. 209.
12 O. Pilka, S pohady pro Myxajla D rahomanova, Ukrajina (K iev, 1926), 2 - 3, p. 39.
S ee also her Dvi pjesy dlja dytjaoho teatru (Poltava, 1919), p. 29 and Tvory (K iev: D ni
pro, 1971), p. 399 a.o.
13 N. K obrynska, Vybrni tvory (K iev: D VXL , 1958), p. 364.
14 I. Manura, 7Wy (K iev: D VXL , 1961), p. 123.
15 U. K ravenko, Vybrni tvory (K iev: D VXL , 1958), p. 439.
16 1. S . N ecuj-L evyckyj, Zibrannja tvoriv u desjaty tomax, vol. I X (K iev: N aukova
dumka, 1968), p. 194. In his short novel Jarema Vysneveckyj the na construction is
found in VI I , 17, 21, 26, 72, 73, 130, 131, 133, 161 a.o.
17 P. Myrnyj, Zibrannja tvoriv u semy tomax, (K iev: N aukova dumka, 1968-1971),
275.
18 . Hrinenko, Tvory v dvox tomax, (K iev: A N U R S R , 1963), I, 54. S ee also II , 559.
19 V. S amijlenko, Tvory v dvox tomax (K iev: D VXL , 1953). I, 54; II , 91. S ee also I,
131, 155 a.o.; II, 386 a.o.
,
20.
Kocjubynskyjs adherence to the same pattern can be seen from the
following examples: ,
, , , ,
, ...
, ... ... . 21
In her poetry, dramatic works, letters, and articles Lesja Ukrajinka
systematically used the na construction. Some examples: Ta
,
..., ..., ...
, ...,
, . 22
The practice of other writers of that period does not differ in this
respect. In the poetry of Mykola Cernjavskyj one reads:
, , in his
articles: ,
, ...
. 23
The traditional prepositional phrase is also used by Vasyl Stefanyk:
3 ,
... , ... . 24
Some random examples from other authors are: ...
;25 ... ,
;26 ... ,
20 I van Franko, Vybir iz tvoriv (N ew York-Paris: N aukov T ovarystvo im. S evenka,
1956), pp. 59, 349, 363, 380 pass.
21 M. K ocjubynskyj, Tvory v semy tomax (K iev: N aukova dumka, 1973-1975), I V,
31; IV, 35; V, 18, 50; VI , 49.
22 L. U krajinka, Tvory {Kiev: K nyhospilka, 1927), I, 38; VI I I , 116, 132, 151; Tvory v
desjaty tomax, (K iev: D nipro, 1965). VI I I , 182; O. K osac-K ryvynjuk, Lesja Ukrajinka.
Xronolohija yttja i tvorosty (N ew York: U VA N u S A , 1970), pp. 162, 487. C f. also pp.
123, 126, 181,294, 300, 487 a.o.
23 M. C ernjavskyj, Tvory v dvox tomax, (K iev: D nipro, 1966), I, 87, 320; I I , 517,
526.
24 V. S tefanyk, Tvory. Ed. by Ju. Hamorak (R egensburg: U krajinske slovo, 1948),
pp. 240, 315. C f. also his Tvory (K iev: D nipro, 1964), pp. 197, 274, 467.
25 H. Xotkevy, Tvory v dvox tomax, (K iev: D nipro, 1966), II , 452. S ee also p. 544.
26 S . Vasylcenko, Tvory v cotyrbx tomax (K iev: A N U R S R , 1960), I I I, 278; I V, 94.
NA UKRAJINI: A PR E POS I T I ON A L PHR A S E 237
, ... , ,
; 27 ...
, ... , ...
, ... . 28 The con
structions were the only ones used by A. Krymskyj:
, ...
, , ... ,
... ,
, ... . 29
3. Literary historians and critics, and outstanding publicists did not
differ in their choice of the na construction from poets and fictional
prose writers. Again a few examples will suffice: ... ,
... , ...
, ... , ... , ...
;30 ... , ...
, ... , ...
, ... ,
, ,
1859 p., , ... ,
... . 31
Serhij J efremov, one of the two editors-in-chief of the Academy
Russian-Ukrainian dictionary, who was considered one of the greatest
authorities on the standards of the literary Ukrainian language employs
only the na constructions, e.g.: ,
27 . K obyljanska, Tvory v pjaty tomax, (K iev: N aukova dumka, 1963), V, 183, 575,
625, 659.
28 B. L epkyj, Struny. Antolohija ukrajins'koji poeziji (Berlin, 1922), pp. 9, 85, 116, 54,
208.
29 A . Ju. K rymskyj, Tvory v pjaty tomax (K iev: N aukova dumka, 1972-1973), II,
478, 641, 652; I I I, 274, 287, 291, 301. S ee also pp. 261, 273, 276, 289, 300, 379, 458.
30 O. Ohonovskyj, Istorija literatury ruskoji, part 2, divisions 1 and 2 (L viv: N aukov
T ovarystvo im. evenka, 1891-1893), pp. 130, 187, 208, 346, 1171, 1256. S ee also pp. 3, 4,
12, 27, 80, 92, 107, 132, 135, 145, 180, 187, 207, 212, 222, 230, 262, 268, 346, 354, 400, 425,
567, 608, 612, 661, 715, 956, 1108, 1120, 1228, 1258, 1263.
31 M. D rahomanov, Liter aturno-publicy sty ni praci u d\ox tomax (K iev: N aukova
dumka, 1970), I, 108, 109, 145, 157, 178; II , 163, 89, 92, 151; I, 288. S ee also I, 131, 148,
155, 163, 164, 166, 168, 184, 199,215, 262, 266, 269, 281,429,431,432, 439; I I , 11, 13, 25
and many more. T he construction with the preposition v occurs twice, both instances with
an adjective: v rosijskij U krajini (I , 482; II, 431).
, , ...
, ... ,
... , ... , ...
,
, ... , . 32
The construction was the only one used by the leader of the neo-
classicist trend, Mykola Zerov (e.g.,
, 3 ...
, ... , ...,
...33) and by another literary
historian, M. Plevako (e.g., ... , ...
, ... 34).
4. The situation does not change in the writings of those authors who
were active mostly or only in the postrevolutionary years. A few
excerpts from Maksym Rylskyj and Pavlo Tyyna easily demonstrate
this. From Rylskyj: ... ,
,
... , , ...
, ... . 35 (The
preposition v occurs if an adjective enters the phrase:
...36). From Tyyna: Hy, ,
, ,
,
, .. ,
32 S. Jefremov, Isiorija ukrajinskoho pys'menstva, 4th ed., (Wetzlar, 1924 [vol. I], 1919
[vol. II ], I, 46, 129, 196, 271, 384; I I, 107, 116, 166, 282. S ee also I, 55, 128, 163, 173, 174,
180, 182, 251, 254, 255, 261, 263, 268, 269, 218, 244, 245, 247, 250, 272 a.o.; I I, 9, 29, 102,
103, 146, 148, 149, 195, 237, 240, 242, 243, 245, 276, 284, 288, 318, 344, 360, 419 and many
more.
33 M. Zerov, Do derel (C racow-L viv: U krajinske vydavnyctvo, 1943), p. 254; Nove
ukrajinsk p y s menstvo (Munich: I nstvtutut literatury, 1960), p. 15; Lekciji z istoriji ukra-
jins'koji literatury (T oronto: C anadian I nstitute of U krainian S tudies, 1977), pp. 72, 140.
34 M. Plevako, Statt i, rozvidky j bio- biblio hr afini materijaly (N ew York-Paris: U VA N
u S A , 1961), pp, 58, 196, 213. S ee also pp. 170, 171, 202, 211, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290,
294, 295 and many more, also with an adjective (e.g. "... na pravoberenij i livoberenij
U krajinip. 295), but once: ... v Halyckij U krajini (p. 217).
35 M. R ylskyj, Poeziji v t r ox tomax, (K iev: D VXL , 1946), II, 43; Tvory v tr'ox tomax,
(K iev: D VXL , 1955), I, 2, 365; Stattipro literaturu (K iev, 1980), pp. 125, 252.
36 R ylskyj, Statti, p. 318.
NA UKRAJINI: A PR E POS I T I ON A L PHR A S E
239
, ,
..., 3 ...,
... , ,
, ,
. The only case in which Tyyna used the v construction is
... ,
, , , , 37
possibly because of the subordinate clause introduced by v tij ...jaku.
The na construction was used by scores of poets, fiction writers,
critics, historians and linguists, including those living outside of the
Ukraine. 38
37 P. T yyna, Vybrnipoeziji (Moscow, 1945), pp. 17, 37, 47, 263; Vybrni tvory, (K iev:
D VXL , 1957, I I I, 156, 347, 490, 490, 167, 187, 195, 318, 122.
38 T he following books and articles have been examined:
V. S osjura, Tvory (K iev, 1957); I, 208, 241, 270, 310, 440, III (1958), 64 a.o.;
Je. Plunyk, Try zbirky (Munich, 1979), pp. 83, 98 a.o.;
A . Malyko, Tvory {K iev, 1962-1963), I, 223, 289; II, 139; II I , 150; V, 93, 234 a.o.;
V. S ymonenko, Bereh ekan '([Munich]: S uasnis , 1973;, p. 265;
L. K ostenko, Marusja uraj ( K iev, 1979), p. 127;
V. Vynnyenko, odennyk, I (E dmontonN ew York, 1980), pp. 330, 331, 351, 362
(na dyrektorijanskij U krajini), 375, 441 a.o.;
B. A ntonenko-D avydovy, Zemleju ukrajins'koju (Philadelphia, 1955), pp. 87, 148; V
literaturi (K iev, 1964), pp. 55, 74, 107; Jak my hovorymo (K iev, 1970), pp. 13, 22, 53 a.o.
M. K ulis, Tvory (N ew York, 1955), pp. 178, 218, 341, a.o.;
Ju. Janovskyj, Tvory (K iev, 1958), I, 318; V, 156, 175, 197, 202, 302 a.o.;
V. evuk, Predtea, romny (K iev, 1982), pp. 388, 399 a.o ;
0 . K undzi, Tvorci problemy perekladu (K iev, 1973), pp. 10, I I , 18, 32, 34, 86, 87, 103,
125 a.o.;
1. D zjuba, Internacionalizm y rusyfikacija? ([Munich]: S uasnis , 1968), pp. 24,80,
138, 142, 158, 161, 176, 181, 193, 203, 238, 239, 240 a.o.;
Je. S verstjuk, Sobor u rytovanni (Paris, 1970), pp. 41, 78, 113;
O. D orokevy, Etjudy z evenkoznavstva (K harkiv-K i;v, 1930), pp. 108, 118, 161
a.o.;
M. D raj-Xmara, Lesja Ukrajinka (K iev, 1926), p. 41; Bojarnyja L esi U krajinky, in
L esja U krajinka, Tvory, (K iev, 1927), VI I I , 95 a.o.;
P. Fylypovy, Literatura (Melbourne, 1971), pp. 150, 493, 496, 523 a.o.;
O. I. Honar, Hryhorij Kvitka-Osnovjanenko (K iev, 1969), pp. 79, 91, 113, a.o.;
O. I. Bileckyj, Vid davnyny do suasnosty (K iev, 1960), I, 61, 85, 91, 92, 129, 130, 151,
152, 161, 162, 201, 232; II, 94, 125, 134, 164, 187, 189 a.o.;
Je. P. K yryljuk, T. H. evenko (K iev, 1959), pp. 86, 88, 91, 119, 130, 131, 233 a.o.;
M. Hrusevskyj, Istorija ukrajinskoji literatury, (K iev, 1923), I, 307 a.o.; articles in the
periodical Boritesja-poborete (1920), 5, pp. 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, II a.o.;
O. Ohloblyn, Hetman Ivan Mazepa ta joho doba (N ew York, 1960), pp. 15, 19, 23, 32,
91, 137 a.o.;
V. O. Holobuckyj, Zaporizka Si v ostanni asy svoho isnuvannja 1734-1775 (K iev,
240
5. Among the latter was I. Ohijenko, later Metropolitan I larion. 39
Yet later on he, contrary to, and in defiance of the general and his own
practice advanced the view that the na construction in this case would
imply a provincial status for the Ukraine, that names of nations should
1961), pp. 10, 11, 16, 20, 21,22,31,32,42,48, 62, 64, 66 a.o.;
M. Brajcevskyj, Pryjednannja y vozzjednannja, in yroke more Ukrajiny, (Balti
more-T oronto: S moloskyp, 1972), pp. 242, 257, 259, 266, 277, 280, 284, 292 a.o.;
O. K urylo, Uvahy do suasnoji ukrajinskoji literaturnoji movy (K iev, 1925), p. 3;
O. S ynjavskyj, Normy ukrajinskoji literaturnoji movy (C racow-L viv, 1941), pp. 113,
188;
M. Myronenko, Narysy z ukrajinskoji movy (K harkiv, 1929), pp. 12, 24, 25, 31, 39, 54,
70 a.o.;
Je. Malanjuk, Burjane polittja, Literaturno-naukovyj visnyk (1927), 4, pp. 324, 334,
335;
V. Barka, Bilyj svit (Munich, 1947), pp. 102, 132; Zemlja sadivnyyx, ([Munich]: S u
asnis , 1977), pp. 39, 51, 95, 163, 166; exceptionally once the construction with v is
used: za stolittja svoho hospodarjuvannja v U krajini (101);
L. Poltava, Za muramy Berlinu ([R egensburg], 1945), pp. 9, 32;
T . Osmacka, Iz-pid svitu (N ew York, 1954), pp. 38, 86; Poet ([R egensburg], 1946), p.
64; Staryj bojaryn ([R egensburg], 1946), p. 49; Plan do dvoru (T oronto, 1951), pp. 7, 10,
41 a.o.;
D . D oncov, Olena Pilka, Literaturno-naukovyj visnyk (1931), 5, 444, 445; Zhoda v
simejstvi, Visnyk (1936), 7-8, 590.
D . Humenn, Dity Cumackoho ljaxu, 4 (N ew York, 1951), p. 199; Xreatyj Jar (N ew
York, 1956): na Velykij U krajini (78) vs. (with two adjectives) u vilnij nezalenij U kra
jini (79); Vnuky stolitnoho zaporocja (T oronto, 1981), pp. 19, 91, 99, 143 a.o. (na con
structions only).
0 . I zarskyj, Kyjiv ([Munich]: S uasnis , 1971), pp. 61, 193, 236, 245, 247, 261, 284,
322 a.o.; Poltava ([Munich]: S uasnis , 1977), pp. 61, 152, 177, 227, 425 a.o.;
H. K ostjuk, Okajanni roky (T oronto, 1978), p. 24; Volodymyr Vynnyenko ta joho
doba (N ew York, 1980), pp. 68, 69 a.o.;
M. Orest, Pisljamova, in Mykola Zerov, Sonnetarium (Berchtesgaden, 1948), p. 174.
V. Porskyj [=Mijakovskyj], L ebedynyj spiv, Kyjiv (Philadelphia, 1951), 1, 28;
M. Hlobenko [=Ohloblyn], I storyko-literaturni statti, Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva
im. evenka, 167 (N ew York-Paris-Munich, 1958), pp. 35, 46, 61, 108, 123, 127, 129, 137
a.o.;
Ju. Bojko, Vybran, I (Munich, 1971), 117, 118, 120, 128, 189; 111 (Munich, 1981), 204,
205, 342, a.o.;
S. Hordynskyj, Poezija Ju. L obodovskoho, Kyjiv (1951), 1, 23, 24.
1. K acurovskyj, Strofika (Munich, 1967), p. 308.
I. K oelivec, Narys z teoriji literatury (Munich, 1964), p. 33; Panorama najnovioji
ukrajinskoji literatury v URSR (Munich, 1974), pp. 15, 16, 17 a.o.;
B. K ravciv, 60 poetiv 60-x rokiv (N ew York, 1967), pp. viii, xx.
Ju. L avrinenko, Rozstriljane vidrodennja (Paris, 1959), pp. 123, 137, 144, 222, 609, 787
a.o.;
P. Petrenko, U krajinski vaganty, Literaturno-naukovyj zbirnyk, 2 (Hannover, 1947),
pp. 31,45, 46, 52, 58;
P. Zajcev, Zyttja Tarasa evenka (Paris-N ew York-Munich, 1955), pp. 17, 101, 125,
126, 127, 128, 134, 159; 194 a.o.;
NA UKRAJIN/: A PR E POS I T I ON A L PHR A S E 241
be used with the preposition v and, therefore, the only proper con
struction would be v Ukrajini. 40 This view found some followers among
style editors in emigre publications.
Ohijenkos view provoked several objections in the general press, but,
so far, not in scholarly discussion. The following can be briefly
mentioned:
Caplenko, with some examples, tried to show that the prepositional
phrase na Ukrajini meets the standards of the Ukrainian literary
language. 41
Romanenuk pointed to the fact that, with the word Malorossija,
only the v construction is used although this term clearly implies a pro
vincial, not a national status. 42
J urij erech (the pen name of George Y. Shevelov as a literary critic)
appealed to the generally used prepositional phrase v Halyyni, the use
of which in no case implies the idea that the inhabitants of Galicia con
stitute a separate nation. He also emphasized that languages have var
ious grammatical categories but these are not political notions. 43
Kyslycja likewise objected to attempts to transfer patriotic feelings
into the realm of syntax. 44
D . yevskyj, Istorija ukrajinskoji literatury (N ew York, 1956), pp. 7, 14, 34, 128, 197,
215, 223, 226 a.o.;
S. S mal-S tockyj, Pravopysna sprava, Literaturno-naukovyj visnyk, (1926), 7-8, 315.
P. K ovaliv, Ukrajinska mova (N ew York, 1966), pp. 13, 16 a.o.;
V. Caplenko, Istorija novoji ukrajins'koji literaturnoji movy (N ew York, 1970), pp. 21,
40, 62, 83, 122, 306 a.o.;
Ju. erech [=S hevelov], Narys suasnoji ukrajinskoji literaturnoji movy (Munich,
1951), pp. 57, 76, 148, 395 a.o.; Druha erha ([Munich]: S uasnis , 1978), pp. 6, 9, 20,
35, 42, 45, 88, 95, 97, 99, 276, 324 a.o.
39 E .g. 1. Ohijenko, K yjivska metrpolytanska drukarnja, Literaturno-naukovyj vis
nyk (1924), vii-ix (... duxovnoho dostojnyka na U krajini 312); Svjato ukrajinskoji k u l
tury (Warsaw, 1924) (... drukarstvo na U krajini 33); Ukrajinskyj stylistynyj slovnyk
(Winnipeg, 1976) (... na Vkrajini Velykij 2; ... na Velykij U krajini 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; ... na
U krajini 204; see also pp. 208, 167, 431). Many more examples are scattered in his other
publications until 1951.
40 Mytropolyt I larion (I . Ohijenko), Ukrajinska literaturna mova, (S askatoon: T he
G ospel Press, 1951), 1, 147, 256 f.
41 V. aplenko, V Ukrajini y na Ukrajini, Ukrajinski visti (N eu-U lm, 1949), N o. 53;
Na Ukrajiniv Ukrajini,' Porohy {Buenos A ires, 1954), N o. 52/53, pp. 26-27.
42 B. R omanenuk, "Na Ukrajini i v Ukrajini, Svoboda (Jersey C ity), February 17,
1968.
43 Ju. erech, Ne dlja dit ej {Munich: Proloh, 1964), pp. 31:'.
44 D . K yslycja, Na Ukrajini, Novi dni (T oronto, 1971), N o. 256, 32.
242
Kovaliv referred to the predominant practice of using the na con
struction in literary texts beginning with the sixteenth century. He also
advanced the view that the preposition v prevails if an adjective stands
between the preposition and the name Ukrajina (v samostijnij Ukra
jini ) . 45
In summary, a long lasting tradition bespeaks the prepositional
phrase na Ukrajini; there are no nation/state vs. non-nation/non-state
connotations in this construction. The v construction appears in poetry
with special stylistic, metric, rhytmic, etc. motivation. Further collection
of data and their semantic analysis in all likelihood would corroborate
this view.
Washington, D.C.
45 P. K ovaliv, Na Ukrajini v Ukrajini," Novi dni (T oronto, 1972), N o. 269, 13-19.
On Basic C olor Terms in Early
S lavic and U krainian
TOM M.S. PRIESTLY
Research into problems of meaning in language in the last decade and
a half has relied quite heavily upon, and seems to have made some
progress in, the ways in which languages denote colors: the relative ease
with which the denotational meaning of a word such as red or ervonyj
can be investigated, using spectrographically-displayed charts, makes
this kind of analysis reliable and profitable. The cornerstone of this kind
of research has been the concept of basic color term, following the
pioneering work of Berlin and Kay; these scholars conclusions, although
subsequently made more precise and in part revised, appear to demon
strate a universal evolutionary schema with physiological correlations. 1
The aim of the present paper is to show that this evolutionary schema
(which has not, apparently, been investigated in its application to
Slavic) has interesting parallels both in the early history of Slavic and in
a modern Slavic language such as Ukrainian.
The proposed evolutionary hierarchy can be summarized as follows. 2
1 S ee B. Berlin and P. K ay, Basic Color Terms. Their Universality and Evolution (Ber
keley and L os A ngeles: U niversity of C alifornia Press, 1969.) T he most critical and useful
of the reviews are those by N .B. McN eill, in Journal o f Linguistics, Vol. 8 (1972), pp.
21-34, and by H. C onklin, in American Anthropologist, Vol. 75 (1973), pp. 931-942; even
allowing many of these and other reviewers criticisms, however, the overall schema seems
to hold, cf. later studies, in particular P. K ay, S ynchronic variability and diachronic
change in basic color terms, Language in Society, Vol. 4 (1975), pp. 257-270; D .
Michaels, L inguistic relativity and color terminology, Language and Speech, Vol. 20
(1977), pp. 333-343; P. K ay and C .K . McD aniel, T he linguist e significance of the mean
ing of basic color terms, Language, Vol. 54 (1978), pp. 610-646; and C .B. Mervis and
E .M. R oth, T he internal structure of basic and non-basic color categories, Language,
Vol. 57 (1981), pp. 384-405.
2 S ee K ay and McD aniel, T he linguistic significance of the meaning of basic color
terms. L abels for color terms (basic and non-basic) are given arbitrary identifications in
E nglish, and are put in capitals, e.g. R E D , OR A N G E , PU C E . T he arbitrariness of these
labels must be emphasized: the meanings, i.e. denominata, will vary from person to person
244
No language has fewer than two basic color terms (one for light and
warm, the other for cool and dark). As the evolutionary scale is
pursued, one extra basic color term is added at each stage; jumping to
Stage IV, we find WHITE, RED, Y ELLOW, GREEN-BLUE and
BLACK as the meanings of the five terms. Stage V sees a separation of
the terms for GREEN and BLUE. To the six terms of this stage, the
next, Stage VI, adds BROWN. The following four stages add, severally
and randomly, terms for PINK, PURPLE, ORANGE and GREY.
Both the investigators who have developed this theory, and their crit
ics, have mentioned the color terminology of the Slavic languages only
in passing. The two Russian terms for BLUE have been cited, with a
few speculations as to whether only one, or both, are basic terms. 3 The
co-existence on Yugoslav territory of a single term (plav) with two ref
erents (YELLOW and BLUE) has been quoted as evidence against the
evolutionary theory. 4 And the work by Herne, who argued with refer
ence to Slavic (and fifteen years before Berlin and Kays work) that
eine Sprache gilt als vllig entwickelt, wenn sie fr die sechs Haupt
farben allgemeine Bezeichnungen hat, has apparently gone unnoticed. 5
(within certain limits), and (with fewer limitations) from language to language; and a
language at a relatively primitive stage will denote a different range of real colors by its
term for e.g. R E D than will a comparatively more advanced language by its term for
R E D .
3 Berlin and K ay, Basic Color Terms, pp. 35-36.
4 T he actual referent cited in this argument is the berry (Isatis tinctoria) from which
both yellow and blue dyes can be derived (the blue dye being the woad of early E urope).
S erbo-C roatian plav blond derives from I ndo-E uropean *polu~, whose reflexes outside
S lavic all mean pale yellow, white, grey and so on, e.g. L atin pallidus, G erman fahl,
and whose reflexes outside S erbo-C roatian and S lovene also always denote pale yellow
and similar colors, and never blue, e.g. U krainian polovyj, Polish ptovy, C zech plav.
T he connection with I ndo-E uropean *bhleu~, from which G erman blau derives, is at best
very tenous. T his latter word, which was borrowed into R omance languages such as
French and I talian, is surely also the origin not only of S lovene plav blue (cf. F. von
Miklosich, Etymologisches Wrterbuch der slavischen Sprachen (Vienna, 1886), p. 256)
but also of S erbo-C roatian plav blue* (although P. S kok, Etimologijski rjenik hrvatskoga
ili srpskoga jezika (Zagreb, 1974), allows for G ermanic provenance only for the C res dia
lectal word blaviten). N one of the native speakers of S lovene or S erbo-C roatian inter
viewed by the present author use plav to mean, simultaneously, blue and yellow; either
they have plav for blue and a second word, e.g. rumen or ut, for yellow; or they have
plav for blond (hair) and a second word, usually modar, for blue. T he possibility that at
some (unattested?) stage there were some S outh-Western S lavs with a single word plav
meaning both blue and yellow, which does not appear at all likely a priori, remains to
be proved.
5 G. Herne, Die slavischen Farbenbenennungen: eine semasiologisch-etymologische
Untersuchung (U ppsala, 1954), cites the work of the scholar T hurnwald from 1922 to
BA S I C C OL OR T E R MS 245
Fundamental to the evolutionary hypothesis, and to every investiga
tion involved, of course, is the definition of the term basic. Nobody
will dispute the view, surely, that some color terms are more rbasic
than others: it hardly needs to be demonstrated that green is more
basic than lime in English, or that Ukrainian ervonyj is more basic
than burjakovyj. Whether a sharp line can be drawn, for any one lan
guage, between basic and non-basic color terms is, however, a much
more difficult problem. On which side of the line, for example, are we
to put purpurovyj? blakytnyj? beovyj? syvyj? It is far from likely that
general agreement will be reached in instances such as these.
A number of criteria have been suggested:6 basi c color terms should
(1) be monolexemic, i.e., not predictable from their components; (2 ) not
be included in the meanings of other terms (thus malynovyj, which can
be considered a variety of ervonyj, is excluded); (3) not be restricted to
specific objects (thus syvyj, which can apply to hair or to doves but
hardly to dogs or to tablecloths, is not considered basic); (4) share the
derivational potential of indubitably basic terms (and hence, in Eng
lish, lime is excluded since one can not normally say *limish as one can
say reddish, yellowish and greenish); (5) should not derive from the
name of a physical object (thus excluding such words as zolotyj and
buzkovyj); (6 ) should not be a recent foreign loanword (e.g., English
beige, khaki)\ (7) should be stable across informants, i.e., should not
vary phonologically; and so on. Among criteria that are not specifically
linguistic is a psychological one; (8 ) basic color terms should be sal
ient, in that all speakers of a language will tend to think of the same
basic terms first.
A quick perusal of these criteria will show that they are not all
equally easy to apply; and that while they may be valid for a language
like English, many will be inapplicable or invalid for other languages.
For example, we need only look at the derivational criterion (the
fourth on the above list): this will be quite beside the point in languages
of the isolating type; and even in a language such as Ukrainian, which
support a proposed evolutionary system, namely: WHI T E , BL A C K , R E D , YE L L OW,
G R E E N , BL U E note the exact fit with S tage V described above! Herne, also, character
izes both S lovene and S erbo-C roatian plav as G ermanic loanwords. T he present author
aknowledges his debt to Herne with respect to his conclusions concerning Proto-S lavic.
6 S ee the references in note 1.
has well-developed derivational processes, we will not find total agree
ment when we come to apply this criterion. The -uvatyj suffix, for
example, which was considered perfectly acceptable by my informants
in ervonuvatyj, ovtuvatyj, syvuvatyj and blakytnuvatyj, and at least
unobjectionable, according to most of the informants, in e.g. rumjanu-
vatyj, was not readily accepted in fioletuvatyj and beuvayj; but
there was disagreement about the status of the four last-listed words and
they should not be totally rejected as inadmissable.
For this paper, it is enough to accept that the concept basic color
term does have a certain validity, in that some color terms are indisput
ably basic and others are indisputably not basic. Further, just as the
suggested criteria are clearly not all equally applicable (and indeed may
lead to contradictory decisions), it is accepted that some color terms
may be difficult to categorize in this way.
EARLY SLAVIC
When we reconstruct a set of lexical items with their meanings in a
proto-language such as Common Slavic, we rely on a number of fun
damental criteria for our reconstructions: first, the regularity of the
phonological correspondences involved; second, the closeness and
acceptability of the semantic correspondences; third, the number and
geographic distribution of the daughter languages with attested reflexes
(the rule of thumb for Slavic, which must be applied with great cau
tion, being that the East/West/South trichotomy should be repres
ented); and fourth, if the proto-language has known relatives, the
number and reliability of the correspondences in these relatives (for
Slavic, then, we consider the other Indo-European parallels).
In the context of this paper, we must add a fifth criterion: that the
color term which we reconstruct should, in theory, have been basic.
Here we deal in conjecture, of course; this makes the exercise more
difficult, but not less interesting.
If we consider the reconstructible Proto-Slavic color terms, we find
six that satisfy the four fundamental criteria. Of these, five can be
accepted as having been basic: *bl-, * cirri-, *rud-l rd-, * zelen- and
*zlt-. (The sixth reliably-reconstructed Proto-Slavic color term, *polv-,
is very restricted in its use in many of the modern languages, being
limited to collocation with words for hair, and for various animals. 7 If
we can reconstruct a similar semantic limitation for Proto-Slavic, we
can exclude this term from our basic list; if not, this term may be
considered as counter-evidence to the evolutionary hypothesis outlined above).
A fifth Proto-Slavic word, *sinj-t must be considered as denoting a
basic color, but satisfies only three of our fundamental reconstructive
criteria, since its non-Slavic Into-European parallels are hard to trace.
Two more words, *gned- and *smed-, not only have no easily-
discerned Indo-European parallels, but also show semantic restrictions
in their modern usage, being limited to collocations with words for parts
of the body and animals.
We arrive, then, at a hierarchy of Proto-Slavic color terms:
(A) the terms for WHITE, BLACK, RED, GREEN and YELLOW,
which appear to be indisputably Proto-Slavic, with definite Indo-Euro-
pean ancestry;
(B) the term for BLUE, which is clearly Proto-Slavic, but has no clear
Indo-European ancestry;
(C) two terms for BROWN, which are also clearly Proto-Slavic, and
also have no obvious Indo-European lineage; these, however, can not be
reconstructed with certainty as being basic in Prol o-Slavic.
What is interesting, from this tentative reconstruction of the Proto-
Slavic semantic field basic colors, is that (A) on this hierarchy is the
exact correlate of Stage IV on the evolutionary schema described above;
(B) here represents Stage V; and (C)to the extent that is valid
correlates with Stage VI. What is suggested by this approach, then, is
that contributions to the hypothesis of an evolutionary schema for
basic color terms may be found in the results of the application of
comparative reconstruction within Indo-European. The Slavic evidence
suggests that a stage prior to Proto-Slavic may represent evolutionary
Stage IV, and Proto-Slavic itself evolved to Stage V. The non-basic
character of the words for BROWN fits in with this suggestion. The
existence of a possible non-basic word for STRAW COLORED,
*polv-, does not invalidate the suggestion, but does emphasize the need
7 C f. note 4.
248
for extensive further research in this area. 8
MODERN UKRAINIAN
As a point de dpart for the investigation of basic color terms in
Ukrainian, the psychological criterion was used. Twelve speakers of
Ukrainian, all resident in North America (and thus also fluent in Eng
lish; see footnote 1 0 ), were requested to list ten or twelve basic words
for colors. Omitting terms for WHITE, BLACK and G4EY (which
were sometimes not included by the informants, being colorless), a
tabulation of the frequency with which each color term was listed in the
top ten is as follows:
ervonyj 1 2
zelenyj 1 2
synij 1 2
ovtyj 11
bronzovyj 9
ORANGE 8
VIOLET 7
roevyj 6
blakytnyj 5
Terms for ORANGE and VIOLET had very noticeable variant forms;
the former was pomaranevyj, pomaranevyj, maranevyj, and (once)
oranevyj\ the latter, fioletovyj and fioletnyj (and, in one instance, fijal-
kovyj; this was excluded from the above tabulation). No other color
term was listed by more than three of the twelve informants: holubyj
was mentioned by three, zolotyj, beovyj, burjakovyj, korynevyj, and
brunatnyj by two, and eight other terms were mentioned once each
(purpurov], rumjanyj, malynovyj, liliovyj, fijalkovyj, buzkovyj, sribnyj,
voronyj).
8 T he limitations on the present study will be mostly apparent. T erms for G R E Y have
been excluded; one may note, however, that *sr- only appears to have parallels, outside
S lavic, in G ermanic, and that *siv- was probably semantically restricted. A second term
for R E D , *irm~, is poorly represented in S outh S lavic, and a second term for BL U E ,
*modr-, is very poorly represented in E ast S lavic. Moreover, *cirm~, along with other terms
such as *crvjen-, *zolt-, etc., are clearly connected to the names for physical objects.
What is immediately apparent from this brief survey is that the pro
posed evolutionary hierarchy of basic color terms has a clear correla
tion in the psychological saliency of these terms in Modern Ukrainian.
The first four on the above scale must be considered most basic: the
one informant who omitted zovtyj considered this an oversight. These
four, taken with WHITE and BLACK, represent evolutionary Stage V;
the next color term on the hierarchy, bronzovyj, is the term added in
evolutionary Stage VI; and the next three (together with GREY) are,
similarly, the terms that are added in the evolutionary hierarchy through
Stage X. The second term for BLUE, blakytnyj, is lower on the hie
rarchy, in spite of its cultural connections.
If we now consider each of the suggested linguistic criteria for deter
mining basic color terms, with reference to all the terms suggested by
the informants, some interesting considerations emerge.
First, all the words listed are monolexemic. It is hardly surprising that
no informant volunteered, as a basic color term, a word such as tem-
noovtyj or zeleno-synij.
Second, the terms suggested by only one or two of the twelve speak
ers are clearly included in the meanings of the more basic terms:
voronyj, for example, is a sub-category of ornyj. Exceptions to this
statement are provided by such terms as korynevyj and fijalkovyj,
which must be considered as stylistic or local variants of the basic
terms listed by the majority of the informants. Furthermore, when the
informants were asked to identify the best examples of color terms on
a standardized Munsell color chart, 9 there were no instances of overlap
as far as the first five colors and VIOLET on the tabulated hierarchy
were concerned; but a few identifications of ORANGE overlapped with
color chips that other speakers had identified as good examples of
ervonyj, and there were similar overlaps between roevyj and ervonyj,
and between blakytnyj and synij. By this criterion, and on this evidence,
six Ukrainian color terms are basic: ervonyj, zelenyj, synij, zovtyj,
bronzovyj, and fioletovyj/fioletnyj.
9 S ee Berlin & K ay, Basic Color Terms, p. 5. A ll twelve informants were given a simple
test for color blindness, using the A merican Optical C orporations Pseudo-I sochromatic
Plates for T esting C olor Perception; none gave incorrect responses to more than four
plates.
Third, it appears that only two of all the terms suggested are res
tricted to use with specific nouns. As a test, speakers were asked to
judge the admissibility of the collocation of each term with the noun
skater '. and, although e.g. burjakova skater and buzkova skater we
considered quite acceptable, rumjana skater and vorona skater were
rejected. These two terms must be considered extremely non-basic\
The fourth criterion is very difficult to apply. To the comments
already made above, it is enough to add some thoughts on verbal deriv
atives. The first four color terms on the tabulated hierarchy are all listed
in the eleven-volume Slovnyk ukrainskoi movy (Kiev, 1970-1980) as
forming verbs with -ity (ervonity, zelenity, synity, ovtity) and -iaty
(ervoniaty, zeleniaty, syniaty, ovtiaty). All of these also form verbs
with -yty (ervonyty, zelenytyy synyty, ovtyty). As we work our way
down the hierarchy, we find verbs which speakers of Ukrianian find
quite acceptable, indeed useful, but which are not all listed in the Slov
nyk; thus bronzovity is listed, but bronzovyty and bronzoviaty are not;
and, while blakytnity and blakytniaty are listed, blakytnyty is not; and
so on. It may be suggested that, while all three verbal derivatives of all
these color terms may indeed be considered possible by Ukrainian
speakers, some will be much more readily and much more frequently
used than others; and this frequency will parallel positions on the hie
rarchy set out above.
Fifth, it is clear that (with two exceptions) none of the first nine terms
on the scale derive from names of physical objects, while quite a few of
the remainder do so derive (zolotyj, holubyj, buzkovyj, burjakovyj,
malynovyj, etc.) The obvious exceptions to this rule are the first and
fifth words on the list. The first derives, historically, from the root
*irv-; synchronically speaking, however, it is not possible to derive
ervonyj directly from ervjak, and the argument holds. The fifth word
is also derived, but it is interesting to note the Western Ukrainian stress
differentiation between brnzovyj made of bronze and bronzvyj
BROWN.
Sixth, the criterion that recent loanwords should be excluded is dif
ficult to apply to Ukrainian, as (surely) to most European languages,
unless the word recent is limited to one or two hundred years: the last
five of the nine most basic terms are loanwords that are datable to the
last several centuries, and this criterion, which anthropological linguists
can presumably apply more easily to primitive languages, is of little
use.
The seventh criterion is however of interest, in that the terms both for
ORANGE and for VIOLET are unstable across informantsa fact
that can be correlated with the relatively low rank of these terms on the
hierarchy.
It can be seen that, without recourse to the psychological criterion, it
would be far from easy to arrive at a list of Ukrainian basic color terms
(whether this be an undifferentiated list, or a hierarchial ranking). The
available criteria, taken all together, would presumably guide the lingu
ist towards a listing that would roughly approximate the hierarchy pres
ented above; but a number of mutually contradictory indications would
have to be resolved along the way.
A series of interviews such as those which form the basis of the pres
ent study validate the conclusions only to the extent that the sampled
interviewees represent a particular linguistic community. Given the
background to the use of Ukrainian in North America, with its differing
dialectal origins and chronological differences with respect to the inter
action with English on this continent and with Polish and Russian in
Ukraine, the sample was probably too small and the results are perhaps
not fully reliable. 10 The exact corralation of the hierarchy of color terms
presented above with the evolutionary hierarchy is however striking.
University o f Alberta
10 I nformants represented first-, second- and third-generation immigrants and most of
the dialect areas within U krainian. A ll, even the most recent immigrants, speak E nglish
well, and many speak R ussian and/or Polish also; this means that the color categoriza
tions made by these informants (using the Munsell color chart) may differ from the cate
gorizations that would be made by monolingual U krainians (cf. L .A . C askey-S irmons and
N .P. Hickerson, S emantic shifts and bilingualism: variation in the color terms of five
languages, Anthropological Linguistics, Vol. 19 (1977), pp. 358-367); but the listing of
psychologically salient color terms by monolinguals would not necessarily differ from
that given above.
U krainian koribenefit
OMELJ AN PRITSAK
1.
The etymology of Ukrainian kors has long interested Slavicists,
especially because its Russian counterpart has, instead of the expected
form with /, *korist\ a form with y: kors .1
As the Prague Old Church Slavonic Dictionary informs us, the word
is first attested in the Codex Zographensis, which originated at the
Zograph monastery on Mount Athos. That codex is a tenth- or
eleventh-century copy of a manuscript belonging to the Cyrillo-Metho-
dian tradition. There the word appears in a form with (presumably
influenced by the Bulgarian-Macedonian pronunciation)
and has the meaning booty, trophy (Greek , Latin spolia,
pi.).2The same form is found in Izbornik traditionally attributed to
Prince Svjatoslav and dated to 1076 ( ),3 but there it most
likely also was due to a Macedonian-Bulgarian influence.
Forms with ( l), however, are also quoted in the Prague Dic
tionary, from the so-called Paroemiarion Grigorovicianum which is also
of Cyrillo-Methodian origin (but in a Bulgarian copy of the twelfth or
thirteenth century): (= Greek ), and in the Evan
gelium [Pseudo-] Nicodemi from the Czech tradition, preserved in a
Serbian manuscript of the fifteenth century: .4
The two variants also occur in Izmail Sreznevskijs dictionary of the
Old Rus language: and ; is attested in the
derived forms: , .5Unfortunately,
1 S ee, e.g., Erich Berneker, Slavisches etymologisches Wrterbuch 1 (Heidelberg, 1924),
pp. 570f; A leksander Bruckner, Sownik etymologiczny jzyka polskiego (C racow, 1927),
p. 258.
2Slovnk jazyka staroslovnskho, ed. J. K urz, 2(15) (Prague, 1967), p. 53.
3 Izbornik 1076 goda, ed. S . K otkov (Moscow, 1965), p. 156.
4 Slovnk jazyka staroslovnskho, pp. 2, 53.
5 I. S reznevskij, Materiay dlja slovarja drevne-russkogo jazyka po pis'mennym pamjat-
nikam, 1 (S . Petersburg, 1893), col. 1286f, 1292.
the word is not found in the dictionary of the Old Ukrainian language
edited by Lukija Humecka.6
We may draw the conclusion that the testimony of old texts does not
exclude the possibility that koris comes from the older koryst',7and
that the form arose as the result of a local development.8
Slavicists usually assume that the word has a Slavic etymology, but
thus far they have not found a satisfactory etymon.9Max Vasmer, in his
etymological dictionary of the Russian language, summed up the situa
tion as follows: Sowohl die Verknpfung mit koriti (pokoit) usw.
(Mi[klosich] EW, 130), als diejenige mit kor, koryto (Brckner KZ, 45,
35; 48, 208; EW 258) bietet Schwierigkeiten (s. Berneker EW 1, 571).
Die ursprngliche Bed[eutung] ist wohl Beute, r.-ksl. koristoljubivb ge
winn, beute-liebend.10
2.
In texts of the Old Turkic language of the eighth to tenth century
there is a verb qazyan- having the basic meaning to gain profit (by
trade), to earn.11 This word is preserved in the southwest (Turkmen,
6 Slovnyk staroukrajinskoji movy XIVXVst., ed. L. Humecka, 1 (K iev, 1977).
7 T his possibility is accepted by Fr. S awski in his Sownik etymologiczny jzyka pol
skiego 2 (10) (C racow, 1965), p. 514. In a long entry devoted to the word korzy, he
demonstrates the intricate situation which arises if the S lavic origin of the word is to be
maintained. S ee also the reference to M. Vasmer below.
8 On meanings of koryst' in Modern U krainian, see Slovnyk ukrajinskoji movy, 4,
A kademija N auk U krajinskoji R S R , eds. A . Burjaok and P. D ocenko (K iev, 1973), pp.
290f.
9 Besides the dictionaries by Berneker (N ote 1), Brckner (N ote 1), S awski (N ote 7)
and Vasmer (N ote 10) see also, e.g., N . anskij, V. I vanov, and T. anskaja, Kratkij
timologiceskij slovarrusskogo jazyka (Moscow, 1971), p. 214; J. Holub, Fr. K open,
Etymologick slovnk jazyka eskho (Prague, 1952), p. 181.
10 Max Vasmer, Russisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, I, (Heidelberg, 1957), p. 638 (=
p. 343 in volume 2 of the R ussian translation edited and supplemented by O. T rubaev,
Moscow, 1967). T he editor of this Festschrift, Professor Jacob P. Hursky kindly reminded
me about the etymology of koryst presented by Bojan op, E tyma Balto-S lavica V. 1.
SI. k o r i s t b Slavistina Revija 13 (L jubljana, 1961/62), pp. 181-185. U nfortunately I can
not accept the thesis of this prominent scholar.
11 D etailed data in the following dictionaries: S ir G erard C lauson, An Etymological
Dictionary of Pre-Thirteenth-Century Turkish (Oxford, 1972), p. 683 (henceforth EDT)\
Martti R snen, Versuch eines etymologischen Wrterbuchs der Turksprachen (Helsinki,
1969), p. 243. C f. also (for the ancient languages): Drevnetjurkskijslovared. V. N adelja-
ev (L eningrad, 1969), p. 439; inasiT ekin, Maitrisimit nom bitig 2 (Berlin, 1980), p. 96;
(for modern languages) Wilhelm R adloff, Versuch eines Wrterbuches der Trk-Dialekte,
2 (S . Petersburg, 1899), col. 369f, 384.
ETY MOL OGY OF K O R S T 255
Oghuz) group of Turkic languages: Osmanli,12Azarbaijani,13and Turk
men,14but also Y akut15and Kazan Tatar.16
Sir Gerard Clauson, in his etymological dictionary of the Turkic lan
guages, explains this word as the reflexive voice in -in- from an unat
tested verb *qazya- which is derived from a noun *qaziy + plus deriva
tional denominal verbal suffix / /. Further on, he maintains that
*qaziy itself admits a morphological analysis: it is a deverbal noun in
/-/ from the verb *qaz-.n
I entirely concur with Sir Gerards proposed etymology, because in
the Turkic languages (as opposed to the Mongolian ones) there is no
verbal suffix I G A /.18
Interestingly enough, the suffix / I G/ has both substantival and adjec
tival meanings, e.g., in Old and Middle Turkic: 1) tg prayer (from
t- to pray); ayy- word (from ay- speak);192) sawig enamored (.saw-
to love); ariy clean (from ari- to clean).20
The reconstructed word *qaziy probably had both meanings, that of
12 kazan- (< qaz-yan-) to win, to gain, to acquire, to earn, to make a profit, to make
money; kazan (< qazyan) 1. gain, profit, earnings, winnings; 2. advantage, benefit
New Redhouse Turkish-English Dictionary (I stanbul, 1968), p. 627.
13 qazan- (< gazy an-) zarabatyva , polua pibyl, vygodu, priobreta , naiva sja;
qazan (< qazyan) zarabotok, pibyl, bary; qazanl- by pri-obretennym, zarabotan-
nym, naitmAzerbajdansko-russkij slovar, ed. G. G usejnov (Baku, 1939), col. 643.
14 gazan-(< qazyan-) 1. zarabatyva , podrabatyva ; 2. polua doxod, pibyl; 3.
zavoevyva to-libo, dobyva ego-libo; 4. priobreta , polua ; gazan ( < qazyan/' 1.
zarabotok; 2. naiva. Turkmensko-russkij slovar', eds. N . E .askakov et al. (Moscow,
1968), p. 138.
15 xasan- (< qazyan-) nakoplja (sobira dlja sebja), zapasa , sberega , dela sebe
zapas, zapasa sja em, bere (zagotovlja ) vprok; xasas (< qazyan) 1. zapas; bere-
ennoe, zapasennoe; 2. kruglaja, saen glubinoju, vyloennaja listvenninoj koroj jama
(dlja syma), boka ili voobe krupnaja posuda dlja sobiranija vsjakix zapasov...; 3. oso-
baja formaksploatacii dojnogo skota... E duard K. Pekarskij, Slovar'jakutskogo jazyka
3, I (L eningrad, 1927), col. 3385.
16 kazan- (< qazyan-)\. zasluiva , zaslui ; dostiga , dostignu ; dobiva sja, do-
bi sja, dobyva , sniska ; 2. zavoevyva , zavoeva , priorbreta , priobresti, obreta ,
obresti; kazani (< qazyan) 1. priobretenie. dostienie, zavoevanie, uspex, pobeda; 2.
peren, zasuga, vklad. Tatarsko-russkij slovar (Moscow, 1966), p. 207.
17 C lauson, EDT, p. 683.
18 T erz Mria S zab, A Kalmk szkpzs (Budapest, 1943), pp. 29, 49.
19 A nnemarie von G abain, Alttrkische Grammatik, 2nd ed. (L eipzig, 1950), pp. 70,
109.
20 Ibid. pp. 76, 137.
256
a substantive and that of an adjective: 1) gain(s), and 2) gained.21
3.
The Slavic-speaking ancestors of Ukrainians, chiefly the Polanians,
the Derevljanians, and the Sverjans, according to the testimony of the
Primary Chronicle, were subjects of the Khazar state.22This situation
did not continue far beyond the ninth century. I gor occupied Khazar
Kiev in the 930s.23Clearly, the language of the Khazars, who at that
time were accomplished traders, could not have not influenced the trade
terminology of these Proto-Ukrainians.
But the Khazar state had no Khazar language. The very word Khazar
was originally a geographical notion. The Khazar lingua franca was the
Hunnic-Bulgar language, which was basically similar to the Turkic lan
guages but also had distinctive features. One of the typical differences
between it and the Turkic languages was so-called rhotacism,24that is,
the correspondence of the Turkic z to Hunnic-Bulgarian r, e.g., Hunnic
(the fifth century) vr (< *r) river (especially the Dnieper) vs. Turkic
oz(the eighth century) river.25
On the basis of the above data one can reconstruct the Hunnic-
Bulgarian counterpart of Turkic *qaziy as *qariy, also having the two
meanings: 1) gain(s), booty and 2)gained.
Sometime before the seventh-ninth century, Old Hunnic / I G/ de
veloped into //, e.g., Turkic blig ~ blg sign = Volga Bulgar belu -
id (< * blig).26
This development is attested to in one Danube-Bulgarian proper
21 On substantival and adjectival use of the suffix / /, see rvand V. S evortjan,
Affiksy imennogo slovoobrazovanija v azerbajdanskom jazy ke. Opyt sravnitelnogo
issledovanija (Moscow, 1966), pp. 200-217.
22 Povs' vremennyx let, 1, text prepared by D . S . L ixaev, (Moscow-L eningrad,
1950), pp. 16, 18.
23 N orman G olb and meljan Pritsak, Khazarian Hebrew Documents o f the Tenth
Century (I thaca, 1982), pp. 60-71.
24 On the rhotacism in the A ltaic languages see my article D er R hotazismus und
L ambdazismus, Ural-Altaische Jahrbcher, 35 (1964), pp. 337-349.
25 Ein hunnisches Wort, in O. Pritsak, Studies in Medieval Eurasian History (L on
don, 1981), pp. 124-135.
26 A ndrs R na-T as, A Volga Bulgarian I nscription from 1307, Acta Orientalia
Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 30 (Budapest, 1976), pp. 159-161.
ETY MOL OGY OF K O R Y S T
257
name which was noted in Miracula S. Demetrii (a Byzantine text from
ca. 675-685).27
In this way we arrive at the hypothetic Khazariati ninth-century form
*qaru with the meanings 1) gain(s), booty; 2) gained.
4.
In Old Ukrainian the Khazar a of the word initial syllable was ren
dered as o, e.g., qazr > kozr- (-in, pi. -e), while the older u yielded y.
Accordingly, the loan word *karu (< *qaru) changed into *kory. Since
the word had on adjectival meaning, a nominal suffix -ost(b){> Ukr.
-ist) was added, which derives abstract substantives from adjectives,
e.g., modrb-ostb > mudrostb > Modern Ukrainian mudrist\ mih-ostb
> milostb, Modern Ukrainian m y li s favor, grace.
In Slavic adjectives ending in the short vowel - (< -i/J this ending
was usually dropped before the o of the suffix ost(b). But *kory ended
in a long stressed vowel y, and therefore that vowel took the upper hand
in the vowel sequence. Thus *kory + ostb yielded the form korv-stb,
which has been preserved in the Eastern Slavic languages, whereas in
the other Slavic languages, involved in the change *ry > ri, it became
koristb.
It follows from the above that the word kors 'u\ not of Slavic origin;
it was borrowed from the Khazars some time in the eighth or ninth
century.
Harvard University
27 S ee my study T he S lavs and the A vars to be published in XXX Settimana di
studio, Centro Italiano di Studi sulValto medioevo (S poleto, 198. [1984]), p. 403.
28 On the suffix -ost(b), see A . S eliev, Staroslavjanskij jazyk, 2 (Moscow, 1952), p. 73;
on U krainian -ist, see Suasna ukrajins'ka literaturna mova 2, Morfolohija, ed. V. R usa
nivskyj (K iev, 1969), p. 38.
T urkic and S lavic S urnames
in -uk (-uk)*
J AROSLAV B. RUDNY CKY J
I.
The suffixes -uk, -juk, uk already have an extensive literature in lin
guistics and onomastics. The results of research on this topic may be
summarized as follows:
The Turkish suffix -uk is formally a variant of ik, -k, -ik- suf
fixes after hard consonants and corresponds to , -cuk, -cik, -cuk suf
fixes in other positions. It forms substantives with diminutive meaning,
viz.
kedi cat
bahe garden
bird
orman forest
kedicik little cat
bahecik little garden
little bird
ormancik little forest
In cases where the word ends in -k this consonant usually disappears,
e.g.
kpek dog : kpecik little dog
yaprak leaf : yapracik little leaf, etc.1
In the same or similar function the suffix is found in Turkish sur
names, e.g. Bunuk, , Kamuk, Burunuk, etc. As -uk it might
be also abstracted in such names as Buzuk, Baibuzuk, ubuk, rk,
etc.
* A revised version of the text of 1981; the author is indebted to Professor Jacob P.
Hursky for his comments and additional bibliographical data.
1 C f. H. Jansky, Lehrbuch der trkischen Sprache (L eipzig, 1943), p. 110; J.P. Hursky,
The Origin of Patronymic Surnames in Ukrainian. R eprint :'rom The Annals of the
Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S., Inc., Vol. VI II (1960), N o. 1-2
(25-26), pp. 180-181; P.P. uka, D o poxodennja i znaen ija ukrajinskyx imenny-
kovyx utvoen iz sufiksamy -uk, uk, Tezy dopovidej ta pov.'domlen XVII naukovoji
konferenciji (K viten* 1963). Serija folohina (U horod, 1963), pp. 70-71; L arysa Zaleska-
Onykevy in J.B. R udnyckyjs An Etymological Dictionary o f the Ukrainian Language,
Vol. II (1982), p. 848.
Contrary to Turkish -uk the Slavic suffix -uk is of a secondary
provenance. It is a result of the merging of two original suffixes - and
with -juk, the basic formant here being Proto-Slavic -uk - suffix
denoting primarily small beings, little things, diminutiva in general. V.
Vondrk cites the vollowing examples to illustrate this function: Church
Slavic piljukb Milvus, Serbo-Croatian duduk pipe, Ukrainian laznjuk
climber, seljuk villager, serduk angry man, mianuk city dweller,
baranuk ram, Russian detjuk child, mastjuk master, Polish masluk
kind of mushroom, etc.2
A more detailed classification of the semantic variants of -uk, -juk,
-uk suffixes is to be found in special works devoted to Slavic morphol
ogy. Thus, for example, Roman Smal-Stockyj distinguishes here the
following functions:3
1 a) Formation of words which denote beings characterized by pro
fessional or adjectival characteristics in general, e.g. holodnjk hungry
man (: holod hunger); syrotjk (: syrot orphan), etc.;
b) flora and fauna, e.g. morozjk ice-bir (: morz ice), bahnjk
a sort of plant (: bahno marsh), etc.
2 a) Formation of augmentatives, as e.g. stark old man (: starj
old), molodjk young man (molodj young), etc.
b) natural phenomena, e.g. ervonjk a sort of mushroom (: er-
vnj red), krasnjk ts (: krsny j beautiful), etc.
3 a) Formation of diminutive words designating young people, sons,
helpers, pupils, etc. e.g. abank herdsmans son (: abn herdsman),
kuxark young cook (: kxar cook), etc.;
b) pejoratives, e.g. pysark bad writer (: psar writer), likark
bad doctor (: likar doctor), etc.
As far as the onomastic formations are concerned, V.V. Nimuk
offers the following typology:4
2 W. Vondrk, Vergleichende slavische Grammatik, Band 1 (G ottingen, 1924), p. 617.
3 R. S mal-S tockyj, Abriss der ukrainischen Substantivbildung (Wien, 1915), pp. 56-58.
4 C f. V.V. N imuk, U krajinski prizvya z sufiksamy -f)uk, -uk ta etymolohino
sporidneni utvorennja, Ukrajinsko dialektolohija i onomastyka (Zbirnyk statej), I (K iev,
1964, pp. 194-210; see also J.P. Hurskys article quoted in footnote 1 as well as his disser-
tion. The Patronymic Surnames in Ukrainian (U niversity of Pennsylvania, 1957) abstracted
in Dissertation Abstracts, Vol. XVI I , N o. 4 (A nn A rbor, Michigan, 1957), p. 1331.
TURK I C AND SLAVI C SURNAMES I N -uk
261
1) Patro- and matronymic formations, as e.g. Dmytrk Demetrius
son (: Dmytr), Katerynjk Catharines son (: Katerna), etc.
2) Names with appellative correspondences, eg. Hetmancuk Het
mans son (: H mari), Komisarcuk Commissioners son (: Komisar),
etc.
A more refined classification of surnames in -uk/-uk is offered by
J u. K. Redko.5 He distinguishes the following categories of such
surnames:
a) surnames derived from ones fathers name (male ancestor):
Antonjk son of Anton (: Ant in Anthony)
Antonk son of Anton (: Antin Anthony)
Ivanjk son of Ivn (: Ivan J ohn)
Ivank son of Ivn (: Ivn J ohn)
Lazark son of Lzar (: Lzar Eleazer)
Lazark son of Lzar (: Lzar Eleazer)
Nazark Nazars son (: Nazr)
Nazar k Nazars son (: Nazr)
Fedork Fedors son (: Fdir Theodor)
Fedork Fedors son (: Fdir Theodor)
Tarasjk Taras son (: Tars)
Tar as k Taras son (: Tars)
Jaremk J aremas son (: Jarma J eremiah )
Sydork Sydors son (: Sdir Isidor)
b) surnames derived from ones mothers name (grandmother):
Vark son of Vrka (: Vrka Barbara)
Kater ynjk son of Katerna (: Katerna Catherine)
Katerynk son of Katerna (: Katerna Catherine)
Martjk son of Mrta (: Mrta Martha)
Olenjk son of Olna (: Olna Helen)
Olenk son of Olna (: Olna Helen)
5 Ju.K . R edko, Suasni ukrajins'ki prizvya (K iev, 1966) pp. 151-154. In his article,
S urnames of S oviet R ussian and other C ommunist C elebrities, in Names, Vol. 8, pp.
220-239, John P. Pauls refers only to three U krainian names n -ukl-uk, namely: Kon
dratiuk, Kornijuk and Palamaruk.
Tetjank son of Tetjna
Fenk son of Fnna
Fesjk son of Fsja (: Fesja Theodosia)
Fek son of Fsja (: Fesja Theodosia)
Xavronjk son of Xavrna (: Xavrna Fevronia)
Xymk son of Xmka (: Euphemia)
Javdok son of J avdxa (: Javdxa Eudokia)
c) surnames derived from the name of ones fathers profession:
Bohomazjk son of bohomaz' (: bohomaz /church/ikon-painter)
Vivark son of vivr (: vivr shepherd)
Kovaljk son of (: kovalblacksmith)
Koval ck son of (: kovV blacksmith)
Kravk "kravs son (: kravctailor)
Kramark kramar's son (: kramr merchant)
Melnyk mel'nyk's son (: mlnyk miller)
Rybak rybk's son (: rybk fisherman)
ynkark son of ynk (: ynkr bartender)
ynkark son of ynkr (: ynkr bartender)
d) surnames derived from the name of the service rank or social status
of ones father (mother):
Atamanjk atamans son (: otman ataman)
Atamank atamans son (: otman ataman)
Bujmystrk mayors son (: dial, bujmstr mayor)
Vojtjk reeves son (vijt reeve)
Kapitanck son of a captain (kapitn captain)
Kozak cossacks son (: kozk cossack)
Kozaenjk cossacks son (: kozk cossack)
Komisark son of a commissioner (: komisar commissioner)
Komisark son of a commissioner (: komisar commissioner)
Popadjk son of popadj (: popadj priests wife), etc.
e) surnames derived from prior family names:
Babyk son of Bby
Babijk son of Babij
Bajdjk son of Bajda
TURK I C AND SLAVI C SURNAMES IN -uk 263
Baranjk son of Bar an"
Belejk son of Belf
Hluxanjk son of Hluxr
avaljk son of avla
erbanjk son of erbn'
Beznosjk son of Beznosyf
f) surnames derived from ethnonyms of ancestors:
Voloynjk son of Volyn' (: volyn Rumanian)
Lytvynjk son of Lytvn (: lytvyn Lithuanian)
Lytvynk son of Lytvn (: lytvyn Lithuanian)
Mazurk son of Mzur (: mazur Mazovian)
Nimk son of Nmec' (: nimecGerman)
Tatarynjk Tartars son (: tatryn Tartar)
Tatarynk Tartars son (: tatryn Tartar)
Turk Turks son (: trok Turk)
Cyhank son of Chan (: chan Gypsy)
vedjk son of Sve (: sved Swede)
g) surnames derived from toponyms according to ones provenance:
Volynjkont ir Volynia' (: VolnVoly nia)
Volynk one from Volynia' (: /^)
Horodnjk emigre from Hordno (-city)
Dubenk man from Dbno (-city)
Zavysljk one who came from beyond thtVvsla' {\ Vistula-river)
Zalik newcomer from Zalissja
Kicmanjk man from Kicman (-city)
Majdanjk one from Majdn (-city)
SokaVk one from Sokal (-city)
Sambork dweller from Smbi (-town)
Spasjk one from Spas' (-village)
Ternavk newcomer from Trnavka (-village)
Jasink original dweller of Jasinj' (-village)
Podoljk man from Podillja (-province)
Podoljank man from Podillja' (-province)
Polik one from Polissja' (-region), etc.
II.
Two problems, not yet resolved, arise out of the research. One refers
to the possibility of interlingual contacts between Slavic and Turkic
onomastics and the second concerns the explanation of names which are
neither Slavic nor Turkic but have as their main feature the suffix -uk
(or even -uk).
As far as the first problem is concerned, a theory was recently
advanced by P. uka that the Slavic (Ukrainian) suffix -uk (from -uk)
is the result of Turkish influence on the Ukrainian language and that it
was evident in both appellative (e.g. bunk, kank, sevrk, mamljk,
etc.) and onomastic formations (Bak, urk, Bunk, etc.).6Revers
ing the whole morphological process of development, uka considers
all -uk formations primary and -uk words secondary ones. In other
words, the oldest surnames in -uk were of Turkish origin in Ukrainian,
later they developed into -uk through a simplification of the com
pound suffix -uk. This explanation is disallowed, first of all, by the
chronological data. The -uk formations go as far back as the 15-16th
centuries, whereas such words as bunuk, kanuk, and surnames such as
Buuk, Kanuk are of 16-17th centuries. Secondly, the geographical dis
tribution (of the Northern Ukraine and Belorussia, where they are
mostly diffused) points to the real origin and Proto-Slavic character of
the -uk -suffix. And thirdly, the frequency of words and names in -uk
with Slavic roots such as morozjk, bahnjk, stark, molodjk, etc. (see
above) and Kovalck, Dovhanjk (: dvhyj tali), Slipk (: slipj
blind), etc. contradicts Cuckas hypothesis. It was correctly rejected by
J u. K. Redko and others. In our opinion, the Turkish -uk, -uk forma
tions and their Slavic counterparts present a sheer linguistic coinci
dence, which has tempted scholars to hypothesize as to linguistic inter
ferences and has ultimately led to too far reaching theories. To our
knowledge, so far there has been no attempt to explain Turkish forma
tions in -uk, -uk. And justifiably so because in both languages it
represents a genuine and organically motivated formant. If there are
some words and surnames in -uk, -uk in Slavic of Turkic origin they
6 C f. P.P. uka, I.e. 71.
TURK I C AND SLAVI C SURNAMES I N -uk 265
have been borrowed as integral lexical formations, not as morphologi
cally decomposed roots and formants.
A new and bold hypothesis in this respect was advanced by J acob P.
Hursky in his study of Ukrainian patronymic surnames.7Taking into
consideration the geographical distribution of i:he suffixes -uk/-cuk
(Northern Ukraine and Byelorussia) he suggests that this suffix may
have come from the Lithuanian suffix -ukas (-iukas), often used in
forming diminutives and endearment forms, and sometimes even patro
nymics and surnames.8In accepting the parallelism of Slavic -uk and
Baltic -ukas formations as a linguistic fact, we are inclined to consider
them a common Balto-Slavic phenomenon of a more recent date with
out a genetic kinship. The matter deserves a further detailed compara
tive historical study.
III.
Finally, unexplainable names in -uk, -uk should be mentioned. Here
such formations as Pretuk, Nytepuk, Sirluck and similar ones might
be named as random examples. Each of them forms a problem in itself.
Here research should be conducted in every case individually, taking
into consideration all previous records of a given name, the chronology
of eventual change, the linguistic milieu in which the change occurred,
etc. Both Turkic and Slavic languages alongside ether ones (e.g. Baltic)
should be taken into consideration. Without the above premises, we are
restricted to hypotheses which might only sometimes be persuasive, only
sometimes unconvincing, for example, the name Pretchuk might be
hypothetically derived from *Preduk, connected with Ukrainian predok
ancestor.
A similar situation occurs in the explanation of the name Sirluck. It
might be considered as an abbreviation of the Slavic name Sirlucki, or
as a transformed version of Cyriluk son of Cyril'. Without a thorough
examination of the previous forms of the name based on archival
7 J.P. Hursky, The origin of Patronymic Surnames in Ukrainian..., p. 180.
8 J.P. Hursky, I .e.
research, both etymologies will remain hypothetical. In a similar manner
one could suggest Nytepk (from netpa - netipxa unfortunate per
son?); Pawchuk (either from pwa peacock or from plka stick); Kis-
suk or Kischook (perhaps from kslyj sour1?), etc.
* * *
In summing up our discussion of the distribution and meaning of
Turkic and Slavic surnames in -uk, -juk, -uk, the following concluding
classification of the material may be presented:
1) Turkic names as e.g. Buzuk, uruk, Kamuk,
2) Slavic surnames as e.g. Sydork, Plawjk, Radk,
3) Mixed, mostly deformed, names and uncertain names as e.g. Pret-
chuk, Nytepk, Sirluck, etc.
Further research in this field, utilizing descriptive and historical mate
rial, its geographical diffusion and transformational processes is badly
needed and highly recommended.
University o f Manitoba
Zum Problem des anlautenden
ch- im S lavischen
HERBERT SCHELESNIKER
Das slavische ch ist aus idg. *s in der Stellung nach u, r, k
phonetisch entstanden und war anfnglich ein Allophon von diesem.
Seine Phonematisierung ist jedoch schon frh erfolgt, denn es scheint
auch auerhalb dieser Position in flektierten Formen als Kasussuffix
auf (z.B. Lok. PI. zemljachb) und ist in der nominalen und verbalen
Derivation als stammbildendes Formans produktiv (spe-chb Streben,
Eile, ja-ch-ati fahren u. dgl.). In allen diesen Fllen bereitet die
Erklrung des ch weniger Schwierigkeiten, man schreibt seine aus-
breitung gewhnlich der Analogiewirkung zu.
Strittig sind Herkunft und Stellung des ch im Anlaut, worber eine
ansehnliche wissenschaftliche Literatur besteht,1 die der Frage auf
verschiedene Weise beizukommen versucht, teils durch Heranziehung
phonetischer {ch < */c/, *ks, *sk) oder paraphonetischer Gegebenheiten,
wie Expressivitt, Affektivitt usw., teils durch Erklrung der be
treffenden Flle als Nachbildungen oder Entlehnungen des Slavischen
aus anderen Sprachen. So soll der Meinung A. Vaillants (Gram. comp.
1, 85; 4, 260) zufolge z. B. slav. - (hervor)hinken trotz der
betrchtlichen Abweichung der Wortbedeutung got. us-hramjan kreu
zigen nachgebildet und slav. Meerrettich Nachahmung von got.
hrains rein sein.
Fr Z. Gob (American Contributions to the Seventh I nternational
Congress of Slavists, Warsaw 1973, 129ff.) sine nahezu alle mit ch-
anlautenden Wrter des Slavischen Entlehnungen aus dem Iranischen,
obgleich sie in mehreren Fllen dort gar nicht direkt zu belegen sind,
1 Vgl. in A uswahl bei H. Brauer, S lavische S prachwissenschaft I, 1961, 184; G .Y. S he
velov, A Prehistory of S lavic, 1964, 138.
268
sondern nur erschlossen werden knnen. Auerdem fhrt manche po
stulierte bernahme zu lautlichen Schwierigkeiten in der Erklrung, so
etwa, wenn slav. chlastb J unggeselle aus dem Part. Prt. Pass. iran.
harta- freigegeben, entlassen erklrt oder slav. chvala Ruhm, Lob als
Entlehnung von iran. hvarnah- Glanz, Herrlichkeit angesehen wird,
obgleich die slavischen Bildungen -/-, die iranischen -r- im Inlaut
aufweisen. Dabei bersieht dieser Erklrungsversuch die weiteren, von
chlastb etymologisch kaum zu trennenden Bildungen chlakb J unggeselle
und chlapb Knecht, die nicht Entlehnungen aus dem Iranischen sein
knnen. Man vgl. einzelsprachliche Formen wie russ. cholit' sauber
halten, pflegen, warten, ukr. cholyty, dazu in der Bedeutung Pflegling:
cech. pa-chole, slk. pa-chola, poln. pa-chol Knabc\ pa-choek Bursche,
Knecht. Im brigen wird man Wrter, die im Slavischen regulre
Ablautstufen zeigen, wie z.B. chyrb siech zu chvorb krank, chvatiti
fassen zu chbteti wollen u.dgl., nicht zu Entlehnungen, gleichgltig aus
welcher Sprache, machen drfen.
Notgedrungene Erklrungen sind Versuche, z.B. slav. choditi gehen
oder chromb lahm als Bildungen hinzustellen, die von Zusammen
setzungen mit auslautenden -i, -u, -r, -k herrhren, wie pri-choditi
hingehen, u-choditi Weggehen, pre-choditi vorbergehen, durch
schreiten oder die einer These zuliebe konstruierte Verbindung nogu
chromb an den Beinen lahm u.dgl.m. Ihnen stehen als Einzelfllen so
viele Gegenbeispiele gegenber, wie etwa pri-ssti berhren, u-sti
abschneiden usw., und choditi selbst kommt ebenso hufig auch mit
den Prfixen na-, za- und do- vor, da solche Erklrungen den Tatsachen
nicht gerecht werden.
Was ch als Expressivlaut betrifft, so gibt es zweifellos Wrter, deren
expressiver Charakter offensichtlich ist. Diese sind nicht Gegenstand
dieser Untersuchung. Man wird aber bei einem Wort wie slav. chladb
kalt gegenber lit. sltas (le. salts) mit derselben Bedeutung kaum von
Expressivitt oder Emotionalitt des Ausdruckes sprechen knnen,wie
V. Machek (Slavia 16, 195) u.a., dies schon deshalb nicht, weil das
zweifellos zugehrige Substantiv slav. siana Reif mit lit. saln (le. sal-
na) in jeder Hinsicht bereinstimmt und von einem expressiven Anlaut
hier nichts zu bemerken ist. Auch das zum selben Wortstamm gestellte
slav. slota Regenwetter lt nichts dergleichen erkennen. Der Ausweg,
ANL AUTENDES ch I M SL AVI SCHEN
269
fr slav. chladb eine (im brigen nicht zu beweisende) phonetische
Anlautvariante *kh, *ks oder *sk zu postulieren, hat bisher wenige
befriedigt, weshalb sie in slav. chladb ein Lehnwort aus got. kalds sehen
wollen (z.B. A. Vaillant, o.e. 4, 157; u.a.), wieder eine der Not
gehorchende, unbeweisbare und aufgrund der Sachlage unwahrschein
liche Erklrung.
Stellen wir die Verhltnisse im Litauischen und im Slavischen
zusammen:
Lit. saln entspricht slav. siana, dagegen steht lit. ltas die slavische
Form chladb gegenber (im Slavischen also anlautendes ch- und d-
Erweiterung, letztere dem Verhltnis lit. tvlrtas : slav. tvrbdb entspre
chend).
Um das ch des Slavischen zu verstehen, wird man sich vorher
folgende Tatsache vor Augen fhren mssen:
Die alte Verteilung idg. : *k'ergab lit. s : , im Slavischen dagegen
unterschiedslos s ~ s. Der Proze ist alt, denn das aus ^ entstandene
slav. s nimmt, wie jedes s, am Wandel sr > sr (-Einschub) teil, daher
slav. ostrb spitz, pbstrb bunt gegenber gr. , . Das Sla
vische hat demnach Formen wie stropb Dach, (otb-)stropiti bedecken
gegenber ags. /zro/Dach\ bret. krao Stall, ir. cro Verschlag, Stall (<
*/cro), aber im Falle von ( -) Frhsuppe (vgl. ai. srapayati
kocht, brt) oder kropit besprengen, kroplja Tropfen (vgl. av. srask-
triefen <*kro-) hat das Slavische den Wandel *k'r > sr > str nicht
durchgefhrt, um die Bedeutungsunterschiede zu wahren. Deshalb heit
es im Slavischen wohl auch svekry Schwiegermutter (vgl. ai. varuh),
mit Entpalatalisierung des *k (> k ), da sr htte str ergeben mssen
(*svestry) und damit die Form von sestra Schwester nur mehr schwer
auseinanderzuhalten gewesen wre. Das ist meine Erklrung von slav.
svekry, und sie kommt mir wirklichkeitsnaher vor, als die ber das sog.
Dissimilationsgesetz von A. Meillet fhrende. Aus Grnden der Unter
scheidung heit es wohl auch slav. rda Herde gegenber av. sarda-,
mit Entpalatalisierung des *k(> k) im Slavischen, um den Zusammen
fall mit slav. srda Mitte zu vermeiden. hnlich behielt slav. skoiti
springen die Anlautgruppe sk (< *sk) bei (vgl. lit. kti), um sich
gegenber soiti anzeigen (vgl. lit. sakti sagen) abzugrenzen.
Mit anderen Worten: k kam schon in frhester Zeit des Slavischen
bzw. seiner sprachlichen Vorlufer eine distinktive Funktion zu. hn
lich liegen die Verhltnisse im Baltischen, wo wir im Litauischen den
Wechsel k / s bzw. g / z zur Abgrenzung von begrifflich nahestehenden
Bedeutungen antreffen:
Kehren wir zum Beispiel lit. sltas : slav. chladb zurck. Beide For
men gehen auf eine Wurzel *kel- / *kol- zurck. Nach der regelrechten
Lautentwicklung htte dies im Slavischen slad- ergeben, somit Zusam
menfall mit dem Wort fr s, oder slat- (so in aruss. solotb Morast,
aksl. slatina Sauerwasser), somit Zusammenfall mit dem Wort fr sal
zig, sauer.
Lit. salds s entspricht slav. sladb(kb) Malz, (s) (< *sol-),
lit. aln Reif entspricht slav. siana (< *kol-),
lit. sltas kalt steht slav. chladb gegenber.
Fr die slavische Form wrde man nach dem bisher Gesagten Entpa-
latalisierung und Beibehaltung des k zum Zwecke der Differenzierung
erwarten. Wenn es in dieser Eigenschaft hier nicht auftritt, hat dies
seinen Grund zweifellos darin, da es bereits einige mit k- anlautende
Wortstmme gab, wie kol- Pflock, Block (vgl. aksl. klada, skr. klda,
slov. klda, ech. klda, poln. koda, russ. ukr. kolda), klat- stechen,
spalten (aksl. klati, skr. klti, slov. klti, ech. klti, russ. kol , ukr.
kolty) u.a., so da eine Differenzierungsmglichkeit hiermit nicht
gegeben war. Anstelle von k finden wir ch und somit slav. chladb(kb)
kalt gegenber sladb(kb) s, lautlich und bedeutungsmig getrennt.
Slav, ch- in distinktiver Funktion findet sich nun in einer ganzen
Reihe von Beispielen:
chlapb Diener, Knecht : slapb Wasserfall
Vgl. lit. akmu' Stein : asmu Schneide
: livas krumm
: sakti schreien
: eTtas golden
: sova Eule
: sloniti lehnen
: zelenb grn
kleivas krummbeinig
kakti heulen
gelt as gelb
slav. kava Dohle
kloniti neigen
lbtb gelb usw.
(vgl. lit. selpti helfen,
salp Hilfe)
(vgl. slav. slbpati spritzen,
Prs. sleplje-, lit. salpas
271
chvorb krank
(vgl. ahd. sweran eitern)
chyrb siech, krank
chramb Haus
sipb Dorn
(vgl. mhd. hiefe Hagebutte)
irb breit, sirota Breite
chromb lahm
(vgl. ai. srmah)
chvojb, chvoja Nadelholz
chvjati s sich bewegen
(von den Zweigen der Bume)
(vgl. lit. svajti umher
schweifen, svaigti taumeln,
schwanken, fries, swien
sich schwingend bewegen,
engl, sway)
Bucht, GN. russ. Solpa
(< *slp-), ohne /7-Erwei-
terung lit. slti flieen,
sal Bodenerhebung im
Wasser. Sandbank, gr.
springe, lat.
salire)
svarb Streit
(vgl. lit sverti, sveri
drcken, wgen, ahd. swr(i)
drckend)
syrb na, feucht
sramb Schande
sipb Heiserkeit
sirb verwaist, sirota Waise
(vgl. lit. eirys Witwer.
eire Witwe, av. sae- verwaist)
strbmb steil, abschssig,
abl. russ. strom Dachsparren,
Gelnder, slov. strom Dach,
Laube, ech. slk. strom Baum
Pron. svojb, svoja
svojiti s sich aneignen
(vgl. das mit chvjati s syno
nyme svepetati s, das seinen
Anlaut beibehielt, da eine
Bedeut Lingsverwechslung mit
einem anderen Wort nicht be
stand)
chovati bewahren, schtzen
(vgl. lit. saugs geschtzt,
sicher, saug Sicherheit)
: sovati werfen
(vgl. lit. uti, uju
schieben, schieen )
Mit Hilfe von ch wurden auch aus einer gemeinsamen Grundbedeu
tung hervorgegangene Begriffe gegeneinander abgegrenzt. Das ist der
Fall bei den vom Reflexivpronomen *s(yt)e-, *s(yt)o- gebildeten /-Er
weiterungen chbtti, ch(v)otb, chvatiti, chyt it gegenber svojb, svatb,
svatiti, sytb, sytiti, (po-)stiti mit der Grundbedeutung angeeignet,
eigen. Vgl. dazu weiter av. xvaetu- angehrig, gr. Angehriger,
lat. suetus gewohnt, lit. svias Gast, slav. *stb Gast in (po-)stiti
besuchen, svatb verschwgerter Angehriger, svatiti s durch Einhei
rat verwandt werden und ablautend sytiti mit der semantischen Ent
wicklung sich zu eigen machen > sttigen, bedeutungsmig abge
grenzt gegenber chvatiti!chytiti sich zu eigen machen > greifen,
raffen.2 Damit wrde auch der gegenber den anderen indogermani
schen Sprachen abweichende Wurzelvokalismus der slavischen Form
syt- satt (vgl. lat. satis, got. sajs, lit. sots) seine Erklrung finden. Da
slav. (na-) sytiti eine Entlehnung aus got. ga-sof>jan sttigen sei (A.
Vaillant, o.e. 3, 434; G.Y. Shevelov, A Prehistory' of Slavic, 155), ist
aufgrund der gegebenen Sachlage auszuschlieen, ebenso die Ansicht Z.
Gobs, der chbtti, chvatiti, chytiti, wieder unter Auerachtlassung der
regulren Ablautreihe des Slavischen, als Entlehnungen aus dem Irani
schen hinstellt.
Ein weiteres strittiges Wort mit ch- im Anlaut, das widersprchliche
und teilweise einander ausschlieende Erklrungen gefunden hat, ist
slav. ehr ana Nahrung, Pflege, Schutz. M. Vasmer (Schriften zur slavi
schen Altertumskunde und Namenkunde 1,45) war m.W. der erste, der
seinerzeit eine Entlehnung aus iran. hvarna- Nahrung (vgl. av. xvardna-
Speise, xvaraiti verzehrt) zumindest in Erwgung zog. Dagegen wur
den jedoch schon bald, auch von Vasmer selbst, Bedenken lautlicher Art
vorgebracht. Man wrde im Falle einer Entlehnung eine Form *chvrana
im Slavischen erwarten, da aus der Konsonantengruppe chv das v im
2 Vgl. hierzu C hr. E ngel, S lav, sw- S ttigung, satt und Verwandtes, in A nzslPh 14,
1983, 19f.
ANL AUTENDES ch I M SL AVI SCHEN 273
Slavischen in der Regel nicht schwindet (vgl. aksl. chvrastb Gestrpp).
Deshalb verband man chrana bzw. chraniti etymologisch weiterhin mit
lat. servare, av. haraite bewahren oder man stellte es zu lit. rti, seri
fttern, mit Annahme eines aspirierten */:7 im Anlaut, das im Slavi
schen zu ch gefhrt habe, oder einer Entwicklung zu ch aus 5 nach auf
-i, -u, -r auslautenden Prverbien. Alles nicht nur nicht zu beweisende,
sondern nach dem bisher Vorgebrachten auch hchst unwahrscheinliche
Annahmen.
M.E. geht slav. chrana, wie lit. serti, auf idg. *ker- l*k'or- /*k'r-
zurck, das in mehreren Sprachen weitergefhrt ist (vgl. lat. Ceres Gt
tin des pflanzlichen Wachstums, gr. sttige, Stti
gung, lit. rti, eri fttern, paaras Futter, le. sert fttern, pflegen,
srs Futtervorrat. Nach dem Muster lit. perti, peri : slav. , Prs.
pere-, oder lit. piti, piei : slav. pbsati, Prs. pie-, entspricht nun dem
lit. rti bildungsmig mit einem Infinitiv auf - im Slavischen sbrati
cacre, Prs. sere-, postverbal sorb Kehrricht, Exkrement, ein Wort,
das in den alten kirchlichen Texten begreiflicherweise nicht vorkommt,
in allen slavischen Sprachen aber gut bezeugt ist. Ich mchte mich hier
nicht festlegen, aber es ist mglich und denkbar, da die Wurzel
*(s)ker- (vor allem in der Bildung mit prformantischem s-) anfnglich
Nahrungsaufnahme und Verdauungsvorgang sozusagen in einem aus
drckte und begrifflich erst spter geteilt wurde, wie mehrere einzel
sprachliche Bildungen semantisch nahelegen. Vgl. gr. Sttigung,
lat. cre-sco wachse oder arm. serm Same, Sprling. Als Produkt der
Ernhrung sind die griechischen Bildungen J ngling,
, Mdchen, J ungfrau oder arm. ser Nachkommenschaft,
Geschlecht aufzufassen. Aufschlureich ist jedenfalls, da das Baltische
die Vorstellung auf die Aufnahme der Nahrung fixiert und die Vorstel
lung von deren Verwertung bis auf Reste verdrngt hat, so noch lit.
arvai Ausflu, le. sarni Schlacke (vgl. av. sairya- Mist, Dnger
haufen, gr. , Gen. Exkrement, . skarn Mist), wh
rend sich das Slavische umgekehrt verhalten hat und den Begriff der
Nahrungsaufnahme aus noch verwendbaren Ableitungen der Wurzel
neu aufbauen mute.
Man wrde nun, wie in anderen Fllen bereits festgestellt (vgl. svekry
: sestra), aufgrund der bedeutungsmigen Entwicklung Entpalatalisie-
rung und Beibehaltung des k (<*k) im Slavischen erwarten. Diese trat
jedoch nicht ein, weil die hochstufigen *ker- / *kor- bereits auf andere
Bedeutungen festgelegt, sozusagen ausgelastet waren. Vgl. korin slav.
kora Rinde, Wurzel, ( -) Schmhung u.a. Es erscheint
wieder ch in distinktiver Funktion. Von chor- (das fr sor-/kor- steht)
ausgehend, wurden im Slavischen neue Formen mit -Formans gebildet,
chra-na, chra-niti, jedoch von der entpalatalisierten Tiefstufe */cr->
*kr- bildete das Slavische - , - Futter, mit m-Erweiterung,
wie in arm. serm Same, Sprling, lit. ermens, apr. sermen Lei
chenschmaus, mit d(h)- Erweiterung gehrt mglicherweise -db
Herde dazu, das keinesfalls, wie meist angenommen wird, Lehnwort
aus dem Germanischen ist.
Der Kreis NahrungsaufnahmeVerdauungNahrungsverwertung
schliet sich in dem Worte skramb, skrama Fett, Schmiere (als End
produkt des Gesamtvorganges), das aus *sker-/*skor- mit Entpalatali-
sierung des *sk> sk) und ra-Erweiterung gebildet ist. Diesen Formen
steht chramb Haus mit distinktivem ch gegenber. Sowohl und
skrama als auch chrana sind als Weiterbildungen der Wurzel *(s)ker-
/*(s)kor-/*(s)kr- anzusehen.
Ein weiteres Wort, das recht mannigfaltige Erklrungen gefunden hat,
ist slav. chvala. Die Palette reicht von Vergleichen mit ai. svarati tnt,
erschallt ber ano. skvala, ahd. swellan bis zur Metathese aus slava mit
expressiver Verhauchung des Anlautes, oder Entlehnung aus iran. hvar-
nah-. Alle diese Erklrungen bergehen wieder die regulre Ablautreihe
im Slavischen, denn chvala, chvaliti wird man von chula Lsterung,
chuliti nicht trennen drfen und, mit A. Vaillant (Gram. comp. 2, 1,
176; 2, 2, 581), auch nicht von der Form des Komparativs sulejb besser
(vgl. auch aksl. sulje byti von Nutzen sein, ksl. posuliti gnstig sein,
suliti (si) schmeicheln) sowie vom zentralen Ausgangswort fr die
gesamte Bedeutungsentwicklung, slav. slb- - Sonne. Die Grundbe
deutung war glnzend, strahlend, und wie sich av. xvardnah- Glanz,
Herrlichkeit, von xvard Sonne ableitet, mu auch slav. chvala (wie
schon sulje, suliti nahelegen) mit sibnbce in einem Zusammenhang ste
hen und ursprnglich Sonnenglanz bedeutet haben, mit weiterer
semantischer Entwicklung zu Lob, Ruhm in positiver und Schmeiche
lei, Lsterung in negativer Richtung. Dabei ist chuliti als Bedeutungs-
ANL AUTENDES ch I M SL AVI SCHEN 275
variante von suliti vom Verbum chuliti mit der Bedeutung beugen,
welches Faktitivum zum Adjektiv chylb gebeugt, gekrmmt ist, reinlich
zu trennen. Der in chuliti beugen, chylb gebeugt vorliegende, etymo
logisch unklare Wortstamm tritt auch mit -Erweiterung auf, z.B. in ksl.
chyniti tuschen, slov. hiniti, bei ragusischen Schriftstellern des 16.
J ahrhunderts hiniti, hinati, hinjati usw.
Die von einigen Forschern vertretene Meinung, die Bedeutungen von
chvala und chula lieen sich auf eine Grundvorstelling beugen zurck
fhren, ist sowohl von der semasiologischen als auch von der formal-
strukturellen Seite unhaltbar. Das Verbum chvaliti ist kein Denominati-
vum von chvala, sondern aufgrund seines mobilen Akzentes (vgl. russ.
chvalt \ chvalj, chvl-; skr. hvliti, hvli-) ein delinstufiges Faktitivum
mit der Bedeutung strahlen lassen zu einem Thema *ch(v)ol-, *chbl-
strahlen, welch letzteres in der Form sbl- auch dem Worte fr Sonne
zugrunde liegt. Wortbildungsmig gleicht damit chvaliti vllig dem
Verbum chvatiti sich zu eigen machen, das mit seinem mobilen Akzent
(vgl. russ. chvtit't chvt-) dehnstufiges Faktitivum zu ch(v)ot-, chbt-
(bei sich haben) wollen ist.
Fr unsere Erklrung von slav. chvala, chvaliti spricht bis zu einem
gewissen Grade auch der im ost- und im westslavischen Sprachraum
auftretende Personenname Bogu-chvalb, der, wie alle theophoren Anthro-
ponyme des Slavischen, Lehnbildung bzw. Lehnbersetzung aus dem
Iranischen ist. Wenn slav. Boguchvalb den Bedeutungsinhalt von iran.
Baga-farna- der vor Gott Glnzende wiedergibt, mu dem zweiten Be
standteil der slavischen Form dieselbe oder zumindest eine hnliche Vor
stellung wie der iranischen Form zugrunde liegen. Slav, chvala ist
deshalb aber keine direkte Entlehnung aus den Iranischen, wie Z.
Gob (I.e. 145) annimmt, dies ist schon wegen des -/- der slavischen
Form gegenber dem -r- der iranischen (vgl. av. xvardnah-) phonetisch
nicht mglich, sondern beide Bildungen sind urverwandt und gehen auf
idg. *sul-, *sul- zurck. Das anlautende ch- der slavischen Form steht
auch hier in distinktiver bzw. wortbildender Funktion. 3
3 E inen Zusammenhang von chvala und slbnbce vermutet auch H.D . Pohl (N f,
1979/2, 13f., 17), ohne diesen innersprachlich abzuleiten und zu begrnden.
Zwei Wrter, ber welche die Forschung sehr unterschiedliche Auf
fassungen vertritt, sind sdb und srb wei- oder grauhaarig, beide mit
ursprnglichem ch- im Anlaut, welches nach der zweiten Palatalisierung
der Velare im Sd- und im Ostslavischen s (vgl. slov. sed, sr, russ. sedj,
sryj, ukr. siryj), im Westslavischen (vgl. ech. slk. ed, er, poln.
szady, szary) ergab. Slav. srb kann in Anbetracht des Umstandes, da
es mit sedb von Farbbezeichnungen mit anderer Suffixableitung, wie
sivb grau, sinjb blau (vgl. lit. vas wei, schimmelfarbig, emas
aschgrau, ai.syva-, syma- dunkelfarbig) etymologisch kaum getrennt
werden kann, nicht als Lehnwort aus germ. *haira hingestellt werden,
sondern ist mit got. skeirs klar, hell, skeinan leuchten, in eine Reihe zu
stellen. Hierher gehrt auch slav. sijati leuchten, postverbal -sojb in skr.
soj Schattenseite, prisoj Sonnenseite, big. osj, prisoj. Das ch- in srb
diente ursprnglich zweifellos der formalen oder bedeutungsmigen
Abgrenzung gegenber anderen Wortformen, wie etwa sra Schwefel
oder srenb (<*/c'er-) wei, grau (vgl. lit. erknas Reif, irvas blau
grau, le. srsna Reif, sirks grauhaarig).
Aufgrund der vorliegenden Ausfhrungen wird man etliche Wrter,
welche die bisherige Forschung als Entlehnungen des Slavischen aus
anderen Sprachen angesehen hat, zeitlich neu einzuordnen haben. Wenn
z.B. chlastb J unggeselle kein Lehnwort aus iran. harta- ist (vgl. Z.
Gob, I.e. 138), chlapb Knecht kein Lehnwort aus got. halbs halb
(vgl. H. Pedersen, KZ 38, 373f.) und chlakb kein Lehnwort aus got.
halks bedrftig, arm (vgl. A. Vaillant, o.e. 4, 536)im brigen eine
bedenkliche Methode, einen Wortstamm, der mit verschiedenen For
mantien erweitert vorkommt, als Entlehnung aus verschiedenen Spra
chen hinzustellen, wenn also chlastb, chlapb und chlakb keine Lehn
wrter sind und das anlautende ch- in ihnen als spezifisch slavische
Erscheinung erkannt ist, ist das Alter dieser Wrter betrchtlich hher,
als man es ihnen bisher zugestanden hat. Die mit ch- anlautenden Wr
ter des Slavischen mit eindeutiger Etymologie sind Erbwrter und rei
chen als solche in die Frhzeit des Slavischen zurck. Man vergleiche
die Tiefstufenform bd- zum Wortstamm chod- gehen, die zeigt, da die
Entstehung des distinktiven ch in die Zeit vor der ersten Palatalisierung
der Velare fllt. Dagegen lt sich das Alter von Wrtern unklarer Her
kunft schwer oder gar nicht ermitteln. Ein Wort wie chrnb Meerret-
277
tich wrde sich von der Sache und der Bedeutung her ohne weiteres zu
srenb wei, grau stellen lassen, doch wird diese Ansicht weder von der
lautlichen Seite noch durch die Wortberlieferung gedeckt und best
tigt. Nach Theophrast (HP 9, 15, 5) lautet die medizinische Bezeichnung
des wilden Rettichs , Plinius d. . (HN 19, 32) fhrt cerain an. In
beiden wird man allenthalben die Vorform von slav. chrenb zu sehen
haben, doch sind Herkunft und Zusammenhnge der Formen unterei
nander nicht einsichtig zu machen. Man spricht teils von einem alteu
ropischen Wort, teils von einem Wort aus einer nichtindogermanischen
Sprache, das als kulturelles Wanderwort nach Europa gelangte.
Bemerkenswert ist jedenfalls der Umstand, da die Slaven gleichsam
Krenvermittler par excellence in Europa geworden sind, denn von
ihnen drang das Wort nicht nur ins Baltische und ins Deutsche (das Wort
ist hier seit mittelhochdeutscher Zeit belegt), sondern ber deutsche
Vermittlung auch in die romanischen Sprachen und ist im bayerisch
sterreichisch- schlesischen Sprachgebiet bis heute die gelufige Bezeich
nung fr Meerrettich geblieben. Dies alles zeigt Wichtigkeit und
Bedeutung des Meerrettichs als Kulturpflanze bei den Slaven, bietet
jedoch keinen Anhaltspunkt fr das Alter der slavischen Wortform und
die Funktion des ch in ihr. Eines wird man nach dem Gesagten jedoch
mit Sicherheit ausschlieen knnen, nmlich da slav. chrenb eine Nach
bildung von got. hrains rein sei, wie A. Vaillant (Gram. comp. 1, 85; 4,
260) glaubhaft machen wollte.
Ich mchte diese Ausfhrungen nicht schlieen, ohne eine, wenn auch
vorlufige Definition des ch gegeben zu haben. Dem vorgestellten Bei
spielmaterial lt sich entnehmen, da slav. ch die Distinktionsvariante
von idg. oder *k ist. Man wird in ihm ein Mittel der sprachlichen
Selbstregulierung zu sehen haben, durch welches dem Slavischen alte
Wortstmme und Wortbedeutungen erhalten blieben, die nach dem laut
lichen Zusammenfall von und*ksonst verlorengegangen wren. Die
Verwendung des ch erfolgte differentiatorisch im Hinblick auf gleichlau
tend gewordene Wortstmme mit verschiedener Bedeutung {chlapb
Knecht : slapb Wasserfall) und bei bedeutungsvsrwandten Wortstm
men in gleichzeitig wortbildender Funktion (chuliti lstern : suliti (si)
schmeicheln).
Zum Expressivlaut wurde ch erst, nachdem ss sich in distinktiver
Funktion in obenbeschriebener Weise etabliert hatte, da von dieser Zeit
an jedes ^oder k durch ch austauschbar geworden war, um einen
expressiven Ausdruck zu erzielen. Dies zeigen Dublettenbildungen in
den slavischen Einzelsprachen. Vgl. russ. svista pfeifen : russ.dial.
chvista , ech. chvstati; russ. chlopoty rger, Widerwrtigkeiten : ukr.
klopit, poln. kopota plagen, u.a.
Universitt Innsbruck
Ukr. dbaty R evisited
ALEXANDER M. SCHENKER
1. Ukr. dbaty take care, be concerned, endeavor and its Slavic cog
nates have long challenged the ingenuity of the etymologist and philolo
gist alike. Without clear Slavic, let alone Indo-European, filiations, its
distribution limited to the north-central Slavic area, 1 dbaty has been a
source of bafflement to Slavic linguistic scholarship. It has elicited no
less than seven etymologies and has caused disagreement on such a
seemingly straightforward matter as the question of its native or bor
rowed status in East Slavic. Some scholars, like J .B. Rudnyckyj (1978:
13) and O.S. Melnycuk (1975: 48) tend to view dbaty as a word inher
ited by Ukrainian from Common Slavic; others, like O. N. Trubaev
(1967: 55-56), Henry Leeming (1968: 294) and A.M. Bulyka (1972: 8 8
and 1980: 197, 239) consider it an East Slavic Polonism. 2 It is the latter
view which is supported by historical evidence. East Slavic dbati and its
many derivatives (nedbati, zanedbati, dbalyj, dbane, etc.) appear to
belong to the first wave of Polonisms which, from the fourteenth cen
tury on, spilled from Poland eastward leaving their mark on Ukrainian,
Belorussian, Russian, Lithuanian and Rumanian.-'
1 In addition to U kr. dbatv, there occur BR uss. dbac\ S outh-West R uss. dbat\ Pol.
dba, S lk. dbat \ C z. dbati (older tbti), U S orb. kedbowa, L S orb. dba (older dba),
all of them falling within the general semantic range of take care, be concerned, pay
attention. A s for L ith. dbti pay attention and its variants which have eliminated the
initial consonant cluster, dabti and (ne)boti, there is general agreement that they are
borrowings from Polish; see S kardius 1931; 45, 60, 62, 138.
T he abbreviations used are as follows: A v.A vestan, Big.Bulgarian, BR uss.Belo
russian, C z.C zech, L at.L atin, L ith.L ithuanian, OC S .Old C hurch S lavic, Pol.
Polish, R uss.R ussian, S lk.S lovak, S orb.S orbian, U kr.U krainian; OOld, Mod
Modern; L L ower, U U pper. In citing Old Polish sources, I follow the system of
abbreviations adopted by U rbaczyk 1953-.
2 T he view of Je. T ymenko (1932: 671) is unclear: the adverb dbale is marked as a
borrowing from Polish, but the other forms (dbalost'dbalyj, dnane, dbati) are not.
3 T he history of dbati and its derivatives in E ast S lavic deserves a special treatment.
For the purposes of this article, the opinions of the scholars mentioned must suffice.
280
2. The recognition of the Polish provenience of East Slavic dbati
does not, however, answer the question of its ultimate origin: is dbati a
common West Slavic word or is it one of the travelling words4 which
arose in Bohemia, whence it spread to the languages neighboring on
Czech including Polish, and from Polish was passed on to the East
Slavic languages? 5 There are several considerations which can be adduced
in support of the latter hypothesis.
(a) Chronology. Cz. tbati (later dbti) predates Pol. dba (in several
instances also tba) by about one century. The Czech word is richly
represented in the Alexandreis (turn of the XII I c.), whereas the Polish
one occurs first in the Gniezno Sermons (turn of the XIV c.).
(b) Derivational productivity. The derivational paradigm of OCz.
tbati outnumbers that of OPol. dba by the ratio of 5:1. According to
the data culled from Havrnek 1968- and from the card files of the
Archv Staroeskho Slovnika, 6 the Old Czech derivatives of (ne)tbti
include the non-negated tbnie, tba, tbav, tbav, tbnliv, tbnliv,
tbnlivost, tbal, tbale, tbalosi\ the negated7 netbnie, netbav, netbav,
netbavost, netbnliv, netbnliv, netbnlivost, netbac, netbal, ne-
tbale, netbalost, netbalstvie, netbaliv, netbaliv, netbalivost, netbatedl-
n; the prefixed potbti, zanetbti, zanetbavati, zanetbnie, zanetbal;
and the proper names Netbajnis (surname) and Netbalec (place-name).
By contrast, the Old Polish materials documented by Urbaczyk 1953-
include but (nie)dba, dbanie, niedbanie, niedbay, niedbale, niedbao
and niedbalca. It is only in the sixteenth century that such derivatives as
dbay, dbale, dbao, niedbalewy, niedbaliwie, udba si, zaniedba
(si), zaniedbawa and zaniedbywa make their appearance in Polish
(Mayenowa et al. 1969).
G eorge Y. S hevelov, in his important survey of U krainian Polonisms, conjectures that
U kr. dbaty could be an example of possible prehistorical affinities in C zech, Polish,
U krainian and Belorussian vocabulary (1975: 463). On the other hand, T rubaev (1967:
56) flatly asserts that drevnix iskljucitelnyx leksieskix polsko-ukrainskix obnostej
inogo roda [ zaimstvovanija] my voobe ne znaem.
4 T he term travelling words was introduced by W.D . E lcock (1960: 236, 291).
5 On the patterns of lexical diffusion in S lavic, see S chenker 1983.
6 T he card files of S taroesk S lovnk were excerpted for me by Mirjam S tar, a staff
member of the A rchv. I should like to thank her for her expert and generous assistance.
7 In Old C zech as in Old Polish the negated forms of tbti/dbac and its derivatives
were much more common than the non-negated ones.
UKR. DB T Y REVI SI TED
281
(c) Stylistic markedness. Of the seventy examples of dba listed by
Urbaczyk 1953-, fifty-seven, or better than three-fourths, occur in texts
characterized by their openness to Czech lexical penetration. These texts
are, as expected, primarily religious in nature, such as Rozm (17 ci
tations), De morte (4), 1471 MPKJ V (4), BZ (4), Fl (3), Pu (3), R XXV
(3), Gn (2). Of the juridical texts which lean on Czech models, Sul has
eight examples of dba.
(d) Occurrence in dialects. The verb dba appears to be poorly
represented in the Polish dialects. Karowicz (1900) cites just four exam
ples: three from Kujawy and one from Derdowskis literary Kashubian.
It is characteristic that all of these examples show phonetic or morpho
logical adaptations: gba for dba, dbadz for dbaj. As for the deriva
tives of dba, Karowicz lists one instance of dbaliwy(\9 ), a clear deri
vation from Cz. netbaliv, and three nominal expressive formations
niedbaluch, niedbaa and niedbaek (1903), but no form current in the
literary language.
(e) Migration of borrowings. Since the great majority of East Slavic
and Lithuanian Polonisms can be shown to have been borrowed by
Polish from Latin, German or Czech, the fact that Pol. dba spread
eastward may also indicate its non-native status i:i Polish. It is proba
ble, in fact, that dba was part of the powerful cultural current which
carried such Polish Bohemianisms as dowd, mieszczanin, ogromny,
potomek, etc. into Ruthenian and then, as Ruthenianisms,into Russian. 8
3. Regardless, however, of our views on the ultimate origin of Ukr.
dbaty, whether it was, as I believe, a Czech innovation, or a common
West Slavic dialecticism, or, for those scholars who believe in its indige
nousness in East Slavic, a North Common Slavic word, the question of
its etymology remains to be resolved.
Let us recall briefly the etymologies offered thus far, those by Miklo-
sich, Bruckner, Machek (2x), Sawski, Vaillant and Trubaev. 9 I will
classify them by the way in which they deal with the first two phonemes
of the reconstructed root, i.e. whether they posit an initial t d fol-
On the question of the migration of borrowings from C zech through Polish to E ast
S lavic, see S chenker 1978: 579-580.
9 A more detailed survey may be found in Melnycuk 1975: 47-48.
lowed by or 6 . In other words, from which of the four possible shapes
of the root is dbati derived: tbb-, tbb-, dbb-, or db-
As it turns out, the only scholar who assumes the shape tbb- is
Gebauer (1894: 324); he does not, however, provide any etymological
explanation for it. Bruckner (1927: 8 6 ) opts for tbb- which he hesitantly
connects with Pol. wcibia si poke, meddle. Vaillant (1954: 175-176
and 1966: 358) chooses dbb- which he derives from the negated verb
djati do, occupy oneself whose truncated root followed by the suffix
-bba would presumably yield nedbba lack of concern. The remaining
scholars show preference for dbb-: Miklosich (1886: 53) connects it with
* dybati whose many meanings in Slavic may be reduced to the com
mon semantic denominator of a swaying walk or a crouching position; 10
of Macheks two etymologies, the first one (1934: 66-70) connects dbati
with doba (propitious) time, the second one (1957a: 357-359) with Lat.
dub(it)are doubt; Sawski (1952-1956: 142-143) assumes a metathesis of
*bbdeti keep awake, be vigilant; 11 Trubaev accepted initially (1964:
486) Macheks second etymology but later (1967:56-57 and 1978: 172-
173) suggesed that dbati was borrowed into Slavic from Iranian citing
Av. dsba-, ibas-, dvas- be hostile, offend as possible source forms.
There is no need to restate here the arguments advanced by the
authors of each successive attempt against the efforts of their predeces
sors. Suffice it to say that of the seven solutions preferred, only one
may at best be correct. As a general comment one may note that, with
the exception of the etymologies by Briickner and Sawski, the semantic
developments posited appear strained to the utmost, quite apart from
their other shortcomings. Slawskis, solution, however, presupposes two
completely unverifiable and unlikely circumstances: (1) that in Common
Slavic there existed the unattested noun *bbda watch12 and (2) that
*bbda was metathesized to *dbba, despite the obvious ability of Slavic
to support the initial sequence bd in various derivatives of *bbdeti (cf.
Russ. bdet \ Cz. bditi, etc.).
Bruckners deri vati on of dbati from the root teb-/tbb- appears to
10 Miklosichs notions were adopted and developed by Melnycuk 1975: 46-55 and
S chuster-S ewc 1978: 145-146; their contribution is discussed in Part 4, below.
11 S lawskis etymology was accepted by R udnyckyj 1962-.
12 A metathesis of bbdeti should have yielded dbbeti rather than dbbati.
UKR. DBA T Y REVI SI TED
283
satisfy both the formal and semantic requirements Its chief drawback is
the absence of any reflexes of this root in literary Czech. 13 It is nonethe
less attractive because it provides a phonetic explanation for the soft
dental in LSorb. dba/ dba pay attention, USorb. kedba attention
and Lach dba care 14 which, otherwise, has to be attributed to expres
sive palatalization (Schuster-ewc 1975: 146). It furnishes also a pho
netic confirmation of the assumption that Pol. dba is a Bohemianism,
since Czech depalatalizes the sequences dental +front jer, whereas Pol
ish and East Slavic preserve the softness (cf. *svatbba wedding > Cz.
svatba, OPol. swadba, Russ, svadba).
There are also good reasons to concur with Briiekners reconstruction
of / as the initial phoneme of the root. The oldest recorded forms of the
verb under consideration occur, as expected, in Old Czech and are usu
ally spelled there with the initial t. Thus, in the writings of J an Hus and
Tom ze ttnho only t occurs. In the Alexandreis two spelling tradi
tions can be observed: the Svatovtsk fragment ases mainly d but the
other fragments (J indichohradeck, Vdesk, Budjovickomusejni)
have t only. As a matter of fact, t spellings were so common in Old
Czech that modern dictionaries and glossaries use them in the head
words for the tbtildbti entries. Since the assimilation as to voicing
(i.e. tb > db) had certainly become a fact of Old Czech pronunciation
by the fourteenth century, 15 the spellings which go against this pronunci
ation must be attributed to one of four circumstances:
(a) preservation of the uniformity of the stem in inflectional or deri
vational paradigms, e.g. OCz. jistba dwelling beca use of jisteb, jistebka\
(b) the letter representing the voiceless phoneme has no voiced coun
terpart, e.g. OCz. kde where, bn jug;
(c) a spelling tradition going back to the time prior to the loss of the
jers, e.g. OCz. pzdieti break wind < *pbzdeti, ModCz. bzditi; OCz.
sdrav < *sbdorvbjb, ModCz. zdrav;
13 With a possible exception of C z. vtip joke; cf. also S k. stibat press, drive; see
Machek 1957b: 472 and 577 and cf. S awski 1952-1956: 158.
L ach d(%)< *d + front vowel is often recorded by Polish dialectologists as / (%):
see D ejna 1953: 167.
15 C f. Jakobson (1925-1926: 813): V pamtkch 14. stol. je mnoho ppad psan zn
lch msto neznlch ped znlmi. K dy se v tch pamtkch p v takovch ppadech
neznl, je to zajist pravopisn tradice a nikoli kolsn ve vslovnos ti.
284
(d) hypercorrectness due to the writers desire to counter the fairly
recent rules of assimilation as to voicing, e.g. OCz. Pretbor instead of
the expected Predbor.Xb
Of these four explanations, the ones applicable in the case of OCz.
tbti are either the spelling tradition or hypercorrectness. To such histo
rians of Czech as Gebauer (1894: 324), Lehr-Spawiski (1957: 95-96),
Komrek (1962: 137), Lamprecht et al. (1977: 87) the shape tbti
appears to be older than dbti which implies, in turn, that the spelling
tbti is, in fact, traditional. I would agree with this judgment and con
clude that, since Briickners etymology is the only one which comes to
grips with the shape tbti, it provides at present the only viable solution
of the problem. All the laborious efforts of the etymologists to explain
the shape dbti appear to have been misdirected.
4. It is possible, however, that future research will prove this view to
be erroneous by showing that dbti is the older form and that the tb
spellings are due to hypercorrectness. In such an eventuality I would
agree with Melnycuk (1975: 46-55) and Schuster-ewc (1978: 145-146)
that the root dbb- might be explained as the zero grade of IE *dheub(h)-/
*dheup- hollow, deep; to hollow (out). This root is present in such
formations as Lith. dbti become hollow, duobti to hollow out; OCS.
dbbrb ravine, dbno ( < *dbbno) bottom, dupina hole, opening; Big.
ddbam bite, crunch, nibble; also, with a secondary softening of the
initial dental, Pol. (XVII c.) dziuba to hollow out; ModPol. dziba,
Cz. dubati pick, peck, etc. 17 However, the semantic development
posited by Melnycuk and Schuster-evc is, in my opinion, completely
unpersuasive. Melnycuk suggests that the original meaning to (make)
hollow evolved towards dig (in earth, snow) and look for something
underfoot which then split into (1 ) walk with the aim to find some
thing which, according to him, is the basic meaning of *dybatix%and
>6 C f. Jakobson (1925-1926: 813): ... nedokonal znalost [pravopisn] tradice nepod
porovan ivou vslovnost, mohla vsti k takovm hyperarchaismm jako je ... Pretbor
17 For cognates in other IE languages, see Walde-Pokorny 1930: 847-848.
18 Both Mnyuk and S chuster-S ewc follow Miklosichs notion that dbbati is related
to dybali. S urprisingly, however, S chuster-ewc makes this connection in discussing the entry
dba (1978: 144) but discards it in the entry dybas{\91%\ 189) explaining the latter verb as
onomatopoeic (a similar explanation is offered by S awski 1952-1956: 184).
UKR. DB T Y REVI SI TED 285
(2 ) acquire, collect be concerned, endeavor which leads to the meaning
of *dbbati. The semantic development envisioned by Schuster-ewc is
no less fanciful: schlagen, stossen > fein, leicht aufstossen (den Boden
berhren) > schleichen, auf etw. lauern > beachten, acht geben (> for
schen, ergrnden).
It seems to me that a much more satisfactory approach would be to
view *dbbati together with other Slavic verbs denoting picking, peck
ing, biting, tearing. These verbs may follow two paths of semantic
development. On the one hand, they produce names of sicknesses, wit
ness Russ, gra hernia < *gryz- bite; Russ, rvota nausea, Pol. rwa
sciatica < *- tear. On the other hand, they evolve towards the
notions care, concern, as in the case of Big. gra care < *gryz- bite;
Russ, zabota care < *zob- eat, peck. As Vasmer (1953: 437) puts it:
weil die Sorge frisst, zehrt. It is, therefore, significant that the root
*dbb- is present in Common Slavic *dbbna gout, arthritis known to us
from OCS. dbna, OCz. dna, Ukr. dna and a number of other Slavic
languages. 19 Thus, a semantic change from *dbba hollowing (out),
pecking to dba care would be consistent with observable patterns of
development of semantically similar roots.
Yale University
REFERENCES
Berneker, E., 1908-1913, Slavisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, vol. 1, Heidel
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Bruckner, A., 1927, Sownik etymologiczny jzyka polskiego, Cracow.
Bulyka, A. M., 1972, Danija zapazyanni belaruskaj movy, Minsk.
Bulyka, A. M. 1980, Leksinyja zapazyanni belatuskaj move X I V - X V I I I
stst., Minsk.
19 S ee T rubaev (1978: 173-174) for a detailed list. Berneker (1908-1913: 245) explains
*dbbna as a disease of deep, inner organs. In my view, however, it is a disease character
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biting, or gnawing pain.
Dejna, ., 1953, Polsko-laskie pogranicze jzykowe na terenie Polski, part 2,
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Wrocaw.
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R elies of U krainian-Polish C ontact:
Four C ases of E penthetic -/-
GERALD STONE
I
Certain Polish words in which -/- is thought to have replaced -j- in the
combinations pj , bj, mj, and vj have long been the subject of discussion.
According to a widely held view, words such as grobla dam, embank
ment ( *grobja) and kropla drop ( *kropja) embody vestiges of
a once widespread West Slavonic epenthetic -/-. The argument is com
plicated, however, by doubts as to whether the words adduced are truly
indigenous, for the epenthetic -/- in some Polish words may be best
explained as the result of borrowing from Ukrainian (or Belorussian),
i.e. from neighboring languages in which this feature is systematic.
Rozwadowski (1915:403-4) mentioned the possibility of Ukrainian1 in
fluence, but simultaneously treated it as improbable. Among the words
he dealt with are niemowl baby, budowla building, hodowla feeding,
rearing, and targowla trade. He suggested that the ending -l in nie
mowl might have been induced by the same ending as piskl chick (...
na niemowl mogo wpyn piskl itd.) and that formations like
budowla could not be borrowings since targowla was recorded in
fifteenth-century sources. (e twory jak budowla nie s wogle zapo
yczeniem z ruskiego, dowodem targowla, wystpujca ju w zabytkach
XV w.)
These same four words (niemowl, budowla, hodowla, and targowla)
have subsequently appeared frequently in the debate as to the authentic
1 T he word used by R ozwadowski (and other Polish scholars) was ruski. In accordance
with more recent convention I have here used the term U krainian. However, the possibil
ity of Belorussian having played some part in the processes under discussion, though
remote, should not be forgotten.
ity of vestigial epenthetic -/- in Polish. Trubetzkoj (1930:396-8) sup
ported Rozwadowskis view that the -l(t}- suffix in niemowl was the
same as that in piskl, but was in no doubt as to the East Slavonic
origin of budowla, hodowla and targowla. He specifically dismissed the
argument for regarding the relatively early attestation of targowla as
evidence of its native origin. A few years later, however, Lehr-Spawiski
(1937) reasserted the notion that targowla, since it is recorded in the
fifteenth century, must be a native formation and that therefore there is
no reason why budowla should not also be indigenous. This idea
stemmed from the once widespread assumption that lexical borrowing
from Ukrainian could not precede the sixteenth century, an assumption
called into question by Klich (1929) and finally dismissed by Shevelov
(1952), since when it has found no support. Things were taken to their
logical conclusion by Urbaczyk (1963:438) when he wrote: indeed,
contacts between the Polish and Ukrainian populations have existed
uninterrupted since time immemorial. In any case, regardless of the
chronology of Ukrainian-Polish contact, it is hard to see why the indi
genous origin of one word ending in -owla should preclude the possi
bility of others being borrowings.
Shevelovs article (1952:339) revived the idea that epenthetic -/- might
be a mark of East Slavonic origin and he included in his list of sus
pected Ukrainianisms the four words niemowl, budowla, hodowla, and
targowla. A critical examination of Shevelovs article made by Stru-
miski (1961), however, rejected these alleged borrowings apart from
hodowla. (Spord przytoczonych przez niego wyrazw rzeczywistym
ukrainizmem jest tylko hodowla) (1961:470). Meanwhile, the first
volume of Slawskis etymological dictionary (1952-6:423) had placed the
Ukrainian origin of hodowla beyond doubt, but had chosen to ignore
budowla. The volumes which might be expected to contain niemowl
and targowla had not, and still have not, yet appeared. The object of the
present deliberation is to re-examine all four words, including hodowla,
in an attempt to settle the question whether they are of Ukrainian or
indigenous origin.
In the article already mentioned (1952) Shevelov drew attention to the
difficulties involved in investigating Ukrainian lexical borrowings in
Polish so long as we have only an imperfect dictionary of the literary
language of ancient Rusi (Sreznevskij) and no dictionary at all of Old
REL I CS OF UK RAI NI -POL I SH CONTACT 291
Polish (1952:331). Since that time the lexicographical resources at our
disposal have been improved by the appearance of the first eight
volumes of the SStp (1953-81) (up to and including the letter S), the
first thirteen volumes of SIXVI (1966-81) (up to and including the word
miegotny), the first nine volumes of SRJ 1975-82) (up to and including
the letter M), and SStuM (1977-8) (complete). Full-length monographs
on Ukrainian borrowings in Polish have recently teen supplemented by
Minikowska (1980) and it may be thought significant, particularly in
view of the fact that the author had access not only to published
volumes of SStp and StXVI but also to the card indexes of materials
for volumes yet to appear, that this work contains no mention of nie
mowl,, budowla, hodowla, or targowla, nor any reference to epenthetic
-/- in the list of ten formal features capable of betraying East Slavonic
origin (1980:10). (My own research has been restricted to published
sources.)
II
NIEMOWL must clearly be separated from words ending in -owla.
The remarks of several commentators imply the assumption that nie
mowl has a history in Polish going back to the time (before written
records) when epenthetic -/- replaced -j- after labials. Thus Bruckner
(1927:360) under niemowl has: a wic mikkie i u nas nieraz w wl
si odmienio, jak to zawsze na Rusi i Bakanie bywa. Kuraszkiewicz
(1963:14) notes: W polskim jzyku mamy tylko lady / epentetycznego,
np. kropla, grobla, n i e m o w l Vasmer too was evidently in no doubt as
to the antiquity of niemowl, but pointed out that if (as appeared to be
assumed) niemowl was based on a present participle, then the latter
would have been *mblv and, lacking -y-, would not have provided the
requisite conditions to produce epenthetic -/-. He explained niemowl as
a diminutive formed from a hypothetical * (1935).
In fact, however, as we now know from SStp, . 5 (1965-9:200) the
form niemowl was not recorded before the sixteenth century. SStp, it is
true, does note (loc. cit.) two instances of a variant (or variants) without
-/-, viz. nyemowyotkem (inst. sing.) (translating infantulus in Queen
Zofias Bible) and nyemowyathko (translating infansa Polish gloss in
a Latin-German dictionary, c. 1500). But even in the sixteenth century,
it is evident that some writers either did not know or chose to ignore
exact Polish equivalents of infans. In the Psalter of Puawy (early 16th
cent.), for example, corresponding to the Latin Ex ore infantium et lac-
tantium perfecisti laudem... (Out of the mouth of babes and sucklings
hast thou ordained strength...) (Psalms 8:3), we find:Zu/t nyewynnych
y J jfczych zwyrzchowale chwal... (Psaterz Puawski... 1880). The
translation of the Psalter by Walenty Wrbel (1539) has: Z u/t niewyn-
nych dziatek y ie/zce /cych dokonae (y potwierdzie) chwa J w...
The first edition of Leopolitas Bible (1561) has: Z u/f maych dziatek y
kthore ieffce /3i przy pier/ich... Had any of the authors of these three
versions known and approved of niemowitko, they would surely have
used it.
Our suspicions that niemowitko was as yet not fully absorbed into
the lexical system are supported by Mczyski (1564), whose entry for
infans reads: Dziecie ktre ye/zcze mowie nie moe / niemowitko od
czechw wzite sowo. The likelihood of its having been borrowed
from Czech nemluvtko (and adapted morphologically) is increased
(pace Basaj and Siatkowski 1971:23) by several only partially adapted
forms (niemownitko) recorded in the sixteenth century. The Ukrainian
form ATKo(Berynda 1627) is a Polish borrowing, but this too has
undergone morphological adaptation, for it cannot possibly have been
borrowed before Ukr. a. A similar form () is also
recorded for Belorussian (Bulyka 1972:216).
Though missing from the first edition of Leopolitas Bible (1561) nie
mowitko is used in several other Bible translations, including the Rad
ziwi Bible (1563) (Calvinist), Wujeks Bible (1599) (Catholic) and the
Gdask Bible (1632) (Lutheran), and is recorded in most dictionaries
(Volckmar 1605; Cnapius 1621; Dasypodius 1642; Trotz 1744-7). How
ever, in the third edition of Leopolitas Bible (1577) at Psalms 8:3 we
find an innovation, viz: Z u/t niemowit... (I have not had access to
the second edition (1575), but it seems likely that the second and third
editions are identical.) This is the earliest case I have found of niemowi
(without an -/-) and, since it is a precise loan-translation of Lat. infans, I
think it likely that it was used here to bring the text closer to the Latin
original, in conformity with the general tendency of the second and
REL I CS OF UK RAI NI AN-POL I SH CONTACT 293
third editions (Urbaczyk 1978). Though a masculine form historically,
niemowi entered the same declension as dzieci ar d became neuter.
Variants containing -/- (i.e. niemowlt/co and niemowl) are found
only a few years later, viz. in Kochanowskis Psalter (Z u/f niemw-
ltek...) (1586 editionI have not had access to the first (1579) edition)
and Skargas ywoty witych (1579) (according to S1XVI, vol. 6:329)
(...dziatkom niemowltom Chrzeia/kim...). Niemowltko is given
in Szyrwids dictionary (1642), but it is not until Bandtkie (1806) that we
find niemowl in a Polish dictionary.
The foregoing evidence surely precludes the possibility of regarding
-/- in niemowl and niemowltko as a vestige of Proto-Slavonic epen
thetic -/-. But there remains the task of explaining how niemowi
niemowl and niemowitko ' niemowltko, and it would be difficult
to find a more likely area for such a development than those parts of the
Commonwealth where forms embodying epenthetic -/- were constantly
juxtaposed with forms lacking it, i.e. where Ukrainian and Polish were
in contact.
SStuM, being based only on fourteenth and fifteenth-century texts,
contains neither nor and i:he lack of historical
dictionaries for the centuries succeeding makes it impossible to tell when
they are first attested. Belorussian (without -/-) is found in an
early seventeenth-century source (Bulyka 1972:216), but I can find no
earlier attestations for either Belorussian or Ukrainian forms with -/-
than Piskunov (1882) () and elexovsxyj (1886) ().
There is every reason to believe, however, that the)' are much older than
this.
It seems likely that the forms with -/- arose as 1 he result of an auto
matic conversion formula (cf. Weinreich 1964:2). In bilingual conditions
such formulae, regardless of historical considerations, may cause the
extension of correspondences existing between words and morphemes
(Stone 1975:103-4), such as the correspondence between Ukr.
and Pol. mwi I speak, Ukr. and Pol. bawi I amuse, or Ukr.
and Pol. sprawia to bring about, cause. It must be con
ceded, however, that an unambiguous model for the conversion of nie
mowi to could only be provided by a present active participle.
Unfortunately for our theory, the extension of Ukr. epenthetic -/- to
294
participles, whether of the long (e.g. ) or short (gerund) type
(e.g. ), seems to have occurred no earlier than the mid-seventeenth
century (Shevelov 1979:505). Berynda has only (Didiakin-
Leeming 1969:78). On the other hand, the fact that Polish short partici
ples of the type mwi are not recorded after 1544 (Klemensiewicz et al.
1955:381) is no reason for thinking they were unknown to learned men,
including the inventor of niemowi, some thirty years later.
Essential to the case that Ukrainian borrowed these words from Pol
ish (and not vice versa) is the argument that they are essentially Polish,
being linked to the Western (Roman Catholic) tradition and invented
deliberately to translate Latin infans. (In the case of niemowitko the
translation took place when Czech acquired nemluvtko, the model for
which may have been infantulus rather than infans.) Their artificial,
literary nature is corroborated by their non-existence in Polish dialects,
attested by their absence from Karowicz (1900-11).
Support for the idea that niemowl acquired its -/- as a result of
Ukrainian interference is provided by modern dialectological evidence
in the form of Polish loan-words in West Ukrainian which have
acquired epenthetic -/- after labials: e.g. pluru (Pol. piro pen), pVon-
trujpVatru (Pol. pitro loft, attic) (Dzendzelivskyj 1973:20), but rela
tions between the two languages were for centuries so close that there
was often uncertainty as to what was Polish and what was Ukrainian.
The word ruski was ambiguous and sometimes referred not only to
Ukrainian but also to the Polish spoken in the eastern parts of the
Commonwealth (Zwoliski 1952:383). In these circumstances it is not
surprising that Polish words sometimes acquired Ukrainian features:
e.g. hoota rabble (formerly goota), synogarlica turtle-dove (formerly
sinogardlica), krynica fount, source (formerly krzynica). The acquisi
tion of -/- by niemowl and niemowitko is thus not without parallel.
Indeed, the mere belief that niemowi was of Ukrainian origin (not
unreasonable in view of the fact that it had no basis in the vernacular)
would have been sufficient to motivate the addition of -/-. At least one
case has been noted of an East Slavonic borrowing, viz. doroka cab,
which acquired an East Slavonic feature (pleophony) not present in the
original, viz. Russ, id. Consequently, the case for regarding
the -/- in niemowl as a product of Ukrainian interference is not
dependent on the assumption that existed before niemowi >
niemowl.
III
BUDOWLA is one of a group of five Polish words derived from ver
bal stems ending in -ow- by means of the suffix -j(a), viz. budowla
building, hodowla feeding, rearing, niemowla silence, targowla trade,
and zimowla winter quarters. Their literary, non-vernacular nature is
attested by their absence from Karowicz (1900-11). (The entry under
budowla in vol. 1 consists exclusively of examples of budowie and
budowia.) The SStp and StXVI contain no record of budowla, though
the verb budowa is attested since the fourteenth century. Budowla is
missing from all seventeenth-century dictionaries (Volckmar 1605, Cna-
pius 1621, Dasypodius 1642, Szyrwid 1642, and Cnapius 1683). The first
dictionary to include it is Bandtkie (1806), but it is also to be found in
Linde, vol. 1(1807). Bandtkie and Linde quote instances of its use by
eighteenth-century writers, beginning with Wojciech J akubowski
(1712-84).
Though not attested in the SStuM, Ukrainian is shown by
Tymenko (1930-2) to have been recorded twice in the seventeenth cen
tury (1625 and 1633). The late appearance of Pol. budowla thus pre
cludes the possibility of its being regarded as a Polish relic of Proto-
Slavonic epenthetic -/- and favours the likelihood o f its being a Ukrainian
borrowing. (The attempt to explain the Sorbian place-name Podelwitz
with the aid of a postulated Old Polish and Old Sorbian *budovla (pace
Eichler 1964:11) is therefore unsuccessful.)
HODOWLA is recorded in neither the SStp nor the S1XVI, but the
latter does note the corresponding verb hodovsac. Nor is hodowla
attested in any Polish dictionaries up to and including Linde (1807-14).
As shown by Doroszewski (1958-69) it is first recorded in the nineteenth
century. Ukr. is first recorded (as ) in 1472 (SStuM).
The Ukrainian origin of Pol. hodowla is thus well established on the
basis of both chronological and phonological criteria (h for Proto-Sl. g).
(Cf. Sawski 1952-6:423).
TARGOWLA does not exist in Modern Polish and even in Old Pol
ish appears to have been recorded only twice (so far as one can tell
pending the appearance of the relevant volumes of SStp and StXVI).
The two instances in question are in two sixteenth-century copies of a
fifteenth-century Polish translation (which has not survived) of the
Magdeburg Laws (Ortyle magdeburskie) (Reczek and Twardzik 1970:45
and 112). Both the original translation and the copies containing tar-
gowla were made in Eastern Galicia (Ru Czerwona). Targowla is not
recorded in Mczyski (1564) nor in any succeeding dictionary up to
and including Doroszewski (1958-69). In Ukrainian (later
) is well attested from 1370 onwards (SStuM). It occurs even
earlier in other East Slavonic sources (Sreznevskij 1893-1903). All the
evidence at present available indicates that Pol. targowla is a Ukrainian
borrowing recorded only in Eastern Galicia. It is consequently of no
value as evidence of the survival of Proto-Slavonic epenthetic -/- in
Polish.
IV
The mechanisms of interference involved in the creation of these
words are of various kinds: budowla and hodowla are loan-words
proper; targowla is a hybrid (part loan-translation, part loan-word);
only the -/- in niemowl has been borrowed. Finally, it cannot be denied
that Polish possesses a few words (kropla, grobla, etc.) which are indi
genous and which preserve original epenthetic -/-. Consequently, al
though the presence in a Polish word of this feature is bound to rouse
suspicion, it is not sufficient in itself to prove Ukrainian origin. In the
cases discussed above, however, Ukrainian interference can be demon
strated on the basis of other criteria.
Hertford College, Oxford
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U rbaczyk, S ., 1963, C harakterystyka staropolskich zapoycze wyrazowych z
jzyka ukraiskiego, Studia linguistica in honorem Thaddaei Lehr-
Spawinski, ed. T . Milewski et al., Warsaw, 43M4.
U rbaczyk, S ., 1978, L eopolita Jan, in Encyklopedia wiedzy o j z yku pols
kim, ed. S . U rbaczyk, Wrocaw-Warsaw-C racow-G dask, 177.
Vasmer, M., 1935, Poln. niemowl infans, Zeitschrift f r slavische Philologie,
12:120.
Volckmar, N., 1605, Dictionarium trium linguaram ..., D anzig.
Weinreich, U ., 1964, Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems, 3rd print
ing, L ondon-T he Hague-Paris.
Wrbel, W., 1539, Pfalteri Davidic :Zoltarz Dawidw, C racow.
Wujeks Bible, 1599, Biblia to iest Ksigi Starego y Nowego Testamentu ...,
C racow.
Zwoliski, P., 1952, Wypowiedzi gramatykw XVI . XVI I wieku o dialek-
tyzmach w wczesnej polszczynie, Pamitnik Literacki, 43:375-407.
elexovskyj, E ., 1886, - , L viv.
T he N ame of the L emkos
and of T heir T erritory
BOHDAN STRUMINSKY
A name similar to Lemko appears for the first time in scholarly litera
ture in J ovan Caplovics description of the Hungarian kingdom of 1829.
According to him, Hungarian Ruthenians were divided dialectologically
into Lissaki and Lemki, etc. 1 Those names were derived from the
words ly and lem, only (the latter being a loanword from the East
Slovak Iem), as was explained somewhat later, in 1846, by the Trans-
carpathian Ruthenian Andrij Desko: Among themselves horjany (high
landers) are called lyaky and dolynjany (lowlanders) are called lemaky,
after the byword ly or lem used by them in their language. 2 Since the
Slovak element has spread in Transcarpathia along river valleys for cen
turies, leaving the mountains to Ruthenians, linking the lem with low
lands (i.e., river valleys) in 1846 sounds probable. Some confusion is
created by information coming from another Transcarpathian Ruthe
nian, Ivan Fogoraij, in 1827, that Ruthenians in Berehovo county
(Bereg megye) are called lyaky by others, 3 because Berehovo county
was made up by both lowlands (in the south) and mountains (in the
north).
1 Johann von C saplovics, Gemlde von Ungern, pt. 1 (Pest, 1829), p. 205.
2 A ndrej N. D esko, O K arpatskoj R usi (written in 1846), Kievljanin, book 3 (Mos
cow, 1850), p. 27. T he same thing is repeated in: Mixail L evenko, Msta itstva
mestnye nazvanija rusinov v nastojaee vremja, Osnova (S t. Petersburg, 1861), January,
p. 265; Borys Hrinenko, Slovarukrajins'koji movy (K iev, 1908), II, 354. T he derivation
of the names lemak and lemko from lem was already known before 1841, see Jan Wagile-
wicz, emkimieszkacy zachodniego wzgrza Karpat (L viv, 1841), manuscript published
in an U krainian translation by I van K rasovskyj, L emky-mekanci Zaxidnoho Prykarpat-
tja, Narodna tvoris ta etnohrafija (K iev, 1985), no. 4, 77.
3 Yvan Fohoraij (Bereanyn), V obe o razlyiy slavjanskyx nariij, sobstvenno
e o malo j K arpato yly U hrorusskyx, printed in: I larion S . S vencickij, Materiay po
istorii vozrodenija Karpatskoj Rusi (L viv, 1905), I, 50.
But it is possible that lem had not yet conquered the lowlands of Bere-
hovo county at that time. Nowadays the whole former Berehovo county
has a lem-dialect and so do all mountainous areas west of it, as can be
seen on our map which has been compiled on the basis of J osyf Dzen-
dzelivskyjs atlas of 1958.4
From 1831 on, the Galician variant of the name lemak, namely
lemko, has also been attested to. It appeared in the grammar of the
Ruthenian language by J osyf Levyckyj (published in Peremyl-Prze-
myl), in the plural form lemky.5 The change of the suffix from -ak to
-ko can be easily explained by assuming that, in Galicia, this name
entered a different binary opposition than in Transcarpathia, namely it
became part of the pair of names of two neighboring groups of high
landers, bojky and lemky (singular bojko and lemko).
In 1837 Pavel afak proposed the linkage of the name of Lemkos
which he had learned from Levyckyjs grammar with the Sarmatian
tribe residing in eastern Pannonia since the first century A.D., Limi-
gantes: If the name Limigantes represents a compound Limi-gantes,
which is more likely (cf. Arcara-gantes), then I would think that it is
related to the name of the Ruthenian Lemkos (lemky in Ruthenian) in
the Nowy Scz (Novyj San) district of Galicia. 6 This etymology was
supported by some Galician Ruthenian scholars, such as Ivan Vahy-
evy (1841) and Isydor aranevy (1870),7 and there are still some
members of the Ukrainian emigre community who opt for this romantic
but completely unacceptable etymology.
In 1843 J akiv Holovackyj noted that the names bojky and lemky are
4 Josyf D zendzelivskyj, Lingvistynyj atlas ukrajinskvx narodnvx hovoriv Zakar-
p a t s koji oh last y URSR (Leksyka), pt. 1, N aukov zapysky of U horod U niversity, vol.
34 (U horod, 1958), map -1 and 117. A similar scope of lem in Ivan Pankevyc, Ukraj-
ins'ki hovory Pidkarpatskoji Rusy i sumenyx ohlastej, pt. 1, K nihovna S boru pro vz
kum S lovenska a Podkarpatsk R usi pi S lovenskm stavu v Praze, no. 9 (Prague,
1938), map 4.
5 Josef L ewicki, Grammatik der ruthenischen oder kleinrussischen Sprache in Galizien
(Przemyl, 1834), foreword from 1831, p. - (quoted after Ivan Zilynskyj, Pytannja
pro lemkivsko-bojkivsku hranycju, Lud Sowiaski, vol. IV, fascicle 1 (C racow 1938)
pp. A 78-79).
Pavel Josif afak, Slovansk staroitnosti (Prague, 1837), p. 210.
7 Wagilewicz, the U krainian translation and I. K rasovskyjs commentary, pp. lb-11
(with a reference to the speech by I. aranevy at a teachers convention in L viv in 1870,
published in 1871 under the title Slovjansky naatky u sklonv Karpat').
THE NAME OF THE L EMKOS 303
mere nicknames by which Ruthenians of northern Galicia call their
brethren across the Dniester river [i.e., south of it] and in the moun
tains. ... They do not give themselves those names however. 8
The Polish ethnographer, Tadeusz uliski, found the name lemko in
1877 even somewhat east of the easternmost border of Lemkos, namely
east of the upper Sjan (San) river, in the area of the so-called Wal-
lachian villages of Litovye (Lutowiska), Skorodne, Poljana and Ro-
soxate in the then Sjanik (Sanok) county. He gave that name with a still
not depalatalized /, i.e., closer to the Slovak source. 9 (In modern Polish
the depalatalized form emko has been adopted in imitation of the
modern Ukrainian pronunciation; cf. Lemki already in Vahylevycs Pol
ish essay of 1841see note 2).
In 1878 Holovackyj transferred the name lemko for the first time also
to some Ruthenian villages on the Hungarian side of the border: Their
[Lemkos] farthest settlements in the west are four villages across the
Poprad river: Sljaxtova (700 residents), Bila Voda (655), Corna Voda
(363) and J avirky (715), opposite to which there are populous villages of
the same people on the southern slope [of the Carpathians]: Velykyj
Lypnyk (1284 residents), Filvarok (643), Litmanova (1036), Orjabyna
(1486), Kamjanka (2337) and other villages. In a footnote to this,
Holovackyj added as examples some villages of the ari (Sros) and
Spi (Szpes) counties, with the dates of their foundation: Soljana Banja
8 J. F. Holovack, O halick a uhersk R usi, asopis eskho Museum, year 17,
fascicle I (Prague, 1843), p. 37. Cf. similar later statements: A leksj Y. T oronsk'ij,
R ousyn-L emky, Zorja halyckaja jako album na hod I860 (L viv), p. 398; I van Verx-
ratskyj, Pro hovor halyckyx lemkiv, Zbirnyk Filolohinoji sekciji N aukovoho T ovarystva
im. evenka, vol. V (L viv, 1902), p. 1 ; S eweryn U dziela, Ziemia emkowska przed p
wieczem: Zapiski i wspomnienia z lat 1888-1893, Prace etnograficzne, no. 1, Wydaw
nictwo Polskiego T owarzystwa L udoznawczego (L viv, 1934), p. 8; Volodymyr Bucackyj,
Lemky: Ukrajins'ke hirske plemja. Pobutovo-istorvcna monohrafija (Winnipeg, 1962), p.
17. T oronskyj added that L emkos called themselves Rusnaks only. T his word, older than
lemak and lemko, is already attested to in T ranscarpathia in 1701, in Obrona vrnomu
lku by Myxajlo A ndrella from Orosvyhovo near Mukaevo {Duxovno-polemieskiesoi-
nenija iereja Mixaila Orosvigovskogo Andrelly protiv katolicestva i unii, published by A .
Petrov [Prague, 1932], p. 106). N ow the word rusnak is spread throughout the U krainian
C is- and T ranscarpathia (S .B. Bernstein et al., Karpatskij dialektologiceskij atlas [Mos
cow, 1967], map 210).
4 T adeusz uliski, K ilka sw do etnografii T ucholcw i mieszkacw wsi wooskich
w ziemi sanockiej na podgrzu karpackim, Zbir Wiadomoci do Antropologii Krajowej,
vol. I (C racow, 1877), pt. I I I, p. 110.
THE NAME OF THE L EMKOS
305
(near Prjaiv), Blaiv and Nyni Repai (on the upper Torysa), J akubja-
ny (south of Stara Ljubovnja), Helcmanivci (Helcmanova, on the
Hnylec river), Stara Ves (?), Zdoba (near Sady on the lower Torysa),
Kuriv and (on the upper Toplja), Trojany (south of Bardijiv),
Orliv (on the Poprad) . 10 Not all of them are still Ruthenian (Ukrainian)
today. Thus Holovackyj extended the idea of Lemkos to the entire
western part of what modern scholarship considers to be the area of the
Lemkian dialects south of the Carpathians. He excluded the Makovycja
area.
In J evhenyj Zelexovskyjs dictionary of 1884 we see not only the
name lmko (narrowly defined after Omeljan Ohonovskyj, in plural, as
Ruthenians in the Low Beskyd and in the Spi county) and the adjec
tive lmkivskyj but also the name of the region: Lmkivyna.]]
Among Galician Lemkos themselves this name started to be accepted
from the beginning of the twentieth century under the influence of
regional journalists who published the journals Lemko (of Russian
orientation, in Lviv, Novyj Sane and Horlyci-Gorlice, 1911-1934), Na
lemko (consciously Ukrainian, in Lviv, 1933-1939) and emko (pro-
Polish and in the Polish alphabet, in Krynycja-Krynica, 1934-1939). The
same thing occurred in the emigration where such journals were publish
ed as Lemkovyna (Russian-oriented, in New York, 1922-1928) and
Lemko (a continuation of the previous one, 1928-1940). A political
manifestation of the adoption of the name lemky by those to whom it
referred was the proclamation of the ephemeral Lemkian Republic by
the Russian-oriented Ruthenian Council at Hladyiv in Horlyci county
in November 1918, after the collapse of Austro-Hungary. The fact that
the Lemkian Republic tried to unite with the Prjaiv (Eperjes, Preov)
region as part of Czechoslovakia shows a sense of unity with the south
ern Lemkos.
The ironic-pejorative shade of the name lemko and derivatives from it
not only evaporated but a regional pride even appeared in connection
10 Jakov F. G olovackij, Narodnye pesni Galickoj i Ugorskoj Rusi, pt. I ll, section 2
(Moscow, 1878), p. 727. Omeljan Ohonovskyj erroneously understood that Holovackyj
had limited the idea of L emkos south of the C arpathians to S pi alone (E mil Ogonowski,
Studien auf dem Gebiete der ruthenischen Sprache [L viv, 1880], p. 19).
11 Jevhenyj elexovskyj, Malorusko-nmeckyj slovar, vol. 1 (L viv, 1884), p. 401.
306
with this name. For example, the Galician Ukrainian J osyf Semlej
recorded the following statement by an old woman at Biljanka of Hor-
lyci county in 1932: V besidujete spilska, vaa besida panna, em
naa emkouska jest praudivo ruska (You speak the Polish way, your
speech is poor, only our Lemkian speech is genuinely Ruthenian) . 12
After the Second World War the name of the region Lemkovyna also
occurs among Lemkos (e.g., as a title of a poem by Ivan Rusenko from
Krasna in Korosno-Krosno county who died in I96013) and the name of
its inhabitants may appear in the form lemkoVjany {personally heard by
this writer from young Lemkos in Poland some time in the 1960s).
The Galician transformation of the Transcarpathian word lemak
started to be accepted also by the Transcarpathian intelligentsia from
the 1880s. In the Foreword to his dictionary of 1883 Volodyslav
Copej said: The mountainous dialect [of the language of Little Rus] is
spoken by Boykos, Lemkos (Lemaks) and Hutsuls and the mixture of
these three peoples yields the Ruthenian language in the Hungarian
borderland. 14
In the twentieth century the word lemko and its derivatives have been
spreading also among the rural population south of the Beskyd moun
tains. For example, Hanna Nakonena and J aroslav Rudnyckyj re
corded (probably in 1939)at Kaminka(Kamjanka) on the Poprad river,
in the Spy region, the following statement: To sut fstk lemkuusk
sela, de po-lemkusk hvarjat (All these are Lemkian villages where
the speech is Lemkian) but in the very next sentence older, traditional
terms were used: Tu jezd hranyca mendi rusinami j rusnakami i slova-
kami (The border between Ruthenians or Rusnaks and Slovaks is
here) . 15 In light of this the categorical assertion by Georgij Gerovskij in
12 Jzef S zemej. Z bada nad gwar emkowsk, Lud Sowiaski, vol. II I, fasc. 2
(1934), p. 175.
13 Karpatorusskyj kalendar Lemko-Sojuza: 1965 (Yonkers, N .Y., 1964), p. 108.
14 L aslov opej, Rus'ko-madjars'kyj slovar'(Budapest, 1883), p. XXI I I ; also the entry
lemko a rutn np egy faja (a tribe of the R uthenian nation) with etymology (from lem
= csak only).
15 Hanna N akonetschna, Jaroslau R udnyckyj, Ukrainische Mundarten: Sdkarpatisch
(Lemkisch, Bojkisch undHuzulisch), A rbeiten aus dem I nstitut fr L autforschung an der
U niversitt Berlin, no. 9 (Berlin, 1940), p. 31.
THE NAME OF THE L EMKOS 307
1948This name / lemkoj does not exist on the sourthern slopes of the
Carpathian mountains16is not very credible.
In 1945, on the wave of the Ukrainianization of Ruthenians of the
Prjaiv region the new authority found it necessary to express an official
dissociation from the name lemko along with the older names, rusyn
and rusnak : The delegates of the Ukrainian districts of the Prjaiv
region, at their first convention which took place in Prjaiv on March 1,
1945, stated with complete openness and clarity that the appellation of
Rusnaks, Lemkos and Rusyns as Ukrainians was permanently adopted
for the future (all of this Ukrainianization statement was formulated
in .. Russian) . 17 But in 1968, in the period of the Prague Spring, the
Prjasiv poet Ivan Macynskyj turned again to the regional name lemko
in order to emphasize his solidarity with a related population across the
border: 1am a Lemko, just as you are, grandma from Komana. 18
Harvard University
16 G eorgij G erovskij, N arodnaja re Prjaeviny, Prjasevina:Istoriko-literaturnyj
sbornk (Prague, 1948), p. 96.
17 N a perelome, Prjaevina, published by the U krainian Peoples C ouncil, year 1
(Prjaiv, 1945), March 18, p. I . (I am grateful to D r. Josyf S irka for drawing my attention
to this source).
IK Ivan Macynskyj, Prystritnykv (Prjaiv, 1968), p. 134.
L inguistic I nnovation and the L iving
L anguage in Oles Honcars Sobor
(Nouns and Adjectives)
VICTOR SWOBODA
Few literary works of the last two decades have produced such reper
cussions as Oles Honcars Sobor (The Cathedral). Now that the novel is
receding into history, it may be suitable to take a fresh look at it from
the perspective of fifteenor indeed twentyyears.
There are a number of points relating to the novel that have appar
ently been ignored by critics and scholars in discussing it, which is not
surprising given its unusual fate; among them are the date of its writing,
the relationship between its different versions, and an evaluation of its
language. The present essay will address itself chiefly to the latter ques
tion, though this occasion will serve to recapitulate the most important
points relating to the novels history.
First, the date of Sobor as given on its last page, 1963-1967, is
rather unusual in terms of years it spans. Could its writing have taken
all that time? Since one of the characters says in Chapter 19 (that is, not
very far from the end of the novel which has 26 chapters in all),
...today, in the year of our Lord [nineteen] sixty-three. . . , 1 it is tempt
ing to surmise that the first nineteen chapters were written in 1963, and
possibly even also the remaining seven. Did Honar submit Sobor for
publication in 1963? If he did, its rejection at that time would have not
1 Oles Honar, Sobor: Roman (S eries R omany povisti), K iev, D nipro, 1968,
reprinted in facsimile by S moloskyp, Baltimore & T oronto, 968, p. 170. A ll references
to the text of Sobor by means of a figure alone will indicate pages of the D nipro/ S mo-
loskyp edition; references preceded by V are to the pages of the journal version, Vitcvzna,
K iev, 1968, no. I.
been unexpected, given Khrushchevs vigorous anti-religious drive which
was accompanied by the destruction of many churches, especially since
Sobor's main thrust is directed against just such destruction. 2 In 1967, in
any case, it was accepted for publication by two publishing houses and a
journal; in J anuary 1968 it appeared both in a paperback edition of
100,000 copies published by Dnipro and in the journal Vityzna with
a run of 19,000 copies. Some two or three months later the first 25,000
run of a hardback edition was printed by the Radjanskyj pysmennyk
publishing house, the total number of copies for this edition having
been announced as being 115,000. These high figures were, in fact, sim
ilar to those of the editions of Honcars previously published novels.
This is not surprising, as he had been the First Secretary or Chairman
of the Writers Union of the Ukraine (both being the Unions highest
offices at different times) for a decade, and was a member of the Central
Committee of the Communist Party of the Ukraine and an alternate
member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union. A much decorated writer, Honar received two Orders of
Lenin, and four State Prizes. His novels regularly enjoyed official
acclaim. In the beginning Sobor was no exception, and was greeted with
unadulterated praise, both in Kiev and in the provinces, chiefly in the
periodicals of the industrial southeast, since the setting of the novel is
transparently the Dnipropetrovsk area. 3 Within less than four months
after its publication, Party ideologists realized that the novel was ideo
logically faulty: it reverted back to the old Ukrainian, Cossack tradi
2 A part from the main plot, there is a reference to an old Hucul church having been
destroyed recently (116), as well as to earlier S oviet instances of the destruction of
famous ancient churches (84-5, 115, 117).
1 Sobor was reviewed in K iev periodicals by: Marharyta Malynovska in Literaturna
Ukrajina, January 19; V. Pjanov, Robitnya hazeta, February 22; O. D jaenko, Druh
yt , February 27; V. I vanysenko, Vitcvzna, no. 4, pp. 139-148. R eviews in provincial
papers: V. Vlasenko and S. Burlakov, Prapor junosti (D nipropetrovsk), February 13; O.
Hani, Komsomolec' Zaporija, March 8; in R ussian-language papers: I. Belogub,
Luganskaja pravda, February 14; P. S ymonenko, industrial'noe Zaporoze, February 18.
(A ll 1968.) A mong other favourable reviews there was one in the D nipropetrovsk paper
Zorja and another in the local paper of the nearby town of Marhanets, according to Lyst
tvoroji rnolodi D nipropetrovskoho, Suasnis , no. 2, 1969, pp. 78-79; for a summary of
this document, and some additional information on Sobor, see Peter R eddaway, Uncen
sored Russia (L ondon: Jonathan C ape, 1972), pp. 291-94, 467-68.
I N N OVA T I ON A N D L I VI N G L A N G U A G E I N SOBOR
311
tion, idealized the Zaporoian Sic as the Christian Cossack Republic
(this was in fact a definition quoted from Marx, which made things
somewhat awkward for the same Party ideologists), neglected the class
approach, and employed a cathedral built by Cossacks as a symbol
linking the past and the present. This turnabout in the Party line
occurred exactly at the time of Honcars jubilee. A glowing tribute to
Sobor had appeared in Literaturna Ukrajina five days before this
event, 4 and on the eve of his fiftieth birthday more than a half of the
center spread of the papers following issue was devoted to him, 5 Sobor
still being mentioned with approval. The next evening, on April 3, 1968,
there was a festive soire in the Grand Hall of the Kiev Conservatory
in Honcars honour at which Leonid Novyenko read a paper on Hon
cars work. It is impossible to conclude from the brief and fragmentary
account of the paper included in the published report of the soire6
whether Sobor was mentioned; but in his speech of thanks (to which the
same report devoted only six lines, but whose full text appeared in
samizdat7) Honar revealed that he had learnt about moves to pin a
label, in the style of Stalins times, on Sobor, and defiantly declared: I
regard this work as being no less patriotic than Praporonosci.... J ust as
all my previous works, Sobor was written from Leninist and interna
tionalist perspectives. These words were greeted, according to the
samizdat transcript, with a storm of prolonged applause. 8 Meanwhile
in the Dnipropetrovsk daily Zorja a lambasting aniele, complete with a
workers signature, entitled I See Life Differently, appeared three days
after Honcars birthday, 9 to be followed by several others published in
various cities. Because of a certain delay in the announcement of the
new Party line on Sobor to other provincial editors and censors, a week
later another favourable review was published in the city of Luck. 10
4 O. L upij, S obory dus ljudskyx, Literaturna Ukrajina, March 29, 1968.
5 S even items in Literaturna Ukrajina, A pril 2, 1968, pp. 2-3, and one on p. 4.
6 M. udrja and O. D mytrenko, ervonoho yta kolos, Literaturna Ukrajina, A pril
5, 1968.
7 Oies Honar, S lovo na veori 3 kvitnja 1968 roku, Journal of Ukrainian Graduate
Studies, no. I (1976), pp. 48-50.
8 Honar, S lovo..., p. 49.
9 H. D ihtjarenko, Ja bau yttja ne takm, Zorja, A pril 6, 1968.
I() I. S irak, Z yrot zyttja, Radjans'ka Volvn \ A pril 13, 1968.
312
Subsequent attacks appeared in Kiev and even in Moscow. 11
As a consequence, the rest of the hardback edition was never printed;
but Sobor's popularity among its readers was undiminished. A Russian
translation appeared in samizdat, and a Polish translationwithout
commentary or introductionwas printed in Warsaw by the State Pub
lishing Institute in early 1972. (So far, a translation into German
remains the one and only complete rendering into a Western langua
ge. ) 12 The press campaign against Sobor died down within ten weeks.
But there were other repercussions, notably in Dnipropetrovsk, where
several people who refused to accept the new April Party line and
defended Sobor paid for this by losing their jobs and being expelled
from, or penalized by, the Party or the Communist Y outh League. The
author of an anonymous samizdat document detailing these facts was
traced and imprisoned for four and a half years. 13 The book itself was
withdrawn from sale and from libraries, and was no longer mentioned
in print except in certain bibliographical contexts. But it was criticized
at least twice in the same year at Party meetings of Kiev writers: on
April 29, when Novyenko parried the criticism with an admonition
that it was possible to have different attitudes to Sobor [viz., also
favourable ones] , 14 and on December 16, when Honar had a chance
to reassert that he had written it with the patriotic feelings of a Soviet
writer. 15 In 1971, Honar lost his chairmanship of the Writers Union
of the Ukraine.
11 M. Juruk and F. L ebedenko, Pered lycem dijsnosti, Radjans'ka Ukrajina, A pril
26, 1968; M. S amota, R ealizm i pouttja istoriji, Radjans'ka Ukrajina, May 16, 1968; N.
Fed\ D ostoinstvo iskusstva, Izvestija, June 13, 1968, and A . U lanovs article in Sovets-
kaja kuVtura, June 4, 1968. Je. S verstjuks polemic against Sobor's detractors which circu
lated in samizdat is included in his Clandestine Essays, trans. G. S . N . L uckyj (C ambridge,
Mass.: U krainian A cademic Press, 1976).
12 T he R ussian samizdat translation is by R oman R ozentaP; Oe Honczar, Sobr,
trans. K. T ruchanowski (Warsaw: Pastwowy I nstytut Wydawniczy, 1972); Olesj Hont-
schar, Der Dom von Satschipljanka: Roman, trans. E lisabeth K ottmeier and E. G. K os-
tetzky (Hamburg: Hoffmann und C ampe, 1970). A translation by Marta Olynyk of C hap
ters 8 and 9 is found in Journal of Ukrainian Graduate Studies, no. 1 (1976), pp. 51-61,
and A N ote on Oles Honchar is ibid., pp. 45-47.
11 Lyst tvorcoji ... , pp. 78-85; R eddaway, Uncensored Russia, pp. 292-94, 467-68.
14 I dejna zhurtovanis , bojov nastupalnist. Zbory pysmennykiv-komunistiv m. Kyj
eva, Literaturna Ukrajina, May 7, 1968.
15 Zbory pysmennykiv-komunistiv m. K yjeva, Literaturna Ukrajina, D ecember 20,
1968; N a peredovi rubei sucasnosti! Iz zvitno-vybornyx zboriv pysmennykiv-komunistiv
K yjeva, Literaturna Ukrajina, D ecember 27, 1968.
I NNOVATI ON AND LI VI NG L ANGUAGE I N SOBOR 313
About a decade after its imposition, the ban on Sobor was broken by
a literary critic who, while discussing Honcars mastery in drawing
characters in several of his novels, also devoted a good page to three
characters from Sobor; the editors and/or the censor must have been
misled by the subterfuge of not mentioning the title Sobor in the text
of the article. 16 Marharyta Malynovska (cf. footnote 3 above) also suc
ceeded in breaking the ban by having her article published outside the
Ukraine, in the Leningrad monthly Neva in J anuary 1972, but she was
rebuked the following month in an editorial article of the Kiev academic
journal Radjans'ke literaturoznavstvo for consciously ignoring the just
criticism to which Honcars novel Sobor was submitted in the Party
press. Recently, the ban seems to have been eased somewhat: V. Mel-
nyk, while discussing the evolution of characters in Honcars work in
the February 1981 issue of the Kiev monthly Dnipro, mentions Sobor,
though only in passing; and in the December 1982 issue of the same
journal Honcars Russian translator, K. Grigorev, mentions Sobor in a
similar way; and it is referred to twice in an article on Honcars work in
Pysmennyky Radjanskoji Ukrajiny, XI, Kiev, 1984.
Returning to the problem of the different versions of Sobor, there are
at least two of them (the hardback edition was not available at the time
of writing this essay). At first glance it may seem that, since the Dni
pro edition (=D) is a page shorter than the Vityzna version (= V)
(the passage from FI 63 Do toho z ty rozvidna... until F164 Pid stat-
tju til'ky ne popadajs '... is absent in D: see top of 233), V is nearer to
Honcars original, while D has suffered censorship cuts. There is,
however, a converse case which shows that the situation is rather more
complex: the lines
:
, ... , ,
. 17 (238)
are absent in 168. It may be reasoned that Honcars original text con
16 [T he reference is withheld.]
17 Cf. Matthew xxi. 12, 13; Mark xi. 15-18; John ii. 13-16.
tained both the page found in FI 63-64 only and the three lines present
in D238 only, and that therefore the original text was cut independ
ently in preparation for the two publications, D and F. Are these two
cuts genuine censorship (viz. Glavlit) cuts? Not enough is known
about the details of Glavlit procedure, but it would be reasonable to
surmise that a work submitted at the same time for multiple publication
in the same city would normally be read by the censor only once, and,
having made any necessary cuts, he then would return it to each editor.
Therefore, where cuts disagree, as in the above case, some, if not all, of
them should be attributed to the respective editors rather than to the
censor. It would be possible to list further examples of the above type,
though usually on a smaller scale, but they would not serve to alter the
conclusion just arrived at. The important question for the purposes of
studying the writers language is, which of the published texts is nearer
to the authors original text.
It seems useful to compare examples where a word or phrase occurs
more than once in one version but corresponds to different words in the
other version, such as: po boku 62, F54, but poboku 181, do bisa FI 30;
durackyj 219, F155, but duraky 150, durni FI 10; voli-nevoli 94, F75,
but v oleju-nev oleju 220, xoe ne xoe Fl 55; bezkoneni 91, bezkineni
F73, but bezkoneni 136, 176, neskinenni F101, F127; sxmurjuvav
(brovenjata) 101, F79, but sxmury (brov) 11, zsupy F22. It may be
assumed that the author was consistent in his use of certain Russianisms
(cf. Russian poboku, durak j durackij, volej-nevolej) and rare or dialectal
words (bezkonenyj, sxmurjuvaty), and that the D editor left them all
unchanged while the F editor tried to replace them by Standard Ukrain
ian vocabulary but failed to do so in every instance. An opposite
hypothesis would be rather implausible. There are also several examples
of similar changes in words occurring only once, e.g. sobaky-iejky 85,
sobaky-ukai F69; vysokomirnyj blysk hetriv 167, bundjunyj blysk
krahiv F121, as well as various other improvements in spelling, style,
grammar, etc. In some instances living dialect words are supplanted in
F by standard spellings, e.g. zahuskla 157, zahusla FI 15 (<zahusnuty);
diva my 31, divatamy F35. On the other hand, there are also numer
ous errors in F where D is correct, e.g. Zasvystaly kozacenky 114,
Zsvit vstaly kozacenky F87; visimky 188, vismirky FI 34;prysikavsja
I N N OVA T I ON A N D L I VI N G L A N G U A G E I N SOBOR 315
224, prysiksja K157. It would seem that, by and large, the V editor
interfered with the authors original text more than the D editor, and
that the D text is thus nearer to the authors text; therefore it will be
used as the basic source.
The categories of Honcars vocabulary which are of greatest interest
are, of course, his neologisms, colloquialisms and dialectisms; a general
criterion for selecting them is their absence in the largest dictionary of
Literary Ukrainian to have been available at the time of Sobors writing,
viz. the six-volume Ukrajinsko-rosijskyj slovnyk, Kiev, AN URSR,
1953-63 (= URS), as well as in B. Hrincenkos Slovar ukrajinskoji
movy, Kiev, Kievskaja Starina, 1907-9. (Borrowings from other lan
guages are, on the whole, excluded from these categories.)
Suffixation will be the main means of word form ation examined here;
given the meaning of the suffix, the meaning of the new word can usu
ally be deduced from that of the suffix and of the root, if the latter
comes from a Literary Ukrainian word {viz. is found in URS). The
word from which the neologism or dialectism is derived is given in
brackets, preceded by <
MASCULINE NOUNS
Nouns designating male persons:
Suffix -ij (as in vodij): trusij 195 timid man (< trus).
-ak/-jak: f a l sak 6 8 (< f a l yvyj)\ blatnjak K164 (< blatnyj).
-yk: vijskovyk 104 soldier (=< vijskovyj).
-nyk, often forming nomina agentis: baraxolnyk 217 (=baraxolscyk
URS, with a Russian suffix); barykadnyk 118 fighter on barricades;
vidstavnyk 100, 105 (=vidstavnyj)\ vohnepalnyk 229 one using or
possessing firearms (< vohnepalnyj)', doskulnyk 1 1 2 (< doskulnyj)\
kazennyk 195 pen-pusher (intended to be archaic) (< kazennyj).
-juk: smahljuk 41 (< smahljavyj).
-anyn (-anyn): zavodanyn 28, 185 (< zavod); also fem. zavodanka
183.
-k(o), pejorative: bezbrovko 75 (< bezbrovyj)\ bezvirko 52 (< bezvir-
nyk)\ xmurko 1 0 1 (< xmuryty) in sydy xmurka xmuryt* he sits
and sulks.
-enk(o) the son of: attached to a Sovietism, vijskkomenko 102.
-ar: tyxar 181 quiet man (< tyxyj).
-a, nomen gentis, often pejorative (not the first example): kerma
165 (=< kermany)\ vymaha 78 extortionist (< vymahaty); pljun-
dral 11(< pljundruvaty)\ prydbava 140 (< prydbavaty); rujna 161,
172, 227, 228 (=rujinnyk, rujnivnyk; < rujnuvaty).
nomen agentis: rujnytel9 1(as rujna above); skvernyteV 238
(meant to be archaic) (< skvernyty).
-ec: pidtoptanec%%no longer a young man (<pidtoptanyj).
-an, augmentative/pejorative: mordan V 164 (=mordatyj\ < morda);
uban ' 164 (-ubatyj\ < ).
Inanimate nouns:
-ok, action or state: zmyhok ... cikavosti 207 flicker of interest (<
zmyhnty)\ prysmutok 200, 239 (reduced degree of smutok)\ roz-
stanok 131 (=< rozstavannja)\ videpok 112 splinter; (here) rene
gade (cf. videpenec).
-it (as in hrjukit), action: hrjakit 16, 74, 178 (= hrjukit; < hrjakaty);
zdvyhit 134 (= dvyhit).
Suffixless nouns, some derived from verbs: vyprob 93, 162 test (cf.
vproba); pereljask 57 echo(cf.vyljaskuvaty);perexop V93 (perexodu
124 is a misprint) overreaching oneself (< perexoplennja); z pry tan
cem projty 99 (=< prytancovuvaty).
-ok, -yk, diminutives: haji ta pidhajky 98; plesa ta zaplesky 98 (N. Sg.
pidhajok; zap le sokl); pidobidok 200 (=< pidobid)\ pryjmayk 195 (<
pryjma); makohonyk 1 1 1 (< makohin); nametyk 1 0 0 (< name ).
FEMININE NOUNS
Nouns designating female persons:
-k(a): bujanka 124, 143 (< bujan), najivnjaka 62 (<najivnyj, -na)\
nedotorkanka 62 { nedotorka\ < nedotorkanyj, -na)\ plitkarka 58
(< pli'tka); cvikavka 187 (< cvikaty)\ freely used with names of trades
and professions to designate female members of professions or wives
of members: alximika 55 (< alximik)\ zootexnika 37 (< zootexnik).
-ux(a), similar to -k(a); -ex(a), augmentative: koketuxa 83 (-koketka
URS)\ babexa 99 (-babeha).
-yc(ja): padalycja 166 (apparently =padljuka); vincenosycja 161 (to
masc. vincenosec); odnodumycja 139 (cf. odnodumnycja URS).
Collective nouns designating persons, mostly male, or animals; pejorative:
-v(a), -n(ja): xulihanva 9 (< xulihany); komarva 112 (<komari);
sofernja 35 (< ofry); malynja 214 (cf. malea).
Inanimate nouns:
Nouns in -a, designating actions or objects: benteha 46, 65, 196
(=benteennja); vy snaha 43 (-vysnaennja); zasmua 177 {-zasmue-
nist); ozloba 187 (-ozloblenist); oslavu pusty ty 36 defame (=osla-
vyty); nadsya 135 extreme force (< nad, syla); bajda 189 kind of
boat (cf. bajdak); mazuta 47 (usually mazut).
-b(a), -jav(a), -ec(a), abstract nouns: kajatba 84 (< kajattja); u-
bovsnjava 206 (repeated) plunging/diving (< ubovsnuty); pustea
85 (=poronea; < pustyj).
-k(a), -ck(a), concrete nouns derived from verbs: popojika 144 (<
popojisty); vbuvaka 2 2 footwear (< vbuvaty); vdjahaka 1 1 1 clo
thing (< vdjahaty); antena-trykaka 196 (< trykaty).
-ynk(a), -ivk(a): prydumynka 98 invention (< prydumaty); asfal-
tivka 94 (-asfaTtovana doroha); ni-kvitnivka 75 April night (<
kvit en).
-yn(a): mahanyna 1 1 0 prolonged whipping (< mahaty; mahan-
nja); namulyna 223 silted-up place (< namul).
-jak(a), augmentative and pejorative: koburjaka 162 (< kobura).
-n(ja), place of work: zbrojarnja 160 (=zbrojivnja; < zbrojar).
0 -suffix with the palatization of the final stem consonant: bezhomin9
206 (-bezhominnja); u rozpovni lita 98, 168 at the height of the
summer (N. Sg. rozpovew ? < roz-, povnyj).
-ist, abstract nouns from adjectives: bezdymnis 119 (< bezdymnyj);
zadymlenist 113 (< zadymlenyj); kradlyvis 144 stealthiness (cf.
kradkoma); nezrunis 238 (< nezrunyj)\ o b lup lernst9239 (< oblu-
plenyj); polihonnist 201 (< polihonnyj)', upokorenis 142 (-upo-
korennja).
-k(a), -yc(ja), diminutives: trybunka 24 (< trybuna); panamka 99 hat
(< panama); pyljuynka 16 speck of dust (< pyljuha); iskrycja 164
{-iskorka).
NOUNS OF COMMON GENDER
-jah(a), - juh(a), augmentative of the quality expressed: skromnjaha
181 (< skromnyj)\ esnjuha 108 (< esny/); tovsteznyj djadjuha 189
(the same suffix, but masc. only) (< djadja).
-ak(a), -jak(a), pejorative: hajdurjaka 6 (also augmentative) term of
abuse (presumably < hajduk); prydyraka 123 fault-finder (<
prydyratysja).
Nouns in -a: varakuty 6 , rozs oby 159 N. PI. terms of abuse; N. Sg.
presumably varakuta (< ?), rozstbba (< rozstobuvaty).
NEUTER NOUNS
-ja/-a, PI. -jat(a)/-at(a), diminutive, designating young persons of
either sex or young animals (examples in Pl.): remisnyata 9 (<
remisnyk); koljarata 1 (< koljaryk, koljaroka).
Nouns in -o, -yv(o): umo 50 crumpled mass (< umom, adverb);
jatryvo 3 blaze (< jatrytysja to be ablaze).
-stv(o), -ctv(o), abstract nouns: rujnactvo 159 (-rujnuvannja)\ lau-
reatstvo 97 (< laureat, laurats'kyj).
-nn(ja), -tt(ja) etc., chiefly abstract or collective nouns: dytjae alala-
kannja 2 1 (< *alala; *alalakaty\ cf. uljuljukaty, uljuljukannja); hij-
kannja pastuxiv 129 (cf. hejkannja)\ zljaskuvannja batohiv 129 (cf.
ljaskannja\ poljaskuvaty)\ pozyrkuvannja 108 (< pozyrkuvaty)\ pry-
proennja 185 (=pryprouvannja; < pryprosyty); pomukuvannja 129
(cf. mukannja); nepryvittja 30 (-nepryvitnist)\ bezpryjuttja 114 (<
bez, pryjut)\ brudne muttja 165 (cf. mattja); povnosyllja 168 (<
povnosylyj); pryzavoddja 178 (< pry, zvod); pidnyzzja nebesnoho
kupola 171 (< pid, nyz)\ potojbija 2 1 0 the other bank of the river
(< potojbinyj)\ korinjacja 2 1 0 (< *korinjaka (augmentative) <
korin)\ xymerja tinej 5 (< xymera); derev'ja 98 (cf. derevnja, URS).
-y(e), augmentative: bahrovya zavodski 48 (< bahrovyj)\ vyrya
206, vy rovy sea 230 (< vyr, vyruvannja)\ zahravysa 230 (< zahrav a)\
kuyrya 147 (< kuyr). (All examples are in PI.)
P L U R A L I A T A N T U M
-o(i), abstract nouns: brutalnoci 192 (< brutalnist); bujnoci 98,
236 (< bujnist); intymnoci 124 (< int y mnut ); tajnoci 175 (<
tajny j).
-yn(y), nouns designating rituals (cf. zaruyny, xrestyny): zustriyny
87 (< zustric).
My ) trenky-brenky 227 (onomatopoeic; <brenkannj).
COMPOUND NOUNS
Noun as the first element:
jukojid 57, 171 guzzler of poachers broth (cf. (jukojidy), o ...
svoju brakonjersk u jukuj i d j a 57); arkoljub 101 (< arka, Ijubyty;
cf. knyholjub); horkoder 159 (< horcok, Gen. horka, fer/y to
rob); zernovoz 172 grain-carrying lorry, student-zernovoz 175 (<
erno, cf. parovoz); ba koprodavec 56 (cf. xrystoprodavec\
ba kovbyvec); xmarosjah 118 (=xmaroos, xmarodrjap; < xmara,
sjahaty); skrakohoniv hanjaty 12 ? (< skraklP. hony ty; cf. vodohin,
Gen. vodohonu); vitrolamka 96 wind-break (<viter, lamaty\ cf.
kryholam); vplyvolohija 169 influenceology (< vplyv); kruhover
236, 237 (=kruhovorot)\ majster rukovyvertannja 9 ( - sambist; <
ruka, vyvertannja)\ verxohi ja 171 (< , hora; cf. pidhi ja).
Adjective as the first element:
fabzajec 13, 232 ( - fabzavunyk; a jocular compound: <fab(za)-,
zaje); oven-starodub 229 (< staryj, dub); dobroytok 1 (dobryj,
cf. proytok); strunkonohis 231 (< strunkyj, noha; cf. strun-
kostannyj); bujnolystja 5 (< bujnyj, lystja; cf. bujnoubyj).
Imperative as the first element:
hrajhomin 194 (< hraty, hornin); honyviterka 193 (=vitrohonka; <
honyty, v/rer, -/ca); propyjdua 72 (< propyty, du a).
Others:
prajednis 2 2 2 (< pra- (as in prmov etc.), jednist); ledruynnyk,
levo 78 (< /ze- (as in leprorok etc.), druynnyk, vod); napiv-
sutin 107 (< napiv-, sutin);dev,fjatyhlavr devjayhlavec 170having
nine cupolas (< dev'jat, hlava).
320
ADJ ECTIVES
-ov(yj), -ev(yj): rajonovyj 232 (-rajonnyj 232); taankovyj 156 ta-
anka driver; bahrjancevyj 237 (< bahrjanec); vodijevyj 234 (<
vodij).
-lyv(yj): hnitlyvyj 129, hnitlyvo 73 adv. (=hnitjuyj, hnitjue); prycin-
lyvyj 206 (< prycinjatysja); sjurkotlyvyj 1 (< sjurkotaty); kanjulyvi
klopoty 5 (kanjuyty).
-k(yj): arka usmika 153 (< arity to blush); avki polunyci 40 (<
avyty).
-sk(yj), -cTcyj): bdoljarskyj 106 (< bdoljar); vdovynskyj 148
(-udovyn); selyscanskyj 58 (=selynyj); fermivskyj 24 (< ferma);
ij ax tjans kyj 128 (< ljaxtjanka); zalibnyckyj 141 (< alibnyk);
mudreckyj 109 (< mudrec).
-n(yj): bezveseVnyj 229 (-bez vesel); bezzastupnyj 79 (< bez, zstup
n k defender); bezkoketne ... divcysko 175 (< bez, koketnyj); bez-
majetnyj 193 (< bez, majetnyj); koivnyj 8 8 , 92 (=koovyj); malaxoV-
nyj 37 mad; nadzaxidne sonce 189 (< nad, zaxid); pidkupolnyj 34
(< pid, kupol)\ rozvidna FI 63 (-rozvedena); spidlobnyj 108 (< spiY/-
loba, adv.). The following three are used as nouns (they designate
speciality restaurants): alyna 50, 69 (=alynja: a noun); -
recna 69 (< eburek); varenyna 173 (< vaenyky).
-(uv)at(yj), -ovyt(yj), indicating the possession of the object or quality
designated by the root: kvitka peljustkata 45 (< peljustka); komyu-
vate ozero 147 (< komys); lastuvatyj 100 (-lastatyj); voljovytyj 76
(=voljovyj); tjamkovytyj 89 (=tjamovytyj, tjamkyj).
-yst(yj), -jast(yj): barytonystyj 121 (=barytonovyj); ketjaystyj 5 (<
ketjah); medvjanystyj 4 (=medvjanyj); tumanystyj 46 (-tumannyj);
krapeljastyj 175 (=krapljastyj); ramenjastyj 211 (< ramena).
-ja(yj): janholjayj 34 {-janholynyj, jan hois kyj).
-uvat(yj) (diminished degree), -enT^yj), -isinl^yj), -ju(yj) (augmen
tative): dykuvatyj 95 (< dykyj); ohrjadkuvatyj 183 (<ohrjadnyj);
xyuvatyj 185 (< xyzyj); zlydennenkyj 144 (< zlydennyj); tverezisin-
kyj 124 (< tverezyj); kremeznjuyj 158 (< kremeznyj).
-(yj), -(yj), -l(yj), -t(yj), -n(yj), of participial origin: vereskuyj kryk
24 (=veresklyvyj); tovkue misto 118 (< tovkty); merextjui suzi ja
217 (-merextlyvi); palaxkotjue oblyja 77 (=palaxkotlyve); cf.
palaxke yttja 75; elestjuyj 82, 169 (=elestlyvyj, elestkyj); za-
huljayj 83, 84 (cf. zahuljaty, huljayj); propeklyy 108, K164 ( = z -
peklyj); perepytyj 125 (< perepytysja); katapuVtovanyj 172 (< kata-
p u l ta); nakolani brovy 39 (< kolaty); nakukani bazarjany 30
well-wrapped (?) marketeers (< * (na)kukaty(sja)); trudovlatovanyj
232 (cf. trudovlatuvannja); zapyljuenyj 50 (-zapylenyj); zistarenyj
141 (< z(i)staryty); zmyravlenyj 156 (-zmyravilyj); nabasurmlenyj
154 morose (cf. busurman); nabovdurenyj 155 (cf. bovdur block
head); naxnjuplenyj 145 (-poxnjuplenyj).
COMPOUND ADJ ECTIVES
Adjective as the first element:
iravovolosyj 230 (< iravyj, volos); bujnoubyj 226 (< bujny j , ub);
krutov'jazyj 124 (cf. v"jazyt a komir triy 123); nyz*kovjazyj 231
(cf. kruhla holova nyzko vsadena v pleci 230); vysokoyja 144 (fem.)
(cf. dovhoyjij); kistljavolycyj 159 (< kistljavyj, lyce)\ krutolobi bani
240 (< krutyj, lob)\ mudroole yttja 230 (< mudryj, colo)\ cupko-
rukyj 27 (< cupkyj tenacious, ruky); rjabookyj 162 (cf. rjabo-
krylyj); misjac zelenorohyj (< zelenyj, rohy); ervononeba ni 129 (<
ervonyj, nebo); nimopromovystyj pohljad 80 (< nimyj, promovys-
tyj). The following two are very loose combinations, not compounds
proper: sobor parusno-povnyj 240, koni prodano-obraeni 240.
Other first elements:
kinecsvitnij xaos 15, kinecsvitno 15 adv. (< kinec\ svit); potoj-
berenyj 46 (cf. potojbinyj, bereh); vsevlovljujuyj tranzystor 145 (<
vse, vlovljuvaty); dozavodski asy 3 (< do, zavodskyj).
An area of vocabulary and phraseology which is rather poorly repres
ented in Soviet lexicography is that belonging to certain specific seman
tic fields, some of them being virtually taboo. Although there are many
neologisms in this area, they are mostly not Honcars own, but he dis
plays here considerable lexical realism.
Some terms refer to recent Soviet history: kultovyk 108, being a syn
onym for stalinist 108, which is (for the negative character, Loboda J r)
322
tema ... kovzkuvata 108 a delicate subject (< kovzkyj) (cf. kovzkuvatyj
post 178 a sensitive position, here that of a beer vendor); otoenci 89
soldiers who had been in an enemy encirclement (< otoenyj)\ orno-
svytnyky 136, pidaky K101, ex-POWs, sent into battle again in civil
ian clothes, black jackets, where they were all killed.
Certain contemporary institutions, as a rule unmentionable elsewhere
and in dictionaries: zavod nomernyj; potova skrynka 68 a factory
referred to (only) by number; (an institution known only as) a P.O. Box
(the words can of course be found in dictionaries, but the specific mean
ings of the phrases are not given); rezymni tabory Kl64 (strict etc.)
regime camps, the return from which, more precisely from kolyms'ki
kraji 231, is described, in underworld slang, as povernennja zvidty, de
djudja 231. Though bezpasportnyj is recorded, the colloquial bezpa-
portna 39, 69 is not (nor do dictionaries hint at its Soviet period appli
cation); similarly the associated dovidka navidjizd 37 (from the collec
tive farm) and the more ominous pidpyska na nevyjizd 38. The local
militia agent, Spayxa, is described by Honar as kvartalna 50, though
dictionaries attribute kvartaVnyj as a police agent to pre-Revolutionary
times only.
References to the shadier areas of the economy produce some unre
corded vocabulary and phraseology. Collective farmers low earnings
are described as kopijanyj trudoden 27; doing something just for
show is pokazuxa 182; to be off from work with a doctors certificate
(probably malingering) is bjuletenyty 61; antykozjayj zakon 43, 51
makes it illegal for workers to keep goats. Honar finds it necessary to
spell out the special meaning of the word xaltura and gives some
examples of the work that may be involved:
, , ,
, ,
. (139)
... , ,
... (10)
(nadnormovyj overtime). Xaltura; xalturnyky 88, on the other hand,
seem to be used more in the dictionary meaning, hack-work. Other
terms for less legal economic activities: kalymnyk 233 who takes bribes
for providing services (e.g. TV repairs); kalym 123, private enterprise
earnings (here, of gypsies doing coal deliveries); abaka 139-41, some
thing pilfered from ones place of work, e.g. building materials, boards,
etc., nalivo zbuvaty 140, to dispose of something illegally, in the black
market. Unofficial culture gets a mention in virmenske radio 55, 88,
120 (or Radio Yerevan) with a story about maize on the Moon.
A number of vernacular terms relating to sex, which go unrecorded in
Soviet lexicography, are found in Sobor; they would seem to originate
largely in rural speech. One exception is skurvlena vincenosycja 161
(viz. Catherine II), used in Professor J avornyckyjs reported speech.
Another word derived from kurva whore is vykurvok 36 offspring of
a whore; near to it is xvojda 37 loose woman (IJRS knows only the
meaning slovenly woman). Davaty drozda 83 seems to mean to be
unfaithful (to ones husband). There are three phrases meaning to
deflower: rosu zbyty 37, 39; zirvaty vinok\ potoptaty barvinok vesn-
janyj 37; hence derives potoptanka 39 deflowered girl.
Naturalistic references to biological functions fare similarly: sprav-
yty malu nudu 67 to urinate; nunyk 5 latrine; also some jargon
words, like kumpol 164 head (nut); ekueka-merzavyk 106 (Russ.
merzavik bottle of vodka, 0.125 1in volume); zabihajlivka 30 a tav
ern (suitable for a quick drink) (< zabihty to drop in for a short time).
Finally, Honar uses some abbreviations which do not appear, as
abbreviations, in URS. The reason for avoiding socrealizm 97 {socialis-
tynyj realizm) must be that the abbreviation would be considered dis
respectful. Others, though they fit into colloquial usage, failed to get
into URS probably because of being rather rare in abbreviated form:
derkontro 106 (deravnyj kontrol); rajsud-rajmilicija 50 (rajonnyj
sud, rajonna milicija)\ psyxolikranja 233 {psyxiatrycna likarnja)\ rybins-
pektor 10 {inspektor rybnahljadu)\ kompracja 174 (komunistyna pracja)\
kompobut 203 {komunistynyj pobut).
* * *
It has now been demonstrated that Honar uses in Sobor a consider
able number of words unrecorded in the Ukrainian lexicography of the
day, even though material from only two parts of speech has been
examined. Of course, he used many more colloquialisms and dialectisms
than are mentioned in this essay, since all those found in URS have
been excluded; some of these are rare, while others are attested only
from the earlier works of Honar himself.
A good number of striking colloquial and dialectal words have been
found, such as vbuvaka, vdjahacka, varakuta, rozs oba, malaxoVnyj,
nakukanyf characteristically Ukrainian suffixes impart an emotion
laden raciness to familiar concepts, e.g. bezbrovko, bezvirko (used by
payxa to express her disdain; the standard bezvirnyk, on the con
trary, may be worn with pride by a convinced atheist), xulihanva,
ofernja, remisnyata, koljarata. Instead of the conventional rujinnyk/
rujnivnyk, the snappy, whipping rujna is used, or the rhetorical, invec
tive high-style rujnyteV. Similarly, videpok, formed from native ele
ments, hits harder than the distantly polysyllabic videpenec*. The same
may be said of bezpravstvo, rujnactvo which are more expressive than
the conventional bezpravnist\ bezpravj'a, rujnuvannja. Honar very
skillfully uses appropriate living prefixes and suffixes to convey fre
quency, reduced degree, etc.: mahanyna, pozyrkuvannja, tumany styj.
The specifically Ukrainian suffix -o(i) is well used, e.g. intymnoci.
Especially effective are the augmentative, reduced degree and diminutive
suffixes: koburjaka, kremeznjuyj, dykuvatyj, xyuvatyj, kovzkuvatyj,
trybunka, zlydennen \kyj, tverezisin *kyj. The use of a number of abstract
noun suffixes tends to produce a meditative or contemplative effect,
with words of the type of bezdymnist\ or even obluplenis . Often a
neologism can produce a tongue-in-cheek, ironic effect, as trudovlato-
vanyj. Most interesting and impressive are Honcars compound nouns
and adjectives, such as bujnolystja, mudroole (yttja), kinecsvitnij
(xaos), reminiscent of Sevcenkos lany yrokopoli.
It would seem that the language of Honcars other works, as well as
other aspects of his language, may well merit further study..
University o f London
S lav. *bystrica in A ppellativa
und N amen
J RGEN UDOLPH
Die Kritik an unserem Vorschlag, die ltesten Wohnsitze der Slaven
an den Nordhang der Karpaten zu legen1, sttzt sich im wesentlichen
auf zwei Argumente: einerseits wird der Verdacht geuert, die Auswahl
der Appellativa habe das Ergebnis beeinflut, andererseits wird darauf
hingewiesen, da Namen, denen Sumpfbezeichnungen zugrunde liegen,
gerade im Bergland besonders hufig sein mten. Beide Argumente
lassen sich widerlegen, wie wir mit unserem Beitrag zeigen mchten. O.
Kronsteiner2hat in der Rezension unserer Arbeit bemerkt: Es fehlen so
elementare Gewssernamen wie die aus bystr- ... gebildeten, die berall
Vorkommen und nachweislich auch sehr alt ... sind. Die Behandlung
der hier angesprochenen Namen haben auch E. Dickenmann3und S.
Rospond4vermit.
Fr den oben angesprochenen zweiten Kritikpunkt kann eine ue
rung H. Brauers5angefhrt werden: Im galizischen Gebiet knnen die
relativ wenigen Appellativa mit der Bedeutung Moor, Morast, Sumpf
fr die Namengebung ausreichen. In dem nordukrainischen (und sd
weirussischen) Sumpfgebiet des Pipjat wrden sie aber nicht ausrei
chen, da man nicht stndig nebeneinander Gewsser mit gleichem Na
men bezeichnen wrde ... In hnliche Richtung zielt O.N. Trubaev:
Delo v tom, to nominacija v jazyke voobe i v onomastike ... v ast-
nosti osnovana na markirovannosti (a ne banalnosti !) oboznaaemo-
1 J. U dolph, S tudien zu slavischen G ewssernamen und G ewsserbezeichnungen. E in
Beitrag zur Frage nach der U rheimat der S laven, Heidelberg 1979.
2 K ratylos 25(1980)173.
3 Onoma 14(1980)280-281 mit der Bemerkung: I m Polnischen ist Bystrzyca gelufig,
vgl. jedoch unten.
4 R ocznik S lawistyczny 42(1981)67 und 68.
5 Zeitschrift fr slavische Philologie 42(1981)207.
go .6. Wie vertragen sich diese Ansichten jedoch mit O. Kronsteiners
Bemerkung Da Namen mit ezero dort hufig sind, wo es viele Seen
gibt, ist wohl selbstverstndlich7und mit der Feststellung H. Walthers,
da bei der volkstmlichen Namengebung das Blickfeld in der Regel
lokal begrenzt ist, die Motivation sehr konkret rtlich und situationsbe
dingt, deshalb stehen diese Namen den Appellativen lngere Zeit recht
nahe, ehe sie in die lexikalische Isolierung geraten8?
Unser Beitrag verfolgt drei Ziele: einerseits soll anhand eines slavi
schen Wasserworts, das zu einem Lexem mit der Bedeutung schnell,
klar, rein, Wildbach, Giebach, reiendes Wasser (zu Einzelheiten s.u.)
gehrt, gezeigt werden, da die Verbreitung der hierzu gebildeten Namen
unserem Ansatz der ltesten slavischen Siedlungsgebiete nicht wider
spricht. Weiterhin soll gezeigt werden, da die hierzu gehrenden slavi
schen Namen vor allem in Gebirgsgegenden auftreten (und damit oben
zitierten Meinungen widersprechen, in Hgel- und Berggebieten seien
vor allem Namen zu erwarten, die auf Sumpfbezeichnung zurckgehen)
und schlielich wird zu erkennen sein, da es Gebiete in der slavischen
Toponymie gibt, wo es geradezu von * Bystrica-Namen wimmelt, und
die Benennung offensichtlich nicht zum Zwecke der Markierung ausge
gangen ist, sondern ein Name von einer sprachlichen Gemeinschaft aus
dem appellativischen Wortschatz heraus geschaffen wurde, ohne Rck
sicht auf einen in der Umgebung vielleicht schon bestehenden Namen.
Der Name Bystrica ist schon mehrfach behandelt worden, erwhnt
werden mssen zwei Beitrge, die auch eine Kartierung enthalten. So
hat O. Kronsteiner eine Untersuchung vorgelegt9, als deren Ergebnis
festgehalten wird: ... der Stamm *bystro in *Bystrica gehrt dem Wort
feld der Wasserwrter an. Wer versucht, die genaue Bedeutung anzu
geben, berschreitet daher die Grenzen der wissenschaftlichen Mglichkei
ten...10, mit anderen Worten: es lt sich keine genaue Bedeutung fr
6 E timologija 1980, Moskva 1982, S . 173.
7 A .a.O., S . 174.
8 N amenkundliche Beitrge zur S iedlungsgeschichte des S aale- und Mittelelbegebietes
bis zum E nde des 9. Jahrhunderts (= D eutsch-slawische Forschungen zur N amenkunde
und S iedlungsgeschichte, N r. 26), Berlin 1971, S . 50-51.
9 D er slawische Fluname Bystrica und seine Bedeutung, Wiener S lavistisches Jahrbuch
14(1967/68)83-87.
o E bda., S . 87.
S L A V. * BYSTRICA
327
den Zeitpunkt der Namengebung ermitteln. Diese Annahme ist jedoch
fr die slavische Frhzeit zu relativieren11, auch knnen wir die Verbrei
tungskarte O. Kronsteiners, die auf S. 87 seines Beitrages erscheint,
nicht akzeptieren. In ihr fehlen zahlreiche Namen, die fr die Beurtei
lung der Ausbreitung der i^/noz-Toponyme und damit der Verbrei
tung der Namengeber, d.h. der slavischen Sprecher, von groer Bedeu
tung sind. Zudem ist es O. Kronsteiner entgangen, da fr das
sdslavische Gebiet eine Zusammenstellung der vsir/ca-Namen einsch
lielich Kartierung von I. Duridanov vorliegt12, die eine Reihe von
Namen enthlt, die O. Kronsteiner nicht bercksichtigt hat. Leider
betrifft die von I. Duridanov vorgenommene Kartierung jedoch nur den
Bereich sdlich der Karpaten, fr die Frage, auf welchen Wegen13die
spteren Sdslaven ihre neuen Wohnsitze auf dem Balkan erreicht
haben, ist jedoch auch der Bereich nrdlich der Kar paten von Bedeutung.
Unsere eigene Kartierung, die wir als Karte 1 dieser Untersuchung
beigeben, enthlt folgende Namen:
Bystrica14 aus dem ostslavischen Sprachgebiet, Bystry ca/Bystry cja in
der Ukraine15, Bystrzyca aus Polen und den angrenzenden Gebieten16,
11 D ie E tymologie des zugrundeliegenden slavischen S tammes legt es sehr nahe, die
Bedeutung klar, lauter, rein fr sekundr zu erachten, vgl. unten mit A nmerkung 35.
12 in: S lavjanska filologija (Materiali za V. Medunaroden K ongres za S lavistite), Bd. 3,
S ofija 1963, S . 208-209 mit K arte.
13 J. U dolph, op. cit., S . 628-631.
14 Wrterbuch der russischen G ewssernamen, Bd. 1, BerlinWiesbaden 1961, S . 245-
246 und N achtrag, S . 76; R ussisches G eographisches N amenbuch, Bd. 1, Wiesbaden 1964,
S . 618; A .P. K orepanova, S lovotvori typy hidronimiv basejnu nynno D esny, K yv
1969, S . 61; G . P. S molickaja, G idronimija bassejna Oki, Moskva 1976, S . 101, 164, 225;
V.A . Zukevi, K ratkij toponimieskij slovar Belorussii, Minsk 1974, S . 42; Mikratapa-
nimija Belarusi, Minsk 1974, S . 36;
15 S lovnyk hidronimiv U krainy, K yv 1979, S . 50; S lovnyk staro-ukransko movy
XI V-XV st., Bd. 1, K yv 1977, S . 96-96 und 137.
16 Hydronimia Wisy, T . 1, Wroclaw usw. 1965, S . 57, 59, 128, 135, 159, 208, 279; S .
R ospond, S ownik nazw geograficznych Polski zachodniej i pnocnej, WrocawWarsza
wa 1951, S . 31; S . R ospond, S ownik etymologiczny nazw geograficznych lska, Bd. 1,
WarszawaWrocaw 1970, S . 133-134; S ownik G eograficzny. Bd. 1, Warszawa 1880, S .
241, 509-514 und Bd. 15, T . 1, S . 287-288; S zczegowy podzia dorzecza Odry i rzek
Przymorza, Warszawa 1949, S . 15 und 32; H. G rnowicz, Onomastica 20(1975)52; K .
R ymut, N azwy miast Polski, Wrocaw usw. 1980, S . 47; S . Hrabec, N azwy geograficzne
Huculszczyzny, K rakw 1950, S . 69; A . Orzechowska, N azwy miejscowe dawnego powia
tu pilzneskiego oraz prawobrzenej czci dawnych powiatw sandomierskiego i wi
lickiego, Wrocaw usw. 1975, S . 16; C z. K osyl, N azwy miejscowe dawnego wojewdztwa
lubelskiego, Wrocaw usw. 1978, S . 59; J. R iegerE . Wolnicz-Pawowska, N azwy rzeczne
dt. Weistritz17, Bystice, ung. Besztercey Slovak. Bystrica, dt. Bistritz,
Wistritz u.s.w. in der CSSR18, (Wilde, Rote) Weieritz im Elbegebiet19,
Pesterwitz20, zahlreiche Feistritz/ Bistr ica in sterreich und Slovenien21,
w dorzeczu Warty, Wrocaw usw. 1975, S . 28-29; M. L esiw, T erenowe nazwy wasne
L ubelszczyzny, L ublin 1972, S . 155; S . K ozierowski, Badania nazw topograficznych starej
Wielkopolski, Pozna 1939, S . 158; S . K ozierowski, Badania nazw topograficznych na
obszarze dawniej zachodniej i rodkowej Wielkopolski, Bd. 1, Pozna 1921, S . 92, S .
K ozierowski, Badania nazw topograficznych dzisiejszej archidiecezji poznaskiej, Bd. 2,
Pozna .1916, S . 543-544; S . K ozierowski, Badania nazw topograficznych dzisiejszej
archidiecezji gnienieskiej, Pozna 1914, S . 35 und 406; J. R udnyckyj, Heohrafini
nzvy Bojkivyny, Winnipeg 21962, S . 40; R . T rautmann, D ie E lb- und Ostseeslavischen
N amen, Bd. 2, Berlin 1949, S . 35.
17 K . Weinhold, Zeitschrift des Vereins fr G eschichte und A ltertumskunde S chlesiens
21(1887)272, S . R ospond, R ozprawy K omisji Jzykowej Wrocawskiego T owarzystwa
N aukowego 2(1959) 45, P. K lemenz, D ie Ortsnamen der G rafschaft G latz, sprachlich und
geschichtlich erklrt, Breslau 1933, S . 55; W. D emelt, S chlesischer Flurnamensammler
13/14(1937)103. Verfehlt: F. A lbert, G latzer Heimatbltter 22( 1936) 108f. und M. R ud
nicki, S lavia Occidentalis 7(1928)358 und Onomastica 3(1957)340.
18 B. C hromec, Mstopisn slovnk eskoslovensk R epubliky, Praha 21935, S . 62-63;
L. HoskR . rmek, Mstn jmna na Morav a ve S lezku, Bd. 1, Praha 1970, S . 138-
140; A . Profous, Mistni jmna v echch, Bd. 1, Praha 1947, S . 231-23 und Bd. 5, S . 142;
M. Majtn, N zvy obc na S lovensku za ostatnych dvesto rokov, Bratislava 1972, S . 83-
84, 322, 325; R . K riesch, D ie Ortsnamen des politischen Bezirkes K aaden, Phil. D iss. Prag
1939, S . 96-97; J. S kutil, Onomastica S lavogermanica 7(1973)177 und 9(1974)120; W.
D olak, D ie Ortsnamen des politischen Bezirkes Olmtz, Phil. D iss. Prag 1927, S . 89; A .
S edlek, S nka starch jmen, jak se nazvaly v echch reky, potoky, hory a lesy,
Praha 1920, S . 78, 91, 96, 101, 106, 107, 108, 110; I. L utterer, Vvoj mstnch jmen a
osdlen v povod Orlic, C hoce 1969, S . 187; E . R ichter, Ortsnamen und Besiedlung des
politischen Bezirkes Bischofteinitz, Phil. D iss. Prag 1936, S . 144; R . Bielka, D ie Orts- und
Flurnamen der Mhr. Walachei, Phil. D iss. Prag 1934, S . 31; S oubor (S bor) turistickch
map, Praha bzw. Bratislava 1966ff.; E . Hawelka, Zeitschrift des Vereins fr die G eschichte
Mhrens und S chlesiens 2(1898)78; W.v. U nwerth, Mitteilungen der S chlesischen G esell
schaft fr Volkskunde 9 (1907)105; M. Pohland, Mrkische S prachbltter 11(1935), H. 4,
S . 12; V. milauer, Vodopis starho S lovenska, PrahaBratislava 1932, S . 461; J. S tanis
lav, S lovensk juh v stredoveku, Bd. 2, T uriansk S v. Martin 1948, S . 53 und 92; P.
K nauth, D ie Flunamen des E rzgebirges, Freiberg 1935, S . 29; E . S chwarz, Zur N amen
forschung und S iedlungsgeschichte in den S udetenlndern, N achdruck Hildesheim 1975,
S . 45: E . S chwarz, D ie Ortsnamen der S udetenlnder als G eschichtsquelle, Mnchen 1961,
passim; F. R epp, K apathenland 12(1941/42)208.
19 M. Vasmer, S chriften zur slavischen A ltertumskunde und N amenkunde, Bd. 2,
BerlinWiesbaden 1971, S . 549; H. Petzold, D ie G ewssernamen des Flusystems der
E lbe in S achsen von S chnau bis Meien, T eil 2, D iss. L eipzig 1968, S . 358-359; H.
Walther, Beitrge zur N amenforschung 11(1960)56; A . Muka, asopis Macicy S erbskeje
78(1925)74; K . G ander, N iederlausitzer Mitteilungen 11(1910)145.
20 P. K nauth, a.a.O., S . 16.
21 J. Breu, G eographisches N amenbuch sterreichs, Wien 1975, S . 96-97; O. K ron-
steiner, Wrterbuch der G ewssernamen von sterreich, Wien 1971, S . 55-56; P. L essiak,
C arinthia I 112(1922)55, 81, 91; W. S teinhuser, Jahrbuch fr L andeskunde von N ieder-
S L A V. * BYSTRI CA 329
auch F i s t r i t z 22, Feis t r i z 23, Feist ri tzbach, -pach, -graben24, Wi s t r i t z 25 und
B i s t r i t z 26. Auch Bayern kennt einen Flurnamen F e i s t r i t z 21. Sehr zahl
reich ist das sdslavische Sprachgebiet an der Namenverbreitung betei
ligt, wie schon die hufigen Namen des slovenisch-sterreichischen
Gebietes deutlich gemacht haben. Kartiert wurden: Bistrica28, ung. Besz-
sterreich, N eue Folge 25(1932)14; J.v. Zahn, Ortsnamenbuch der S teiermark im Mittelal
ter, Wien 1893, S . 176-178; E. K ranzmayer, Ortsnamenbuch von K rnten, Bd. 2, K lagen
furt 1958, S . 66; O. K ronsteiner, S lawische E lemente in den Bergnamen der S teiermark,
D iss. Wien 1964, S . 26a; A . U nterforcher, S lavische N amenreste aus dem Osten des Pus
terthaies, L eitmeritz 1889, S . 5; A . Feinig, D ie N amen der Bauernhfe im Bereich der
einstigen G rundherrschaft Hollenburg in K rnten, Phil. D iss. Wien 1958, S . 1; K. K eler,
Ortsnamen in der Westhlfte des obersteirischen Murgebietes, Bd. 2, Phil. D iss. Wien
1957, S . 120-121; J.C . Mitterutzner, S lavisches aus dem stlichen Pusterthale, Brixen
1879, S . XVI ; J. S tur, D ie slawischen S prachelemente in den Ortsnamen der deutsch-
sterreichischen A lpenlnder zwischen D onau und D rau, Wien 1914, S . 68 und 81; E.
S chwarz, D ie Ortsnamen des stlichen Obersterreich, R eichenberg 1926, S . 58; H. Weigl,
Historisches Ortsnamenbuch von N iedersterreich, Bd. 2, Wien 1966, S . 182 und 213.
22 G. S traberger, S iedlungsgeschichte des nordwestlichen W'aldviertels im L ichte seiner
Ortsnamen, Wien 1960, S . 58; O. K ronsteiner, Wrterbuch S . 58.
23 H.J. Bidermann, D ie R omanen und ihre Verbreitung in sterreich, G raz 1877, S .
203.
24 O.F. Weber, Zeitschrift des Historischen Vereins fr S teiermark 62(1971)198; J.
S taunig, D ie Flurnamen des Burgamtes Villach 22. Jahresschrift des G ymnasiums Vill
ach, 1891, S . XXV; K. K eler, op. cit., Bd. 2, S . 120; O. K ronsteiner, Wrterbuch ..., S .
56.
25 E. K ranzmayer, op. cit., Bd. 2, S . 248.
26 O. K ronsteiner, Wrterbuch ..., S . 36.
27 K. A rnethE. E ichler, Jahrbuch fr frnkische L andesforschung 26(1966)187, F.W.
S inger, D ie Flurnamen des G emeindebezirks A rzberg, A rzberg 1958, S . 5.
28 I menik mesta u Jugoslaviji, Beograd 1973, S . 63; Popis vodenih tokova kraljevine
S rba, Hrvata S lovenaca, S arajevo 1924, S . 219; I menik ..., S . 253; . K aloper, Prilozi
prouavanju jezika 7(1971)230; I. K aliski, Filologija 7(1973)105; P. S imunovic, T opo-
nimija otoka Braa, S upetar 1972, S . 216; E. D ickenmann, S tudien zur Hydronymie des
S avesystems, Bd. 1, Heidelberg 1966, S . 52-53; V. Pjanka, T oponomastika na Ochridsko-
Prespanskiot bazen, S kopje 1970, S . 324; G .A . S krivanic, I menik geografskih naziva
srednjovekovne Zete, T itograd 1959, S . 42-43; F. Bezlaj, S lovenska vodna imena, Bd. 1,
L jubljana 1956, S . 62-64; H. T uma, I menoslovje Julijskih A lp, L jubljana 1929, S . 60;
S pisk na naselenite mesta v Blgarija, S ofija 1911, S . 38, 39, 76, 79; I. D uridanov, T opo-
nimijata na Prvomajska okolija, S ofija 1958, S . 120; M. Moskov, T urist 14(1969), H. 1,
S . 12-13; I. D uridanov, Mestnite nazvanija ot L omsko, S ofija 1952, passim; I. D uridanov,
S ymbolae philologicae in honorem V.T aszycki, Wrocaw usw. 1968, S . 62; I. D uridanov,
D ie Hydronymie des Vardarsystems als G eschichtsquelle, K lnWien 1975, S . 389; C hid-
rologien spravonik na rekite v N R Blgarija, T . 2, S ofija 1958, S . 8, 14, 15; A . S alamba-
schev, D ie Flunamen im bulgarischen S prachgebiet, Phil. D iss. Mnchen 1943, S . 37-38;
K. Mladenov, Blgarski ezik 26(1971), H. 4, S . 83; V. G eorgiev, Blgarskata etimologija
onomastika, S ofija 1960, S . 57-58; M. Vasmer, D ie S laven in G riechenland, N achdruck
L eipzig 1970, S . 103, 111; A .M. S eliev, S lavjanskoe naselenie v A lbanii, S ofija 1931, S .
336, 337.
ter ce/ Beszterec29, rumn, Bistri\a, Bistricioara30.
Der beim Geographen von Ravenna erwhnte Fluname Bustr ici us
bleibt mit F. Bezlaj31 und O. Kronsteiner32 besser beiseite.
Bevor wir uns das Ergebnis der Kartierung der Namen etwas nher
betrachten, wollen wir im folgenden noch eine Zusammenstellung des
appellativischen Materials der slavischen Sprachen geben. Wir be
schrnken uns dabei auf --Ableitungen von slav. *bystrb, also auf die
Grundlage des hier in Rede stehenden Appellativs33. Aus Grammatiken,
Wrterbchern und verschiedenen anderen Sammlungen34 lassen sich
folgende slavische Entsprechungen belegen:
russ. dial, byst rica Stromschnelle, tiefer Teil des Flubettes, Fahr
rinne, auch Furt;
ukrain. (dial.) b y s t r y c j a reiender Gebirgsbach, schneller, rauschen
der Bach, Wildbach, auch Pflaumenart;
poln. b y s t r z y c a schnelle, reiende Strmung im Fl oder Bach,
Bergbach, Wildbach;
obersorb. byst rica Bergbach;
altech. bis ti c torrens, ech. byst ce reiender Gebirgsbach;
29 T . Ortvay, Magyarorszg rgi vzrajza a - szzad vgeig, Bd. 1, Budapest 1882,
S . 133; Magyarorszg helysgnvtra 1967, Budapest 1967, S . 149 und 355; L. K iss. R gi
rtkoz, Budapest 1961, S . 24; I. S zab, U gocsa megye, Budapest 1937, S . 467.
30 R umania. Official S tandard N ames approved by the U nited S tates Board on G eo
graphic N ames, Washington D .C . 1960, S . 39-40; M. Oros, S tudia U niversitatis Babes-
Bolyai, S eries philologia 15(1970), H. 2, S . 113.
31 S lovenska vodna imena I, S . 64, derselbe, E timoloki slovar slovenskega jezika, Bd.
1, L jubljana 1977, S . 22, gegen M.J. Brajevskyj, Pytannja toponimiky ta onomastyky,
K yiv 1962, S . 64-65. U nentschieden: S . Pirchegger, D ie slavischen Ortsnamen im Mrzge-
biet, L eipzig 1927, S . 106 und O.N . T rubaev, N azvanija rek pravoberenoj U krainy,
Moskva 1968, S . 171-172.
32 Wiener S lavistisches Jahrbuch 12(1965)51-53.
33 Weitere A bleitungen zu slav. * bystr bleiben hier bewut auer Betracht.
34 S lovar russkich narodnych govorov, Bd. 3, L eningrad 1968, S . 350; S ownik Praso
wiaski, Bd. 1, Wrocaw usw. 1974, S . 478; C z. L apiez, T erminologia geograficzna w
ruskich gwarach Biaostocczyzny na tle wschodniosowiaskim, Warszawa usw. 1981, S.
112; E timologieskij slovar slavjanskich jazykov, Bd. 3, Moskva 1976, S . 151; M. Jur
kowski, U kraiska terminologija hydrograficzna, Wrocaw usw. 1971, S . 22; N itsche, D ie
geographische T erminologie des Polnischen, K lnG raz 1964, S . 159; R .N . Malko, G eo-
grafieskaja terminologija eskogo slovackogo jazykov, Minsk 1974, S . 11; F. Bezlaj,
E timoloki slovar slovenskega jezika, Bd. 1, L jubljana 1977, S . 22; J. S chtz, D ie geogra
phische T erminologie des S erbokroatischen, Berlin 1957, S . 68; G. Wippel, D ie geographi
schen A ppellativa im S erbokroatischen, D iss. Berlin 1957, S . 178; Bugarski etimologien
renik, Bd. 1, S ofya 1962, S . 50.
S L A V. * BYSTRI CA 331
S lovak, bystrica reiender Gebirgsbach;
sloven, bistrica schnell flieender Bach, Bach mit klarem Wasser,
Bergbach, durchsichtiges, klares Wasser, Bach mit klarem, durchsichti
gen Wasser, Wildbach, Giebach;
serbokroat. bistrica Sturzbach, Giebach, klares Wasser, Stelle im
Flu, wo das Wasser sauber ist, Reinheit, Durchsichtigkeit, dial,
durchsichtiger Stoff, Gewebeart, auch Pflaumenart, Seefenster;
bulg. bistrica Pflaumen-, Kirschenart;
rumn. bistrica Pflaumenart.
Auf Grund der Verbindung mit auerslavischen Material, so z.B. mit
germanischen Appellativen wie bysia mit groer Gewalt ausstrmen
boysa hervorstrmen, busa bestrzen, hervorstrzen,busen gewaltsam
sein, brausen, lrmen, strmen, bsterig strmisch35 wird man fr slav.
*bystra < *bhus-ro- eine ursprngliche Bedeutung schnell flieendes
Wasser, reiender Bach, Flu annehmen drfen. Daraus entwickelte
sich offenbar als Bedeutungserweiterung klar, rein, durchsichtig, wor
auf nun wiederum die slavischen und die aus demi Slavischen entlehnte
rumnische Bezeichnung(en) bistrica, bistrica Pflaumen und Kirschen
art beruhen drften. Die rumnischen Orts- und Gewssernamen
gehen jedoch, wie I. Iordan mit Nachdruck herausgestellt hat, nicht auf
diese Obstbezeichnung zurck, sondern auf slav. bystrica, das niemals
in der rumnischen Sprache bestanden [hat]36.
Es gilt jedoch noch, auf eine andere Schwierigkeit hinzuweisen: die
oben angefhrten geographischen Namen beruhen selbstverstndlich
nicht nur auf den hier genannten slavischen Appellativen. Sie sind eben
sogut als toponymische Bildungen mit einem Suffix -ic(a) zu einem
Adjektiv *bystra mit nicht immer sicher bestimmbarer Bedeutung37 auf
zufassen, eine Trennung ist im Einzelfall nur schwer durchfhrbar.
Wenn wir uns nun das Ergebnis der Kartierung etwas genauer anse-
hen und dieses mit den anfangs genannten verschiedenen Ansichten
35 J. Pokorny, I ndogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, Bd. 1, BernMnchen
1959, S . 101-102; M. Vasmer, R ussisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, Bd. 1, Heidelberg
1953, S . 159 u.a.m.
36 in: C ontributions onomastiques, publies loccasion du VI e C ongrs I nternational
des S ciences Onomastiques, Bucarest 1958, S . 10.
37 Vgl. oben mit A nm. 11.
332
ber die Aussagefhigkeit geographischer Namen fr die Vor- und
Frhgeschichte konfrontieren, so lassen sich einige wichtige Schlufol
gerungen ziehen:
1.) Die von O. Kronsteiner, E. Dickenmann und S. Rospond ver
mite Behandlung der zu slav. bystr- gehrenden Namen und ihre Kar
tierung lt bei unserem Beispiel (den mit -ica gebildeten Namen)
erkennen, da erneut das Gebiet am Nordhang der Karpaten an der
Namenverbreitung entscheidenden Anteil hat. Die daneben bestehenden
Namenhufungen in Bhmen, Mhren, sterreich-Slovenien, Kroatien
und im makedonisch-westbulgarischem Bereich liegen smtlich in Ge
bieten, die von den Slaven erst im Verlaufe ihrer Expansion besiedelt
worden sind.
2.) Die ungarische Tiefebene ist (erneut) ausgespart, unsere These38,
J. U dolph, op. cit., S . 628-631.
S L A V. * BYSTRI CA
333
da die spteren Sdslaven ihre neuen Wohgebiete auf dem Balkan
aufgrob gesprochenzwei verschiedenen Wegen (einem westlichen
ber Slovenien und Kroatien und einem stlicheren durch Rumnien
entlang den Karpaten) erreicht haben, wird durch die hier vorgelegte
Kartierung erneut besttigt39.
3.) Die Verbreitung der Namen im ostslavischen Bereich entspricht
der an anderer Stelle vorgelegten Untersuchung40 der mutmalichen
Expansion der frhen Ostslaven. Das Pripjet-Gebiet wird von den
Namen weitgehend ausgespart.
4.) Zur Frage S. Rosponds, na jakiej podstawie z dwu konkuruj
cych obszarw (Galicjacentralna Polska) wybra [Udolph] wanie
Przykarpacie? 41 habe ich m.E. bereits ausfhrlich und zusammenfas
send Stellung genommen42. Die hier vorgenommene Kartierung der
Bystrica-Namen spricht erneut eher fr das Vorkarpatengebiet als fr
Zentralpolen. Diese Tatsache ist umso wichtiger, als M. Vasmer bei der
Behandlung der Urheimat der Slaven darauf Wert legte, da in diesem
Raum (seiner Ansicht nach das am Pripje gelegene Territorium) auf
einem verhltnismig kleinen Gebiet alle fr die spter von Slaven
besiedelten Gebiete charakteristischen Ortsnamen angetroffen werden
knnen. So erscheint hier mehrmals der Fluname Bystrica (schneller
Flu)43.
5.) Entgegen der Ansicht von O.N. Trubaev, Bystrica osobenno
asto vystupaet na Dnestre i po Pipjati i Goryni , poti ne perevalivaja
na srednedneprovskoe levoberee (sr. tolko odna Bystrica, rukav
Vorskly . . . ) 44 zeigt unsere Karte nicht wenige Namen auch auf dem
linken Ufer des Dnepr.
6 .) Zu den anfangs zitierten Ansichten H. Brauers und O.N. Truba-
evs, man drfe in der Namengebung einerseits in Sumpfgebieten nicht
39 D azu passen die A usfhrungen von I. G lbov, Wiener S lavistisches Jahrbuch
21(1975)61-71 und Opuscula slavica et linguistica (Festschrift fr A . I ssatschenko), K la
genfurt 1976, S . 169ff.
40 J. U dolph, D ie L andnahme der Ostslaven im L ichte der N amenforschung, Jahr
bcher fr G eschichte Osteuropas 29(1981)321-336.
41 R ocznik S lawistyczny 42( 1981 )76.
42 J. U dolph, S tudien, S. 619-623.
43 M. Vasmer, S chriften ..., Bd. 1, S . 53.
44 N azvanija rek ..., S . 171.
zu hufig Namen erwarten, die auf einfachen Appellativen beruhen, die
Sumpf, Morast bedeuten, und andererseits sei eine stereotype, banale
Namengebung untypisch, lt sich bemerken:
Wenn man den ersteren der beiden Einwnde ernst nimmt, fhrt das
zu der Behauptung, da Gewssernamen, denen eine Bedeutung schnell
flieend zugrunde liegt, nicht in geographischen Gebieten mit strkerem
Geflle (also Hgel- und Gebirgsgegenden) gehuft auftreten drften,
sondern in Bereichen mit geringerem Geflle, also in Niederungen und
im Flachland. Nun zeigt jedoch unsere Karte, da gerade die Gebiete
entlang der von Slaven erreichten Berg- und Hgelketten (Karpaten,
Beskiden, Sudeten, Riesengebirge, Erzgebirge, Alpen usw.) einen
berdurchschnittlichen Anteil an der Namenverbreitung haben, wh
rend typische Niederungsgebiete (Norddeutsche Tiefebene, Nord- und
Mittelpolen, Ungarische Tiefebene und Donautiefebene) deutlich Lcken
in der Namen Verbreitung aufweisen. J . Rieger hat die Hufigkeit von
Bystrica-Namen in den Karpaten mit den Worten begrndet: Das
hngt von dem Charakter der Gebirgsbche ab, deren Lauf in der Regel
schneller als der der Niederungsflsse ist45. Dieser Ansicht kann man
nur zustimmen, denn auch und gerade in dem zweiten relativ hohen
Gebirge, das die Slaven im Verlauf ihrer Expansion erreichten, in den
Ostalpen, finden wir eine so starke Konzentration von Bystrica-Namen,
da O. Kronsteiner sagen konnte: Die Europa-Karte zeigt, da dieser
Fluname am hufigsten in Slowenien und Sdkrnten geprgt wur
de46. Und damit kommen wir zu dem letzten Punkt der Kritik, der von
O.N. Trubaev eingebracht wurde, der Ansicht, da die Namengebung
(auch in der Onomastik) auf die Markierung des zu Benennenden
gerichtet sei und eine banale, einfrmige, stereotype Namengebung
von den Namengebern vermieden werde. Wie vertrgt es sich dann mit
dieser Annahme, da wir in Krnten, der Steiermark und in Slovenien
(also einem Gebiet mit hohem Anteil an Gebirgsketten) eine derartige
Flle von Bystrica-Namzn haben, da auf unsere Karte nur ein Bruch
45 D isputationes ad montium vocabula aliorumque nominun significationes pertinentes,
Bd. 2, Wien um 1969, S . 492, vgl. auch I. D uridanov, D ie Hydronymie des Vardarsystems
..., S . 48: D er ... N ame (urslav. * Bystrica) ... bezeichnet gewhnlich Bergflsse, die wegen
ihres steilen Flubetts rasch und ungestm abwrts flieen.
46 Wiener S lavistisches Jahrbuch 14(1967/68)86.
S L A V. * BYSTRI CA
335
teil der dort anzutreffenden Namen verzeichnet werden konnte? Ein
Blick in die Sammlung von J .v. Zahn47 zeigt, wie schwierig in diesem
Gebiet die Zuordnung von urkundlichen Belegen zu den einzelnen geo
graphischen Namen ist, mit anderen Worten, es gibt in diesem Bereich
so viele B y s t r i c a - N a m e n , da die Unterscheidung der einzelnen Namen
bereits einige Mhe macht. Nun mu man sich die Frage stellen, aus
welchem Grund diese stereotype Namengebung erfolgt ist. Die Ansicht,
die Namengeber verfolgten bei der Namengebung vor allem die Absicht,
ein geographisches Objekt eindeutig zu markieren, kann in diesem Fall
nicht berzeugen. Man htte unter diesen Umstnden zumindestens
einen Suffixwechsel oder eine Kennzeichnung durch weitere Zustze (sei
es durch Hinzufgung eines Bestimmungswortes48 oder in anderer Weise)
erwarten knnen, aber dieses ist im Ostalpenraum bei den hier in Rede
stehenden Namen nur in wenigen Fllen geschehen. Es bleibt meines
Erachtens daher gar keine andere Mglichkeit, als auf die schon am
Anfang dieses Beitrags vorgebrachte Ansicht erneut zu verweisen, da
nmlich geographische Namen z u n c h s t nur fr eine relativ kleine
Gruppe von Sprechern Orientierung sind. Daraus folgert weiter, da
(wenn wir bei einer Gebirgsgegend bleiben wollen) fr ein Gebirgstal
zunchst nur der dort flieende Bach oder Flu seinen Namen erhlt und
diese Namengebung vllig unabhngig davon erfolgt, ob das Nachbartal
bereits einen identischen Namen fr den dort flieenden Bach oder Flu
vergeben hat. Die heute so stereotyp und banal aussehende Namen
landschaft, sei es Bystr ica in den Alpen oder P o t o k und R k a in den
Karpaten ist daher das Ergebnis eines Prozesses, und die Namengebung
erfolgt, den Gegebenheiten einer kleinen Sprechergruppe entsprechend,
aus dem appellativischen Wortschatz heraus. Hinzutretende unterschei
dende Merkmale werden erst in dem Augenblick notwendig, wenn sich
die Kommunikation ausweitet (N o v h o r o d - S i v e r s k y j N i i n i j N o v g o r o d ,
PerejaslavV R j a z a n s k i j PereslavT Z a l e s s k i j usw.), sie sind bei der
Namengebung und whrend der ersten Periode der Namenverwendung
nur in wenigen Fllen notwendig.
Aus den geschilderten Grnden mchten wir der Ansicht von O.
47 Ortsnamenbuch der S teiermark im Mittelalter, Wien 1893.
48 Vgl. J. U dolph, S tudien, S . 52.
336
Kronsteiner, da Namen mit ezero dort hufig sind, wo es viele Seen
gibt, ist wohl selbstverstndlich49, zustimmen, diesen Satz abwandeln
und meinen, da Namen mit *bolto Sumpf dort hufig sind, wo
Smpfe sind (woraus folgt, da das Fehlen von slavischen Namen, die
auf Sumpfbezeichnungen beruhen, im Pripjet-Gebiet seiner Erklrung
bedarf) und weiterhin, da Gewssernamen, die auf Appellativen beru
hen, die auf schnellen Lauf des Wassers hinweisen, dort hufig sind, wo
die geographischen Bedingungen eine strkere Strmung der abflie
enden Gewsser ermglichen, wie es bei dem von uns hier behandelten
slavischen Wasserwort Bystrica der Fall ist. Zu weiteren, von unseren
Kritikern vermiten slavischen Appellativen und ihrem Vorkommen in
der Toponymie werden wir an anderem Ort Stellung nehmen.
Universitt Gttingen
49 K raty los 25(1980)174.
Les notions de parme
et de parmme
(Contribution la grammaire des proverbes)
J ACQUES VEYRENC
Ltude des proverbes (ou parmiologie) est une discipline ancienne.
Et pourtant la dfinition mme de lunit dsigne comme proverbe, et
plus particulirement la distinction quil convient dtablir entre le
proverbe et le dicton, continuent de faire problme.
Pour certains auteurs, le proverbe se distingue du dicton par son
caractre imag (bbraznist ). Un tel point de vue permet de dlimiter, en
franais par exemple, les dictons mtorologiques, comme Pluie en
fvrier vaut du fumier, Sil pleut la Sainl; Mdard, il pleuvra
quarante jours plus tard, ou mme Nol au balcon, Pques aux
tisons, que personne apparemment ne songe classer comme proverbes.
Mais on est conduit, dune manire beaucoup moins satisfaisante et en
tout cas contraire au plus large consensus, reconnatre des dictons, et
non plus des proverbes, dans des expressions comme ,
On apprend tout ge ou encore
Qui se hte fait rire ( ses dpens).
Cest pourquoi le plus grand nombre des auteurs utilise un autre
critre de diffrenciation, qui se ramne au caractre nonc achev
(z a k n c e n i s t ). Le proverbe soppose alors au dicton en tant quil relve
de la fonction assertive, proprit syntaxique toujours commode
identifier, et en vertu de laquelle tous les exemples cits prcdemment,
y compris les dictons mtorologiques, devraient tre traits comme ap
partenant la classe des proverbes. En face du proverbe, qui se dfinit
ainsi comme relevant du paradigme de la phrase acheve, le dicton
relve quant lui du paradigme du mot, ce mot pouvant tre soit un
verbe ( se faire tirer les marrons du
feu, K OM faire des ragots sur le dos de
338
quelquun), soit un autre lment capable de recevoir la fonction
attributive ( cousin la mode de Bretagne, y
(y ) au diable vauvert). Il apparat en
somme que le proverbe et le dicton sopposent en raison de la fonction
quils assument au plan de la syntaxe fonctionnelle: le proverbe est
investi de la fonction assertive, alors que le dicton nest virtuellement
porteur que de la fonction predicative. Do cette consquence que le
dicton, sil est par hypothse rapport un argument prsent comme
constant, acquiert du mme coup le statut de proverbe:
Il est facile de se faire tirer les marrons du feu
(par quelquun dautre).
Autrement dit, le proverbe se caractrise en regard du dicton par sa
structure toujours dichotomique: il exprime dans tous les cas une
relation entre un terme X (le thme) et un terme Y (le rhme), que lon
peut dsigner ici plus prcisment comme une relation entre prmisse
(thme ou X) et chance (rhme ou Y): Qui sme le vent (^thme
ou prmisse) rcolte la tempte (rhme ou chance);
Qui a peur des loups ne va pas au bois.
On vient de dcrire le schma fondamental de la structure smantique
propre tout proverbe, soit:
X - Y
o la. relation est donne comme constante. Il est remarquable que ce
schma premier peut apparatre dans un ordre invers lorsque la relation
entre X et Y est modalise, do:
(vouloir) Y (requiert) X
comme dans Qui veut voyager loin (Y ou chance voulue) mnage sa
monture (X ou prmisse requise);
Si tu aimes aller en traneau, aime aussi conduire le traneau.
Ce dernier schma composante modale et avec inversion ordinaire des
termes X et Y correspond la dfinition du proverbe-prcepte, tandis
que le schma simple rpond au proverbe-axiome. Sil est vrai que ces
deux classes sopposent au niveau de la ralisation formelle, elles sont
nanmoins le plus souvent smantiquement rductibles: Si tu veux
rcolter la tempte, sme le vent, et inversement: Qui mnage sa
PARME ET PARMME 339
monture, celui-l voyage loin. Quant au dicton, loppos du proverbe
et de sa structure toujours smantiquement dichotomique (relation entre
X et Y), il se dfinit dans tous les cas par son caractre de monome (X
ou Y), et donc par sa capacit dintgration une structure de proverbe.
Provisoirement, on peut tre tent de modifier la prsentation syn
taxique de lopposition proverbe / dicton en imposant la dfinition du
proverbe comme celle du dicton la condition mtaphorique, seule mise
en avant dans le premier type de prsentation. Les dictons seront alors
reprsents par lensemble des locutions verbales ou attributives de
caractre imag ( lexclusion par exemple dune locution comme
de but en blanc). Et lon dira de mme quune expres
sion non image comme , est un aphorisme et non
pas un proverbe, les dictons mtorologiques cits plus haut entrant
alors dans la classe des aphorismes prvisionnels (ou aphorismes
mtorologiques).
*
* *
On sait que depuis longtemps de nombreux recueils de proverbes ont
t tablis plus ou moins systmatiquement pour un grand nombre de
langues, et lon dispose donc dun abondant matriau capable de servir
ds maintenant de point de dpart une tude typologique des prover
bes ou parmiologie contrastive. On peut travailler sur des inventaires
diffus, en prenant en compte des donnes recueillies dans toutes les
langues du monde. On peut aussi borner momentanment la recherche
des inventaires compacts, en se limitant aux donnes compares dun
petit nombre de langues de domaines rapprochs ou contigus, ou de
dialectes dune mme langue ou encore de variantes dun mme dialecte
ou une mme langue.
Pour mieux fonder ltude contrastive ou typologique, il est important
de prciser la position spcifique qui revient au proverbe dans une
thorie du signe, et de mettre en particulier laccent sur ce fait notable
que, pour un signifiant unique, le proverbe est ncessairement pourvu
dun double signifi: le signifi A relve dun certain rang mtaphorique
(monde animal, monde vgtal, travaux des champs, artisanat, travaux
domestiques, rituel liturgique, croyances religieuses, etc.). Ainsi dans 3
340
Un mme boeuf ne peut tre
corch deux fois, le signifi A se rapporte directement aux ralits du
mtier dquarrisseur. Parlons alors, propos de ce premier signifi, de
signifi littral Quant au second signifi, ou signifi B, il exprime la
relation universelle (X Y) abstraite des rapports littraux du plan m
taphorique (x y). Parlons alors de signifi figur ou signifi utile.
Le signifi A conduit dune manire univoque la reprsentation du
signifi B: on peut parler en ce sens dune transitivit du signifi A sur le
signifi B. Mais cette relation nest pas rciproque, car pour un mme
signifi B on peut avoir plusieurs signifis A. Ainsi, dans lexemple pr
cdent, ct de lexpression emprunte lopration dquarrissage, on
peut en avoir une autre, dun rang mtaphorique diffrent, mais pourvue
du mme sens utile: 3 Un mme
tilleul ne peut tre corc deux fois.
Il serait commode dtablir ici une nouvelle notion, correspondant au
niveau du signifi B, et que lon pourait dsigner du terme de par-
mme (selon le rapport: smiologie / smme :: parmiologie / par-
mme). On appelle parmme le contenu smantique hors mtaphore
(signifi utile) de la relation qui sinstaure, eu sein dun proverbe, entre
son terme x (prmisse) et son terme y (chance), soit X >Y.
La smantique du parmme renvoie ainsi au signifi B, tant entendu
que le signifi A exprime la smantique littrale du proverbe lui-mme.
Introduisons pour rpondre ce niveau du signifi A (signifi littral) le
terme de parme (selon le rapport: smme / sme :: parmme /
parme). On dira que le parme se dfinit comme le contenu smantique
littral du proverbe (signifi A, donc en mtaphore).
La rgle de transitivit indique plus haut snonce donc maintenant
sous la forme suivante: pour un seul parmme on peut avoir plusieurs
parmes, mais non pas inversement plusieurs parmmes pour un seul
parme.
Voici, pour vrifier cette rgle, un autre exemple, soit, en regard du
russe Bodlivoj korove Bog rog ne dat, cinq proverbes ukrainiens
littralement diffrents, mais tous pourvus du mme signifi B, cest--
dire cinq parmes (= p):
p1 Dieu na pas donn au cochon de corne
PARME ET PA RMME
341
p2 , Si le cochon avait
des cornes, il dtruirait le monde entier
p3 , Si le cochon avait des
ailes, mme le ciel serait dmantel
p4 , T pae Dieu
na pas donn de queue au crapaud, car il aurait cras toute lherbe
p5 KponHB , Si
lortie ntait pas amortie par le froid, elle piquerait tout le monde
On a ici cinq parmes, constituant le paradigme mtaphorique du
parmme X Y, o X vaut instinct de nuisance et Y privation de
tout moyen de nuire. Ce parmme a partout mme rfrence: croyance
en une sagesse providentielle.
Dans certains cas, le paradigme mtaphorique peut tre complt par
un poste neutre, correspondant lexpression du parmme (= P):
p1 Vieux moineau ne se
laisse pas prendre avec de la baie
p2 Vieux loup vite la trappe
p3 Vieux renard est dur prendre
p4 Le sage ne se laisse pas mener
par le nez
Il est alors indiffrent que lon classe cette expression P parmi les
proverbes, en tant que membre non spcifi du paradigme mtapho
rique, ou quon la dtache de cette classe pour la traiter comme un
aphorisme (cf sup.), smantiquement comparable au signifi commun
du paradigme des parmes p1, p2, p3,...
Outre la dclinaison mtaphorique, qui fait varier pour un mme sens
utile le contenu imag du proverbe, il faudrait parler aussi de la
dclinaison du modle syntaxique, qui affecte la construction formelle
de la relation entre x et y (ou X et Y), mais non pas le contenu rel de
cette relation, lequel demeure dans tous les cas soit X *Y, soit (vouloir)
Y *(requiert) X. Les modles syntaxiques reprsents dans la gram
maire des proverbes sont en petit nombre. Dans de nombreaux cas, X et
Y sont traits respectivement comme la partie subordonne et la partie
principale dun systme complexe:
La griffe est prisecen est fait de loiseau; ,
Quand la tte est coupe, on ne pleure pas les
cheveux; , Le forgeron bat le fer pendant
quil est chaud. Ce sont des binmes syntaxiques, dont la structure
formelle rpond la dichotomie smantique fondatrice du proverbe.
Mais souvent aussi la construction syntaxique est de type contract, X
et Y se trouvant rapprochs dans le corps dune seule et mme
proposition: , (a La Vieillesse
nest pas joie, (et mort nest pas gat);
Un hte non invit est pire quun Tatare:
Ne fourre pas ton nez dans le millet dautrui.
CONCLUSION
Pour un parmme invariant (X * Y), on peut donc observer au
niveau des parmes (x y) deux types de variation, lun dans lordre de
la mtaphore, lautre dans lordre du modle syntaxique. Il est vident
par ailleurs que la dclinaison mtaphorique peut se combiner avec la
dclinaison syntaxique. Les notions de parme et de parmme permet
tent en outre de caractriser la position de la grammaire des proverbes
dans une linguistique de rnonciation, et de dire en particulier quel
genre de discours il convient de rattacher le discours proverbial. Dune
part ce que lon appelle parmme renvoie la fonction dictique qui
est celle du discours en acte. Quant au parme, qui se dfinit comme
la condensation au point limite dune fable ou dun apologue, il renvoie
au discours de lhistoire. Ainsi le systme de laphorisme pourrait-il
sinterprter comme rsultant de la superposition des deux autres sys
tmes thoriquement exclusifs lun de lautre: celui du discours en acte
( parmme) et celui du discours in absentia ou discours de lhistoire
(*parme).
Universit de Paris Sorbonne
Formal and S emantic Parameters
of D erived Verbs in U krainian
PAUL WEXLER
0. INTRODUCTION
Derived verbs in Ukrianian1 can be formed in several ways: by com
bining a (a) verbal, (b) nominal or (c) adjectival stem (root) with up to
three .VPs, or by combining such a stem with (d) a non-final suffix and/
or (e) the postfix -sja with or without a VP. Examples are (a) p y s a t y
write : d o p y s a t y finish writing, (b) dolj a fate : o b e z d o l y t y deprive of
luck, 2 (c) k r u h l y j round: z a k r u h l y t y make round, (d) s t u k a t y knock:
s t u k n u t y knock (momentarily), (e) b y t y beat : b y t y s j a fight with. In
the examples above there is a close semantic relationship between the
derived verb and the underlying simplex (i.e., verb lacking a VP)a
relationship which often reappears in many verb pairs (e.g. all verbs
beginning with o bez- express the deprivation of the quality expressed by
the noun stem); nevertheless, there are numerous cases of semantic
unpredictability, e.g. y t y live (~ n a y t y s j a live long, be tired of life,
p o z y t y live [for some time], get along) vs. u y t y use; m o h t y be able
vs. p o m o h t y help; d i j a t y act, do vs. p o d i j a t y do (evil by means of
witchcraft); v i s t y (archaic) know vs. p o v i s t y tell (~ p e r e p o v i s t y retell,
repeat).
There exists a rich literature on U and SI verb derivation, primarily
exploring such topics as the historical development of individual affix
functions, synchronic affix functions and their description, and the
1 T he following abbreviations are used: BrBelorussian, C7.C zech, (I )imperfective,
PPolish, (P)perfective, R -R ussian, S I S lavic, ststandard, U U krainian, VP
verbal prefix.
2 Historically, obez- consists of o- and bez-. S ee also the discussion of agglutinated and
merged VPs in sections I and 5 below.
expression of verbal aspect by means of prefixation and infixation. 3
Some of this literature is comparativemotivated by the realization
that (a) derived verbs exist in all languages and (b) U VP functions
have been to some extent influenced by contact with other languages.
What is lacking in the literature is a succint characterization of the for
mal and semantic parameters in U verbal derivation. The present paper
seeks to fill this lacuna, with special attention to cross-linguistic compar
ison. Our findings are presented under ten section headings; some com
parative remarks are given in section 1 1 .
1. INVENTORY AND ORIGIN OF THE DERIVATIONAL RESOURCES
There are twenty simple VPs in modern U (though some are historical
ly bimorphemic), enjoying varying degrees of productivity: bez-, do-/
di-, na-, nad(i)-, ne-, -, ob(i)-, pere-, pid(i)(o)-, po-/ pi-, pred-, proty-,
pry-, roz(i)-, s-, u(v)~, vid(i)(o)- /od(i)-, vy-, z(i)~l iz(i)-, za-. The VPs in
-d(i)(o)- are historically compound VPs which now function as simple
VPs4 The simple VPs are all ultimately derived from prepositions, except
for ne-, which is derived from the negative particle; in the contemporary
language three VPspere-, roz(i)- and vy do not function as preposi
tions. In addition, some of the simple VPs may be combined (again,
with differing degrees of productivity), but no compound VP is used
more frequently than the constituent simple VPs (see also section 5
below), e.g. dopo-, doz-, -/ -, nedo-/ nedi-, obez-, perepo-,
pidpo-, pona-, poo-, poob(i)-, popere-, popid(i)-, popo-, popry-, poroz(i)-,
pov-, povy-, poza-, vidpo-/ vidpi-, zao-, zapo-j zapi-, zbez-, zne-;
3 For U , see IFjin (1953); Pukar (1957, 1963); R ojzenzon (1959, 1961, 1962, 1966);
R usanivskyj (1971). T he distinguished recipient of this Festschrift has also written a brief
description of U verb derivation (S hevelov 1951:288-292). For comparative SI discussion,
see E rhart (1966); L ekov (1958:11-20); Maslov (1962, 1965); Vaillant (1946). For compari
son of SI and non-S l verbal systems, see K limenko (1975); Melcuk (1963); R undgren
(1959); S erebrennikov ( 1974:17Iff); Zotnik (1917). For interesting theoretical discussions
of VPs in one or more SI languages (other than U ), see A grell (1918, a pioneer study);
Bogusawski (1963); Forsyth (1970); G allant (1979); I saenko (1960:209-344); I vanova
(1966); K antor (1978); R ojzenzon (1970, 1974); S tender-Petersen (1933-4); T rypuko
(1950). For Hungarian, see Horvath (1978).
4 For discussion of VPs in -d(i)(o)-, see D ostl (1954:258-60); K open (1973:123, 173,
197); R ojzenzon (1974:34). On agglutinated and merged VPs, see section 5.
PARAMETERS OF DERI VED VERBS
345
p o n a v y - . Of the compound VPs, only p o p i d - , p o p r y - and p o z a - also
function as prepositions. Many of the VPs also appear with nouns,
adjectives and adverbs, e.g. * k o n : z a k o n law, testament; r i d n y j native;
own, german: n a r o d n y j national; p o p i d ( - ) downwards; under; a few
prepositions and prefixes lack verbal functions, e.g. (i)k to, z - ( p o ) p i d
from beneath, ( p a ) ( i ) x m u r ( n ) y j gloomy. It is worth noting that while
prepositions tend to express a small number of semantic functions, very
often of spatial and temporal character, the meanings of the homopho-
nous VPs are far more complex, e.g. za behind, after, p i d under vs.
za- ingressivity, successivity, etc., p i d ( i ) ( o ) - under, up, by stealth, up
to, excessive duration (see discussion below, section 1 1 ) . 5
Unlike modern English, where productive VPs are all of Romance
origin (e.g. de-, dis-, re-, un- vs. unproductive native be-, f o r - ) , or URo-
many, where all the VPs are of SI origin (e.g. d ava give : d o d a v a add
to), the affixal machinery of U is predominantly native; pairs like orha-
n i z u v a t y organize : r e o r h a n i z u v a t y reorganize with a non-native VP
and stem are infrequent, and the combination of foreign VPs with
native stems unknown (at least in the standard dictionaries). In contrast
to the large number of VPs, only a few non-final suffixes (with no other
grammatical functions in the language) are used in U, e.g. -nu-, -uva-,
-yv-\ these tend to have a relatively smaller number of functions than
the PVs, e.g. -n u- denotes simply a momentary or inchoative action
( k r y a i y shout : k r y k n u t y cry out, m o y t y wet, urinate : m o k n u t y get
wet) . 6
2. INCONSISTENT UTILIZATION OF THE RESOURCES
There are 4 indices of inconsistent utilization of the affixal machinery,
(a) No verb stem can appear with all simple VPs. Few stems enjoy the
distribution of native n o s y t y carry (d o -, na-, ob-, pere-, p i d - , p o - , p r y - ,
5 T his finding is in keeping with several studies of the semantic properties of bound and
free morphemes (see G reenberg 1966; Zimmer 1964). S ee also discussion in section 7
below.
6 Many of the non-final suffixes serve to express the aspect of a compound; see -uva- in
the chain ytatv (I ) read : vyytaty (P) : vyytuvaty (I ) learn from reading. S ee also
footnote 11 below.
roz-, v-, vy-, za-; pope r e - , p o r o z - , p o z a - ) and non-native m a ljuv at y ,
-m a V o v u v a t y paint (d o -, na-, ob-, pere-, p i d - , p o - , p r y - , roz-, vid-, vy-,
z - ; p o n a - , p o o b - , p o v y - , p o z a - ) . Roots rarely occur with every affix
which could yield semantically plausible results, e.g. b i l y j white : bil i t y
become white : b i l y ty whiten; o r n y j black : c o m i t y become black :
c o r n y t y blacken, soil but from s i r y j grey, only an inchoative s i r it y
turn grey is formed, (b) The same concept may be expressed by a sim
ple or derived verb. e.g. t l u m a y t y = p e r e k l a d a t y translate, 7 b o r o n y t y
z a x y a t y (I) defend (vs. z a b o r o n y t y [P] forbid; finish harrowing), or
by 1or 2 VPs (see z [ bez]l judnit y in section 5 below), (c) There is usually
no one-to-one fit between a prefix function and a VP, e.g. za- denotes
both ingressivity and perfective aspect, e.g. p y t y drink : z a p y t y begin
to drink but u d u v a t y (I) : z a u d u v a t y (P) astonish (*begin to aston
ish). A terminative meaning can be expressed by do- / d i -, pere-,
vid(i)(o)~ and za-, e.g. d o v a r y t y finish cooking, p e r e b o l i t y cease to ail,
v id s ij a ty finish sowing, z a b o r o n y t y finish harrowing. The perdurative
meaning is expressed by both per e- and pr o- , e.g. p e r e d a t y to wait till
something is over, p r o b o l i t y undergo an illness (see p e r e b o l i t y above;
p r o d a t y to wait for some time). Derived verbs are frequently ambi
guous, e.g. z a p y t y begin to drink; wash down with a drink, v i d m o v y t y
recite; decline, refuse and z a b o r o n y t y above. Occasionally, we find
semantic equivalence between a VP and prepositional complement, e.g.
it y go : p e r e j t y it y erez go through, across, (d) There are broad
differences in the relative productivity of the VPs and their functions,
e.g. za- is productive as an ingressive marker (z a p i t y begin to crow,
z a s p i v a t y begin to sing) but very rare as a successive marker (z a j i s t y
eat after). VPs which express opposite meanings, inter alia, differ in
relative productivity, e.g. do- / di- to and z(i)-(sj a) together have a
broader distribution than antonymous vid(i)(o)- from and roz(i)-(-sja)
apart. 8 Among complex VPs, for example, p o n a - is far more productive
than doz-.
7 VPs can be added both to tlumayty (<T urkic), e.g. vy- explain, clarify, pere-
translate, interpret and to perekladaty (I ), e.g. po- translate a lot. U perekladaty is a
loan translation of G erman bersetzen (U pere- across + klasty place = G erman ber
across, over + setzen place). On SI loan translations involving derived verbs, see U nbe-
gaun (1932).
8 T his characterization is based on the corpus given in A ndrusyshen and K rett (1957).
PARAMETERS OF DERI VED VERBS 347
The poor fit between meaning and the means of expression is due to
continuous restructuring brought about by internal factors and the
impact of foreign languages. Consider the coalescence (partial or total)
of 2 VPs, e.g. p e r e - which originally denoted movement above an
object and p r o - movement through an object have become interchange
able in WestU dialects, as in p r o y t a t y read over, through ~ p e r e y t a t y
(also means read many times); in other functions, pe r e - and p r o - are
distinct, e.g. only the former expresses excess as in p e r e r o b y t y do more
than is necessary (*pr or o b y t y ) . 9 Consider also the merger of Common
SI *sb- and *jbz- in a number of SI languages, including U (Kopen
1973:245; Lekov 1958:19). The impact of foreign languages is responsi
ble for a certain amount of restructuring in the U VP syste, e.g. U
v y h l j a d a t y appear < out + see is modeled on G aussehen\ see also U
p e r e k l a d a t y above. 10
3. HETEROGENEOUS FUNCTIONS PERFORMED BY THE
DERIVATIONAL MACHINERY
The affixes perform a number of heterogeneous grammatical and
semantic functions. For example, the postfix -sja without an accompany
ing VP expresses the passive voice, reciprocity (b y t y s j a fight with; be
hit < b y t y beat) and middle voice (s l u x a t y s j a obey < s l u x a t y hear,
listen, obey); with a VP the postfix -sja expresses negative excess (na s -
l u x a t y s j a be tired of listening < n a s l u x a t y listen attentively). Besides
ingressivity and successivity (see above, section 2 d), za- also converts
intransitive verbs into transitive verbs (v o j u v a t y be at war: z a v o j u v a t y
conquer; see also z-, as in be z s y l i t y : z b e z s y l y t y discussed in section 5
below). VPs can also form new verbs from nouns and adjectives (see
9 S ee also S hevelov (1951:291-2). A ndrusyshen and Krett (1957) translate pereytaty
and proytaty as read over, through and read through, over' respectively! Cf. R perei-
tat" read again, through, all, a lot, procitat become familiar through reading, read out,
pronounce by heart, fathom.
10 T he additional meaning of vyhljadaty, look forward to, await, is free of G erman
influence. For two examples of widespread restructuring in the functions of native VPs in
S orbian and S lavicized Yiddish, see Wexler (1972). T he R ussification of U derived verbs is
a complex topic which deserves a separate study. For some piristically oriented data, see
Hladkyj (1930:17); Lvivski visti 1943.
examples in section 0 above), and are the paramount means of express
ing the opposition of verbal aspect, by converting an unprefixed imper-
fective verb into a prefixed perfective verb, e.g. p y s a t y (I) : n a p y s a t y (P)
write. 11 Surface ambiguity in derived verbs is rare, e.g. only the com
pound VP ne d o - / n e d i - overlaps, in speech if not in writing, with the
negated simple VP do- / d i -, e.g. m o v y t y talk : ne d o m o v y t y not finish
speaking, speak out, stipulate vs. n e d o m o v y t y not say everything, leave
unsaid.
4. TAUTOLOGOUS AND PERI PHRASTI C EXPRESSION
(a) The meaning of many derived verbs can be expressed periphrastic-
ally by a simple verb, e.g. n a p l a k a t y cry a lot, n a p l a k a t y s j a cry too
much, enough = p l a k a t y v d o s t a l . (b) Simple verbs may be combined
with a VP, together with a (often homophonous) prepositional comple
ment, e.g. ( p r o ) f i Vt r u v a t y filter (out), ( v y ) e l i m i n u v a t y eliminate, i t y /
v y j t y v enter, ( p i d ) j i x a t y do go up to, t i k a t y run away, make off :
p e r e t i k a t y (erez) leak, run through, (c) The addition of a VP may be
accompanied by a change in the case of a direct object, e.g. l y t y v o d u
pour water (accusative) : n a l y t y v o d u (accusative)/ v o d y (genitive) fill
up with water, y t a t y read (accusative object) : nay t a t y s j a read enough
(genitive object).
5. AGGLUTINATION AND MERGER OF RESOURCES
Simple verbs may appear with two or more affixes, e.g. d u m a t y
think : z a d u m a t y conceive, plan : *pry- z a d u m a t y : p r y z a d u m a t y s j a
become pensive; k r u t y t y turn, twist : p e r e k r u t y t y twist again, too
much; misinterpret : p o p e r e k r u u v a t y twist again, too much; misinter
pret, deform altogether; h l j a d i t y see, watch: n e d o h l j a d i t y overlook,
miss (vs. [ne] d o h l j a d i t y [not] take care of, watch, tend) (see also the
11 Most native simple and some compound VPs are capable of changing verbal aspect
(see I venko 1965:327-30). N on-native VPs lack this function, e.g. (za)numeruvaty
number : prenumeruvaty (I ) : zaprenumeruvaty (P) subscribe to. S ee also footnote 6
above.
discussion of o b e z - above in section 0 and footnote 1). We may note
two distinctive features of compound VPs: (a) the number of second
VPs which appear with a derived verb is considerably smaller than the
number of single VPs permitted with the corresponding simple verb.
The reasons for this are the semantic incompatibility of the VPs (e.g.
*vvy~), the low tolerance for reduplicated prefixation (see also section 1
above) and for component reversibility, e:.g. -/ - vs. p o n a - ,
p i d p o - , vs. p o p i d ( i ) - (but as an adverb and preposition, only p o p i d
under, downwards is possible). Even rarer are the minimal pairs actu
ally distinguished by VP order, e.g. k a z a t y say, talk; order : p o k a z u v -
a t y show : n a p o k a z u v a t y show many things : n a k a z u v a t y order, talk
a great deal : p o n a k a z u v a t y say many things. 12 (b) A prefix that
serves as the second VP has fewer semantic or grammatical functions
than if it were to function as the sole VP, e.g. p o - / p i - before a VP
denotes only many, but before a simple verb may denote many (p o a -
r e t u v a t y arrest [many]), little { p o a x k a t y groan [a little]), multiple
stages ( p o k r a d a t y steal a little, time and again), inchoativity ( p o b a b i t y
become effeminate, wrinkled), duration ( p o b a b y t y be a midwife for
some time), completion ( p o k u v a t y finish cuckooing). A second VP
tends only to modify the meaning of the underlying derived verb, e.g.
m o r d u v a t y : z a m o r d o v u v a t y (I) : z a m o r d u v a t y (P) murder : p o z a m o r -
d o v u v a t y (P) murder (many)but see v i d a t y know : p o v i d a t y tell :
z a p o v i d a t y declare, inform, bequeath, command . However, compound
z b e z - seems to tolerate some degree of formal and/or semantic asymme
try, e.g. b e z u m t y (I) vs. z b e z m y t y s j a (P) become mad (* z b e z m y t y ,
* z b e z u m t y ) , b e z s y l i t y (I) become weak (intransitive) vs. z b e z s y l y t y (P)
weaken (transitive), (c) There is some tendency for a double VP to
function as a single fused compound VP, e.g. l j u d n i t y (I) fill up with
people: *bezl judni ty : z b e z l j u d n i t y : z l j u d n i t y : obe z l j u d (n ) i t y (P) become
depopulated vs. cest y t y : e s t v u v a t y honor : b e z e s t y t y (I) : z b e z e s t y t y
(P) dishonor.
12 On multiple prefixation, see R ojzenzon (1970, 1974). S ee also the discussion of
vidvidaty visit (VP vid- + verb stem vid-) in K urylo (1923:18).
350
6 . DOMAIN OF DERIVATIONAL MACHINERY
Foreign verb stems tend to be restricted in their ability to combine
with native VPs, and then mainly to express verbal aspect, e.g. mane-
v r u v a t y (I) : z m a n e v r u v a t y (P) manoeuvre; e v a k u j u v a t y (I) evacuate
appears with no VPs (at least not in the literary language). An exception
is m a l j u v a t y paint (see section 2 above). It would be interesting to
determine whether (a) spoken and written U differ in the assignment of
VPs to foreign stems, 13 and (b) the age or source of the loan is a factor
in determining its combinability with VPs.
7. INVERSE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MORPHOLOGI CAL
AND SEMANTIC COMPLEXITY
Very often, an increase in morphological complexity results in a
decrease in semantic function. Consider the following simple verbs
which have (a) a more general and/or (b) more comprehensive meaning
than any single related derived verb, e.g. (a) t o r h u v a t y trade vs. nator -
h u v a t y buy at cheaper prices, p y j a y t y carouse, drink excessively vs.
z a p y j a y t y begin drinking, give oneself to carousing; (b) u t y hear, be
told; smell : u v a t y hear, be told (~ P czu feel, smell : czuwa be on
the alert); v o l a t y implore, pray (in a loud voice), call, shout for :
z a v o l a t y call (in); cry out, exclaim; n a v o l a t y call together, invite (large
numbers), v i d v o l a t y recall; save, deliver (unique meaning); v ar yt y
boil, cook, brew, digest : p o v a r y t y boil, cook a little, many things,
n a v a r y t y cook, boil, brew plenty, z a v a r y t y brew, boil (down), z v a r y t y
finish boiling, cooking; solder (unique meaning). The last two exam
ples show that a derived verb may also express unique meanings not
found in the simplex. An example contrary to the generalization of
inverse relationship between morphological and semantic complexity is
r o d y t y give birth to : p e r e r o d y t y s j a be reborn; degenerate. Such
13 T he same distribution characterizes R vakuirova , manevrirova . In literary C z,
foreign loans usually take z- as the marker of perfective aspect, as in (z)komplikovati
complicate, (z)korigovati correct, though spoken C z shows a greater tendency to com
bine different VPs with foreign verbs, e.g. (na)malovati, (vy)likvidovati liquidate.
(za)tancovati hop (see Vey 1952:102-3; L ebed 1974).
exceptions should be carefully studied. It should also be determined
whether a simplex historically acquires new meanings from derived
forms or whether the variety of meanings associated with a simplex
was original to it. 14 A factor contributing to the multiplicity of func
tions in the simplex may be the back formation of morphologically
simpler forms, e.g. e p t a t y s j a exchange whispers1 may be a back forma
tion from synonymous p e r e e p t a t y s j a < e p t a l y whisper. Derived verbs
with two or more VPs are less prone to ambiguous interpretations than
verbs combined with a single VP, e.g. v i d m o v l j a t y (I) : v i d r ^ j v y t y (P)
refuse; dismiss; pronounce; recite, repeat; dissuade; charm; answer vs.
p o v i d m o v l j a t y (P) reply (negatively) (to many), z a b o r o n j ( u v ) a t y (I) :
z a b o r o n y t y (P) forbid; finish harrowing vs. p o z a b o r o n j u v a t y (P) for
bid (many) (see also the discussion in section 5 above). A number of
compound VPs, especially those involving encircling derivation with p o -
/ p i - and the non-final suffix -(j)uva- (I, P), -o v u v a - (I), can only mark
perfective aspect, e.g. h l a d y t y (I) smoothe, iron : r o z h l a d u v a t y (I) :
r o z k l a d y ty (P) smoothe, iron out : p o r o z h l a d u v a t y (P) smoothe, iron
out (in many places); see also p o v i d m o v l j a t y (P) and p o z a b o r o n j u v a t y
(P) discussed above.
8 . INTERDIALECTAL AND INTERSL RELATIONSHIPS
U dialects may differ over the distribution and/or functions of a VP.
For example, Carpathian U z a r j a d y t y s j a manage, conduct ones affairs
vs. stU be charged, loaded, Bukovyna U r o z b y r a t y s j a separate, go dif
ferent ways (= stU r o z x o d y t y s j a ) vs. stU undress oneself; be taken
apart; understand well. 15 U dictionaries differ widely in the corpus and
functions of derived verbs, though this is in part a reflection of differing
conceptions of the scope of a dictionary. U also differs broadly from
14 L atin populre spread out in a multitude appears to have acquired the secondary
meaning ravage from depopulate (see Vaillant 1946:36). S ee also Mixajlov (1972). C z
volati offers a parallel to U , i.e. shout; summon; telephone : vyvolati shout : povolati
summon :zavolati telephone. S ee also the discussion of markedness in G reenberg (1966).
15 S ee tec (1969:76) and Prokopenko (1961:97) respectively for the non-standard
meanings. S ee also data in Mukan (1961). On differences between od- and vid-, see K urylo
(1923:18). S ee also the discussion of U dialects in R ojzenzon (1974:88).
non-contiguous SI languages in the distribution and function of com
mon VPs, e.g. U p y s a t y Cz p s t i write but U o p y s a t y describe vs.
Cz o p s a t i copy, transcribe, circumscribe, paraphrase, describe (trans
cribe, copy would be p e r e p y s a t y in U). See also the differences between
Southern and non-Southern SI languages in the use of nad(i)- (Reiter
1974). In regard to the contiguous SI languages, U verb derivation fre
quently forms an isogloss with P and Br to the exclusion of R, e.g. U
v i d u t y , Br a d c u , P o d c z u feel, experience, be sensitive to vs. R p o -
u v s t v o v a ( * o t u v s t v o v a t ) \ U n a d j i x a t y , Br n a d y s c i , P nadej arrive,
come upon vs. R p o d -, p r i e x a t \ Xb A systematic comparison of VP iso
glosses across U and S1languages has yet to be carried out.
9. COEXISTENCE OF DIVERSE CHRONOLOGICAL STRATA
The evidence for diverse chronological strata in the VP system of U
comes from widespread differences in the use of common derivational
machinery between (a) U dialects and (b) U and other SI languages,
from (c) the repeated merging of simple VPs into compound VPs (e.g.
older pid[i][oj- vs. newer zbez-), (d) differences in the relative produc
tivity of VPs and individual functions, (e) overlapping functions and (f)
differences in the extent of semantic divergence between cognate VPs
and prepositions. The few diachronic studies available so far suggest
that double prefixation dates largely from the 19th century (Rojzenzon
1974:165) and that the use of VPs in U has been steadily on the increase
since the fourteenth-fifteenth centuries (Rusanivskyj 1971: 79ff, 125ff,
144ff).
10. I NTERPRETATION OF DERIVED VERBS
The speaker of U probably utilizes a number of clues to interpret the
meaning of any VP or derived verb. These clues have yet to be described
systematically. For example, the meanings of a derived verb may often
16 S ee a similar isogloss configuration in the expression of multiple prefixation (R oj
zenzon 1974:27). On the R and G erman impact on U VPs, see above, section 2 and foot
note 10 above.
depend on its membership in a derivational chain. Thus, if a verb stem
occurs both with and without -sja, the latter complex will probably be
interpreted as a passive verb; a verb appearing with -sja only will prob
ably not be interpretable as a passive verb, e.g. p y s a t y write : p y s a t y s j a
be written vs. *b o j a t y : boj a t y s j a fear (*be feared) . 17 The total inven
tory of VPs combinable with a verb stem does not appear to provide
clues to the interpretation of a derived verb in U (although this is prob
ably true to some extent of derived verbs in Hebrew and Arabic). Often
the meanings of the simplex provide clues to the interpretation of the
derived verb, e.g. spatial meanings of a VP would be likely to prevail
over non-spatial meanings if the verb were a verb of motion, as in
p l y v t y swim : p i d p l y v t y swim over, up to (*swim by stealth) vs.
r o b y t y do, make : p i d r o b y t y counterfeit; work a little longer (*do up
to). Frequently, rule ordering offers clues to the interpretation of a
derived verb, e.g. if -sja can be added to an existing complex with p e r e -
in the meaning of repetition, the resulting compound will denote repeti
tion in the passive voice; if p e r e - and -sja are added to a simplex simul
taneously, i.e., there is no complex with p e r e - alone, the resulting
compound may denote reciprocity, e.g. p y s a t y write : p e r e p y s a t y
copy : p e r e p y s a t y s j a be copied, r o b y t y do, make : p e r e r o b y t y redo:
p e r e r o b y t y s j a be redone vs. h l y p a t y cast a glance, wink : p e r e h l y p u -
vatys ja cast glances at each other; see also p er e e p t a t y s j a above, section
7. If this analysis is correct, then p e r e m o v y t y s j a dispute, argue with
(dial.) should be regarded as derived directly from m o v y t y talk, rather
than from p e r e m o v y t y persuade, entice; similarly, p e r e p y s u v a t y s j a in
the second meaning of correspond with should be derived directly from
p y s a t y write and not from p e r e p y s a t y copy. We may assume that
when this rule is blocked, as in r o d y t y give birth to : p e r e r o d y t y s j a
be reborn; degenerate; change radically (see this example in section 7
above), t u p c j u v a t y walk to and fro : p e r e t u p c j u v a t y s j a be tired of
continual walking, the reason may lie in the semantic features of the
simplex itself; hence, the interrelationships of chain membership and the
semantic features of the simplex should be studied, together. The seman
17 In staraty care, provide for (cited by A ndrusyshen and K rett 1957): staratysja
endeavor, take pains, the two members of the opposition are not entirely synonymous.
tic implications of a derived verb with a single VP becoming the
unmarked member of an opposition should also be explored, e.g. s t r i t y
(simplex) : u s t r i t y meet : z u s t r i t y meet, receive, * y t y : p o y v a t y :
v i d p o y v a t y rest. On the formal level, it is clear that we have here a
domain which encourages the use of compound VPs. See also com
pound VPs lacking a simple stem, e.g. n a p o s u d y t y prepare, fix, put in
order, v i d p o l i s k u v a t y wash off, rinse.
11. CONCLUSIONS
The ten principles outlined above are not unique to derived verbs in
U, but are found in other SI languages (as we might expect) and in
quite a variety of languages that we examined Germanic, Romance,
Semitic, Hungarian, Chinese, Indie and the Kwa languages despite
the divergent structure of these languages and the heterogeneous origins
of their affixal machinery. 18 However, the similarities among these lan
guages in the formal parameters of the derivational morphemes are par
alleled by some significant dissimilarities on the semantic plane, e.g. in
the types of functions which may coexist in a single affix. Such dissimi
larities constitute an interesting field for cross-linguistic investigations.
For example, U p i d ( i )( o )- expresses variously the meanings of under,
up, by stealth, approach, as well as excess, increase, duration (pid-
v J a z a t y tie under, p i d v y t y turn, tuck up, p i d r o b y t y counterfeit; work
a little longer, p i d s l u x a t y overhear, p i d p l y v t y swim over to). This
configuration of functions finds only partial expression in non-Sl lan
guages. Consider the eighth derived pattern in Arabic which expresses
by stealth together with excess, e.g. ? i f t a h a l a counterfeit ( K f a ^ a
do, make), ? i s t a m a ^ a overhear ( < s a m i hear), ?intaara await
18 VPs are productively derived from prepositions (and occasionally adverbs) in all
Western I ndo-E uropean languages (where they are pre- and postfixes), from prepositions
and adverbs in Hungarian, from verbs in C hinese, the K wa and possibly also the S emitic
languages (in the first two groups they are postfixes; in S emitic, prefixes and disconti
nuous morphemes). In terms of inventory, U with its forty-odd VPs is midway between
Hebrew and A rabic with less than ten productive derived verb patterns and C hinese with
over a hundred verbal postfixes. For a detailed discussion of C hinese, with some compari
son with the other languages, including S lavic, see Wexler ms.
(<naara look, consider), ?istadda become harder, more intense,
intensify (<sadda be firm, strong); most of the derived verbs have U
counterparts: pidrobyty, pidsluxaty, pididaty.19 The overlap of by
stealth and under is also expressed marginally by French sous- (e.g.
soustraire purloin, subtract <traire milk <L atin trahere draw; sous-
titrer subtitle <titrer title) and by English under- / over- (e.g. under
pin, overhear). On the other hand, Arabic also utilizes the eighth
derived pattern to express the middle voice a feature unknown to the
French or English affixes. Consider also the parallels in distribution and
meaning between U pid(i) (o)- under, the English verb particle up and
the Chinese postfix -qi(lai) all of which express a direction as well as
completion within a circumscribed space, of a specified goal, e.g. U
pidukaty think up, of; find suitable, pidraxuvaty count up, pidsu-
muvaty sum up ~ Chinese sudnqilai count up, jiqilai add up,
xingqi think up but close up and lock up have no U equivalents
with pid(i) ( )-.
The immediate goal of U linguistics should be to motivate the phe
nomena catalogued in sections 1 - 1 0 above and to trace their historical
evolution; the more distant goal extending beyond the confines of U
should be to determine the types of paths along which semantic
notions may develop, and the reasons why the distribution of these
notions should be so similar across languages.
Tel-Aviv University
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PARAMETERS OF DERI VED VERBS
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The C odification of a N onexistent Phrase:
in the S t. G eorge
G ramota
DEAN S. WORTH
The so-called Jureva or Mstislavova Hramota (MH) records three
princely gifts to the St. George Monastery near Novgorod: the village or
territory of Buic with its appurtenant revenues, an annual twenty-five
grivna portion of the autumn tax collection, both from the Kievan
Grand Prince Mstislav I Vladimirovi (until 1117 Prince of Novgorod,
and perhaps the monasterys founder1), and a silver serving dish, thirty
grivnas in value, from Mstislavs son Vsevolod, then Prince of Nov
gorod. MH was written between 1128 and 1132, and probably in the
summer or autumn of 11 , 2 and is thus the oldest original secular doc
ument of Kievan Rus. 3
1 A ccording to tradition at the monastery itself, it had been founded by Mstislav in
memory of his great-grandfather Jaroslav (= G eorgij; see S reznevskij 1860: 337). T he
chronicle tells us only that in 1119 the A bbot K iriak and Prince Vsevolod Mstislavi laid
the foundations for the monasterys stone church (N PL : lOr). T his entry has been inter
preted by some to mean that the monastery was founded only in this year; however, if this
were the case, it is unlikely that K iriak already be referred to as its A bbot.
2 T he A bbot I saiah, mentioned in this function in MH, succeeded K iriak at the latters
death in 1128; Mstislav himself died in 1132. In the winter of 1130 Mstislav sent his sons
Vsevolod, lzjaslav and R ostislav on what proved to be a very successful expedition against
the C ud. L ater that year, Vsevolod is mentioned as being together with his father in K iev,
and that autumn, A rchbishop I oann of N ovgorod resigned ( ca) , and his successor
N ifont was installed the following January first (N PL : 13r). One might assume that the
valuable gifts recorded in MH were intended both as a token of gratitude for the abbots
having blessed the previous winters successful raid on the ud and, perhaps more impor
tantly, to consolidate good relations between the princely family and the N ovgorod clergy
in connection with the appointment of a new A rchbishop, just at a time when the civic
administration in N ovgorod was growing increasingly independent of the Prince (Janin
1962: 63).
3 T here had been three other gift gramoty from Vsevolod to the monastery, but these
were removed to Moscow in 1620 (S reznevskij 1860: 353f., citing );
two of them, preserved only in much later copies, are printed ibidem and in G VN P 1949:
139-140.
MH first became known in 1808 (Bolxovitinov 1818:313; he does not
say, under what circumstances), and, not surprisingly for the oldest pre
served civil document, has been published and/or discussed several
times since: Karamzin 1816: 11,445, Bolxovitinov 1818: 202-203 and
1826: 6-7, Ivanov 1844: 1 and Table I (not available to me, but see
GVNP 1949: 140), Sreznevskij 1860: 339 and 1861-1863: 498-499 (re
printed in Sreznevskij 18822and 18982), Makarij 1858: 51-54 and 1861:
8-11, Grot 1868: 76-80 and 93-95, Saxarov 1891: I, No. 1, Vladimirskij-
Budanov 1908: 112f., Marks 1914: 4, Karskij 1928: 343, Lixaev 1928:
16 (not available to me, but see GVNP 1949: 140), Vinokur 1946/1962:
6 8 , GVNP 1949: 140; it has also been the subject of specialized studies
such as Vinokur 1946/1962 and Isaenko 1960 and 1971.4
The phrase of interest to us here was added, in a different hand and
different ink, 5 between lines four and five. We reproduce it here, from
Saxarov 1891: I, No. 1:
4 In passing, let us clear up a minor misunderstanding on the vocabulary of the MH.
I saenko 1971: 98 accuses S hevelov 1958 (along with Obnorskij-Barxudarov 1952) of con
fusing with and therefore translating the former as to survive, to
be left, whereas, as a loan translation of , it really means to die. In fact,
however, as a glance at L iddell and S cott 1968: 512 will show, also means
to remain, be left; the fact that was probably calqued on in
no way invalidates S hevelovs translation.
5 T he original was written in gold dust suspended in reddish vegetable glue, the inter
polation in green-blue ink covered with gold foil (S reznevskij 1860: 340). One can note, in
addition, the unjotated of , contrasting with the consistently jotated -t else
where ( CBO he 2, C B 0heU 0V 3, uoheub 5, CBO 1- ho , he 14, CBO i - ero 21).
A PHRASE IN ST. GEORGE GRAMOTA
361
According to Bolxovitinov 1818: 215, the interpolated phrase was
first interpreted as + by A.I. Ermolaev. In fact, as Bol-
xovitinovs own correspondence with Deravin makes clear (Grot 1868:
77 ff.), the actual events were somewhat more complex: Bolxovitinov
had sent the manuscript to Count Rumjancev, who passed it on to
Privy Councillor A.I. Olenin, a man who, in Deravins words,
together with his friends, enjoy[ed] investigating antiquities (Deravin
to Bolxovitinov, 14 March 1813). Olenin, in his own words, with the
help of two true lovers of Russian antiquities, Mssrs. Ermolaev and
Frolov (11 March 1813 report from Olenin to Rumjancev, copied and
appended by Bolxovitinov to his 4 April 1813 letter to Deravin), came
up with the interpretation + . On the validity of even
this initial interpretation, see below.
This first interpretation, in spite of serious doubts raised by Sreznev
skij 1860: 15 and echoed by Marks 1914: 7-8, has become firmly estab
lished in both scholarly and pedagogical practise. In his Old Russian
dictionary, Sreznevskij 1958: 487 ignores the fact that the phrase was
interpolated and reproduces it simply as, ^ chov
o b o k u o v ct ouoy -
~ <
(sic; c ). Karskij 1928: 343 provides
typeset imitation + , with the typical three-legged super
scriptrr! Obnorskij-Barxudarov 1952: 33 show the phrase as superscript
(interpolated), but change the cross to the more decorative, albeit inac
curate Maltese *J , and insert a raised one-legged between o and c:
. Their blurred photocopy (ibidem) seems to have been taken
from the only slightly less blurred color reproduction in Polevoj 1900: I,
176-177. Lehr-Spawiski-Witkowski 1965: 28-29 adduce an even more
blurred photoreproduction (copied from Obnorskij-Barxudarovs copy
of Polevoj?) and, in the edited text, restore the properly simple cross but
retain the one-legged t , and move the entire + flush
with the left margin, which makes the passage read, +
, which must complicate things for Polish
students of Old Russian. Finally, the new multivolume Old Russian dic
tionary of the Soviet Academy of Sciences (Barxudarov-Bogatova 2,
1975: 76) eliminates the cross altogether, lowers the onto the line, and
lowers the entire phrase to make it read as a simple continuation of
: , (sic; the original has no punc
tuation at this point) , (sic; idem) ,
followed immediately by the reference, . . , 4. 1130 r.,
which, aside from the fact their reading is incomprehensible, not only
gives an incorrect line reference but also, and worse, creates the impres
sion that , and esp. the word , which Barx.-
Bog. do not trouble to gloss, 6 are lexical entries solidly attested in the
oldest preserved secular document. This creative approach to the vo
cabulary of Old Russian, unfortunately, has no justification in MH
itself; there is no such phrase there.
There are three kinds of evidence for the non-existence of
following in MH. For one thing, the superscript mark so fre
quently and insouciantly interpreted as^orT is very unlikely to be this
letter. There is no sign, in any of the photographic or lithographic
reproductions of MH, that this mark (resp. these marks) are really a
horizontal bar with three short verticals, i.e.**, nor does this mark
resemble any known variety of t . Compare, for example, the lithograph
from Bolxvitinov 1818: addendum, reproduced here by courtesy of the
Library of Congress:
6 T his may not be much of a loss, if we are to judge by their gloss for the problemat
ical ( , , - .), no great improvement over S reznev-
skijs , (1958: 487). makes very little sense in this context, and
is in any case an etymologically difficult word ( , Vasmer-T rubaev 1964:
291); it has been commented on in connection with MH since Bolxovitinov 1818: 215,
referring back to T atiev 1773.
A PHRASE IN ST. GEORGE GRAMOTA 363
with that from Saxarov 1891 above; both seem to show a titlo rather
than a letter of any kind. Furthermore, one must distinguish the original
Olenin Ermolaev Frolov interpretation of this passage as
from their reading of the manuscript. Grot 1868: 94 reproduced
the latter, doubtless rather schematically (from an 11 March 1813 report
of Olenin to Rumjancev, copied and appended by Bolxovitinov to his 4
April 1813 letter to Deravin) as:
+ HB EHO S? KOE
in which, writes Olenin, the dotted lines represent obliterated and
scarcely noticable letters and the solid lines those which can be made
out rather easily without a magnifying glass {ibid.). It is obvious that
this reading does not lead ineluctably to the interpretation
.
Sreznevskij 18982shows a completely different reading:
Sreznevskij noted that, while could be read relatively easily, 7 the
interpretation was highly problematical, both because Ermo
laevs c could equally well be read as V orq, and because the horizontal
7 A t first glance, according to S reznevskij 1860: 340, the whole interpolation resembles
a horizontal smudge, and is legible only under the magnifying glass, on a clear day.
line above the o could be taken for AO as readily as for for these
reasons, Sreznevskij himself preferred the reading BOA 0 Y k o e,
. Another tracing, published by St. Petersburg University
in 1898,8 also shows what seems to be a paerok after the of ,
while the T or m of has turned into a small diagonal slash:
The only actual photograph of MH, published by Marks 1914:4, shows
only a totally illegible smudge between lines four and five; there are not
even any mysterious marks to interpret. All in all, one must conclude
that there is no recoverable physical evidence for the reading
, or for any other specific reading, of this passage.
A second and still better reason for rejecting the reading ,
one that as far as I know has not been mentioned in the literature, is
that o is a paleographic impossibility in Old Russian texts: this letter
was invariably written with omega, i.e., asw(w,iD , ^, etc.). In the c. 550
birchbark documents published by Arcixovskij-Tixomirov 1953 et seq.
there are over two hundred instances of, a few dozen more where the "
is illegible, but not a single clear-cut instance of o ; the closest is S ,
formed with o onoe, in the carelessly written and paleographically
idiosyncratic Gramota No. 289 (c. 1350; see Arcixovskij-Borkovskij
8 Obrazcy... 1898 plate 34.
A PHRASE I N ST. GEORGE GRAMOTA 365
1963: 118). Furthermore, none of the standard handbooks on paleo
graphy (Sobolevskij 1908, epkin 1920/1967, Karskij 1928, Cerepnin
1966, Tixomirov-Muravev 1966) makes any mention of such a digraph
as o.
Finally, there is an equally cogent orthographic argument against
: the digraph 5(oro, if we were to aidmit this possibility in
Old Russian) is used exclusively in anlaut, never within the word.
One must conclude from these three items of evidence that almost any
other reading would be preferable to the generally-accepted .
Unfortunately, it is not clear that there is a satisfactory alternative read
ing. Sreznevskijs (1860: 346) is perhaps the least unconvinc
ing, although for phonological reasons one cannot accept Marks con
nection (1914: 8 ) of this adjective with the toponym . Vladimirskij-
Budanov 1908: 112-113 proposed to read () , which ignores
the second o of the interpolation, and also makes no sense (
?). Issatschenko 1980: 115 suggests the novel und auch die
vterliche Mitgift, with derived from * ( ) and carrying a
prothetic e, but, in addition to its semantic problems (whose father?
what dowry?), this interpretation is contradicted by the arguments
about o already mentioned. One could speculate further. Noting that the
of has a clear dot in either side, one might take this letter fpr the
numeral 2 , ^with faded titlo, and read the phrase as, e (i.e.,
) ^ e but such a reading has its own semantic problems
(second whafl), and, in addition, would require that one posit an unus
ual abbreviation of (axmatov 1885: 236 ff. adduces several
abbreviations of this toponym, but without exception they have the full
-opo-on the line, not under a titlo).
It may well be that the problem of will never find a
satisfactory solution. It would help, of course, if our Soviet colleagues
were to subject the manuscript to modern photographic analysis, which
might show us what was really written there and thus put an end to
speculation. In the meantime, however, both they and we should admit
the uncertainty, and, at the very least, abstain from further propagating
such a patently incorrect reading as .
University o f California, Los Angeles
R E FE R E N C E S
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raskopok 1956-1957gg.), Moscow, 1963.
A rcixovskij, A .V., T ixomirov, M.N ., Novgorodskie gramoty na bereste (iz
raskopok 1951 g.), Moscow, 1953.
Barxudarov, S .G ., Bogatova, G .A ., eds., Slovar russkogo jazyka X I XVI I
w . , vyp. 2 (V-Vologa), Moscow, 1975.
Bolxovitinov, E .A ., Primeanija na grammatu velikogo knjazja Mstislava
Volodimirovia i syna ego Vsevoloda Mstislavia, udelnogo knjazja
novgorodskogo, poalovannuju novgorodskomu Jurevu monastyrju,
Vestnik Evropy, 1818, cast 100, nos. 15-16, p. 201-255; ibidem, cast 101,
no. 20, p. 313 and addendum. R eprinted in Trudy Obestva Istorii
drevnosiej rossijskix, Moscow, 1826, . I ll, kn. 1, p. 3-64. Bolxovitinov
1818 was actually written some five years earlier, as is clear from his
correspondence with D eravin (G rot 1868: 77).
erepnin, L .V., Russkaja paleografiia, Moscow, 1956.
G rot, Ja.K ., Perepiska E vgenija s D eravinyn \ Sbornik ORJaS, 5, 1868, p.
65-97.
G VN P = Gramoty velikogo Novgoroda Pskova, ed. S .N . Valk, Moscow-
L eningrad, 1949.
I saenko, A .V., D revnerusskoe izoostati sja'\ Rusko-esk studie. Sbornik
Vysok koly pedagogick v Praze. Jazyk a literatura, I I , 1960, p.
333-337.
I saenko, A .V., D ie G rzismen des G rossfrsten, Zeitschrift f r slavische
Philologie, XXXV, 1971, p. 97-103.
I saenko (I ssatchenko), A .V., Geschichte der russischen Sprache. 1 Band. Von
den Anfngen bis zum Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts, Heidelberg, 1980.
I vanov, P., Sbornik palegrafieskix snimkov s poerkov drevnego novogo
pis ma, raznyx periodov vremeni, izdannyj dlja vospitannikov Meevogo
vedomstva, Moscow, 1844.
Janin, V.L ., Novgorodskie posadniki, Moscow, 1962.
K aramzin, N ., Istorija gosudarstva rossijskogo, I I , S Pb., 1816.
K arskij, E .F., Slavjanskaja kirillovskaja paleografija, L eningrad, 1928.
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syjskiego, Warsaw, 1965.
L iddell, H.G ., S cott, R ., A Greek-English lexicon. With a supplement, Oxford,
1968.
A PHRASE I N ST. GEORGE GRAMOTA 367
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L eningrad, 1928.
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gorode i ego okrestnostjax (= tenija v Obestve istorii i drevnostej
rossijskix pri Moskovskom universitete, 1861, kn. 2, part I I I , Materiay
slavjanskie), p. 8-11.
Marks, N .A ., D ve starejix russkix gramoty, iz doedix do nas v podlinnikax,
Drevnosti. Trudy imperatorskogo moskovskogo arxeologieskogo ob-
estva, XXI V, 1914, p. 1-16.
N PL = N ovgorodskaja pervaja letopis starego izvoda. Photocopy of ms. in
Novgorodskaja letopispo Sinodalnomu xaratejnomu spisku. I zd. A rxe-
ografieskoj kommissii, S Pb., 1875. R eproduced in J. D ietze, ed., Die
erste Novgoroder Chronik nach ihrer ltesten Redaktion (Synodal
handschrift) 1016-1333/1352, Munich, 1971.
Obnorskij, S .P., Barxudarov, S .G . Xrestomatija po istorii russkogo ja z y k a ,
Moscow, 19522.
Obrazcy slavjano-russkogo drevlepisanija, published by S Pb. U niv., S Pb., 1898.
Polevoj, P.K ., Istorija russkoj slovesnosti s drevneisix vremen do naix dnej,
S Pb., 1900.
S axarov, I .P., Obrazcy drevnej p i s mennosti, S Pb., 1891.
S hevelov, G .Y., Holling, F., A reader in the history o f the Eastern Slavic
languages. Russian. Belorussian. Ukrainian, N ew York, 1958.
S obolevskij, A .I ., Slavjano-russkaja paleografija. Lekcii A.I. Sobolevskogo. S
20 paleografieskimi tablicami, S Pb., 19082. R eprinted L eipzig, 1970.
S reznevskij, 1.1., G ramota velikogo knjazja Mstislava i syna ego Vsevoloda
N ovgorodskomu Jurevu monastyrju (1130 g.), Izvestija Akademii nauk
po otdeleniju russkogo jaz yka slovesnosti, VI I I , vyp. 5, S Pb., 1859-1860
and separately, 1860; cols. 337-355.
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vremennoe obozrenie, Izvestija Akademii nauk po otdeleniju russkogo
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Idem, S Pb., 18822: 53-54 (edition) and idem, Snimki s pamjatnikov, S Pb.,
18982.
S reznevskij, 1.1., Materiay dlja slovarja drevne-russkogo jaz y k a , I tom, A -K ,
S Pb., 1893. R eprinted Moscow, 1958.
S axmatov, A .A ., O jazyke novgorodskix gramot XI I I XI V veka, Issledovanija
po russkomu ja z y k u , 1, 1885, p. 131-285.
S epkin, V.N ., Russkaja paleografija, Moscow, 1967. First printed 1918-1920.
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T ixomirov, M.N ., Muravev, A .V., Russkajapaleografija, Moscow, 1966.
Vasmer, Max, Russisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, 1-3, Heidelberg, 1950-
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Moscow, 1964.
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1908.
T he Boundaries of
T ransformational T ranslation
OLEH ZUJ EWSKY J
It is quite natural that among cultured circles of readers there exists a
legitimate desire to be familiarized constantly with the highest achieve
ments of ones native literature and, under favorable circumstances,
with works of one or two other literatures written in accessible lan
guages; but the readers also want to have the opportunity to follow the
development of all world literature. And this is when the problem of
translation arises. According to such wishes the belief prevails in the
principle of exact translation, by means of which even the most com
plicated impediments of language can be removed for any curious
reader.
Such a belief also has been asserted at various times by many theore
ticians of the problems of translation, though there were, of course, and
still are, sharp differences regarding both the very possibility of an exact
translation and those criteria which should apply to it. I t is clear that
the exact translation should not be confused with the so-called
literal translation (as this happens quite frequently!). Mykola Zerov as
early as the 1920s in his article U spravi virovanoho perekladu (yt-
tja revoljucija, 1928, 9) was aware that this demand for precision in
translation, which is quite relevant and conceivable in business and
scientific translations, loses all clarity when the matter comes to poetic
translation. 1 In another instance, to express a similar idea, Zerov gives
his own formula for the adequate translation whose task is not merely
the exact recreation of the text. He proposes that the translator delve
into the depth of the text, which is conditioned by its epoch and by the
tastes and moods of its author. It is not sufficient to simply compre
hend the words themselves, we read his advice, it is necessary for one
1 S ee M. Zerov, Nove ukrajinsk p y s menstvo (Munich, 1960), p. 287. I n the quoted
article, as well as in our further remarks, examples are given only from the poetic transla
tion, but this does not mean that the conception analyzed here would not concern trans
lations of literature as a whole.
370
to have a feel, through them, for the authors viewpoint, to orient one
self to his stylistic goal, to know the circumstances under which this text
came into being and to understand its place in the life and development
of a given author. 2
In the course of the last few decades, as a result of important discov
eries in linguistics, especially in structural linguistics and, in a still
broader sense, in semiotics, the viewpoint of an adequate translation,
as Zerov understood it, while having attained significant development,
on some occasions became realized while in others it became more pro
blematic. Entering the realm of the transformational method of structur
al linguistics, the principle of adequate translation as well as of various
other types of translation literal, simplified, exact and also free in
the case of belle-lettres assumed its appropriate dominant role, which is
most closely and fully in accord with the very idea of transformation.
For that reason, in our opinion, it deserves a completely new evaluation
and a different treatment.
Such well known semioticians as Cesare Segre and J urij Lotman have
created a concrete basis for this in their bold assertions. Analyzing
Roman J akobsons thesis, phenomenological by its very nature, about
the existence of two codes in the process of codification and decodifica
tion of a sign, they came to the conclusion that a work of art, function
ing as a sign, may through decodification (thus, through a translation
into some other language as well) reveal much more information than
the author originally intended. 3
Analysis of various speculations, such as what other theoretical and
practical results (e.g., a study of the relationships among various kinds
of art) emerge from such a treatment of the matter, does not pertain to
the subject at hand. We only want to emphasize that such an approach
to translation, which in accordance with its specific nature would be
more expedient to call a transformational translation (since all other
relevant terms, including the adequate translation, when it concerns
the translation of works of literature, oversimplify the problem) , 4 prom
2 Ibid., p. 284.
3 S ee T homas G . Winners introductory notes to the monograph by Ju. L otman Struk
tura xudoestvennogo teksta (Providence, 1971) and a more recent publication (which
also includes articles written between 1959 and 1971): U mberto E co, The Role o f the
Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts (Bloomington, 1984).
4 Here of course also belongs the tendency to contrast the equivalent translation with
the adequate one. S ee Ju. luktenko and O. D vuxylov, Problemy adekvatnosti perek-
ladu, Teorija i praktyka perekladu, 6 (K iev, 1981), 85-91.
TRANSORMATI ONAL TRANSL ATI ON 371
ises limitless perspectives. While not appearing as the antithesis of the
adequate translation, the transformational translation at the same
time gives considerably broader liberties to the translator so that he may
realize the most multifarious ontologically conditioned changes regarding
the work being translated. As a result of this it truly becomes a separate
domain of literature the significance of which hardly yields to anything
in creative work.
Translators, who in practice already since long ago have intentionally
been applying the rights and rules of transformational translation,
never strive to create any ideal or absolute translation because the origi
nal, in its ontological reserves, is inexhaustible. Theoretically, there may
be an infinite quantity of transformational translations, and every one
of them may have its own unique artistic value.
On the other hand, the exact translation, as much as it is attainable
in general, is in reality a naturalistic translation, intended to create a
verbal photograph of a foreign text in another language, and by the
same token it eradicates any need for the creation of yet another exact
translation. Such a need is normally satisfied by merely increasing the
number of copies.
An example of such a superfluous exact translation in a sense is
Mykola Baans translation of R.M. Rilkes 95-line long poem Orpheus,
Eurydike, Hermes published in the book Rajner Maria Rilke. Poeziji
(Kiev, 1974). (Its only justification may lie in the fact that Baans trans
lation appeared in the Soviet Ukraine, where migr literary life has
been completely ignored). Earlier, in the forties, this poem was trans
lated by Bohdan Kravciv, also aiming at extreme accuracy. It was first
published in Arka, 2 - 3 (Munich, 1947) and later in a separate collection
of Rilke translations, in the same year (Reci i obrazy).
Both translators, Baan and Kravciv, entered the history of Ukrainian
literature as eminent poets and first-rate masters in the art of transla
tion. However, faced with the task of exact translation, specifically of
the poem Orpheus, Eurydike, Hermes, they both attained such objec
tivity and so successfully abstracted their attitude to the poems con
tent, that a reader really questions whether they had the slightest inter
est in what they were translating, whether they had any understanding
of the poem and why Baan decided to create a second Ukrainian
exact translation of it.
True, it is easy to notice that there still are some differences between
the two translations, that each translator frequently used different
words and, in combining them in sentences, even allowed certain devia
tions from the original. But these changes are so insignificant that they
do not provide the key for a convincing differentiation between them.
Without any fear of exaggeration, one perhaps could assume that the
78th line of the original in Baans translation (it corresponds to his 81st
line, because the entire poem in his version is three lines longer) is a
barely noticeable hint at his attempt to reveal in his own words the main
idea of the literary work. The original line
und jenes Mannes Eigentum [sie war] nicht mehr5
has been translated by Kravciv almost interlinearly:
. 6
Baans translation reads:
. 7
But the hope for imaginative creative ingenuity in Baans translation
immediately dissipates when we take a closer look at other lines that
characterize Eurydice. Especially revealing is a look at the subsequent
longer excerpt, in the context of which one easily notices at least two
phrases untranslated and left without attention. It is the skilful trans
formation of these phrases which lends itself to the feasibility of a
deeper understanding of the work. We present this fragment here, next
to Kravcivs version. Rilkes original text reads:
Fern aber, dunkel vor dem klaren Ausgang,
stand irgend jemand, dessen Angesicht
nicht zu erkennen war. Er stand und sah,
wie auf dem Streifen eines Wiesenpfades
mit trauervollem Blick der Gott der Botschaft
sich schweigend wandte, der Gestalt zu folgen,
die schon zurckging dieses selben Weges,
den Schritt beschrnkt von langen Leichenbndern,
unsicher, sanft und ohne Ungeduld. 8
Kravcivs version:

,
. , ,

5 R ainer Maria R ilke, Werke in drei Bnden, Bd. 1 (Frankfurt am Main, 1966), p. 301.
6 R ajner Marija R ilke, ei i obrazy, vybrni poeziji v perekladi Bohdana K ravceva
(N uremberg, 1947), p. 55.
7 R ajner Marija R ilke, Poeziji, pereklav z nimeckoji Mykola Baan (K iev, 1974), p.
121.
8 R ilke, op. cit., p. 301.
,
,
,
, , . 9
It is clear that in this version the phrases ,
, , (with the omitted )
, ,
already have caused and probably will always continue to
cause justifiable and sometimes even not quite justifiable remarks con
cerning their linguistic non-standard character. However, this does not
pertain to our problem, because from the viev/point of exactness of
translation, the phrases do not lack anyting, and they recreate the Ger
man original with the same scrupulousness as was accomplished in the
corresponding lines by Baan:
, ,
,
. ,

,
, ,
,
, , . 10
What especially interests us here are the previously mentioned
untranslated expressions, which in the last line are the attributes sanft
and ohne Ungeduld. In particular, both translators were unsuccessful in
their translation of ohne Ungeduld, because neither
nor to any degree suggest Rilkes original interpretation of the
renowned myth about Eurydice. Careful reading shows that the expres
sion of the original ohne Ungeduld is too far removed in its basic mean
ing from its Ukrainian renditions. In Rilkes entire text there is no indi
cation of Eurydices suffering. She does not suffer from anything but
only rids herself (perhaps, because of her age) of her live and ardent
impatience, which is characteristic of a young girl in love. 11 Thus, espe
9 ei i obrazy, p. 55.
10 Poeziji, p. 121.
11 I n connection with this, the poem E vridikaOrfeju (1923) by M. C vetaeva is
worthy of attention, a penetrating and extremely interesting commentary of R ilkes rele
vant poem. S ee Marina C vetaeva, Izbrannye proizvedenija (Moscow-L eningrad, 1965),
pp. 230-231.
cially Baan, who let us expect a deeper perception of her image in the
transformation of the line 78, should have found for Ungeduld (close
here in meaning to German Heftigkeit) such equivalents as ,
, and for sanft, which in Eurydices characteri
zation does not mean at all, but rather means something closer to
Kravcivs , i.e. : demtig. But he did not do this because
his attention centered solely on the surface of the work, ignoring its
third, deep dimension, accessible only by applying the principle of trans
formational translation.
Penetration into the third, deep dimension with the aim of overcom
ing the monosemy of a word as well as of the naturalistically photo
graphed portrayal of reality (often connected with bare discoursive-
ness), the penetration assisted by transformation is of course also
characteristic of the original work. In his essay Alienation and Trans
formation: Rilkes Poem Der Schwan, 12 Herbert Lehnert summed up
the importance of transformation, touching upon the question, which in
many respects is synonymous with the problem of transformational
translation. Lehnert convincingly illustrates an almost organic fusion at
the level of the transformational principles of the two different creative
processes, the original and the translation, in analyzing the metamor
phosis of Rilkes swan into an artistic piece, into poetry, by coming to a
deep understanding of the complaint sent to heaven by Baudelaires
swan (in his poem Le cygne ) . 13 Moreover (and here lies the main
emphasis of our viewpoint), the same essay by Lehnert indirectly points
out the existing boundaries, beyond which the sovereign claims of trans
formational translation do not reach, since Rilkes poemDer Schwan,
which is analyzed by him, is certainly an original creation, and not a
translation of Baudelaires Le cygne.
On the other hand, for defining the same boundaries, so to speak,
from within, where the broad prerogatives of transformational transla
tion are rightly realized, the analysis of two Ukrainian translations of
Horaces ode (i, 23),Do Xloji by M. Zerov and Do ljubky by P. Hulak-
Artemovskyj, 14 would suit our purposes here if we compare them with
the poems exact translation by Andrij Sodomora, which even preserves
12 S ee Rilke: The Alchemy o f Alienation, Frank Baron, E rnst S . D ick, and Warren R .
Maurer, eds. (L awrence, K ansas, 1980), pp. 95-112.
13 Ibid., pp. 102-103.
14 Zerov characterized the latter as a transition from travesty to translation. S ee his
Nove ukrajinskepys'menstvo, p. 111.
the meter of the third Asclepiadean verse. 15 Such an analysis, besides be
ing a fuller illustration of my thought and providing rhetorical balance to
my exposition, perhaps might be capable of more accurately answering
the questions that have existed in literature for a long time, of the fol
lowing type: 1. Why do J zef Paszko wskis (1813-1861) Polish version of
Shakespeares tragedies, despite the appearance of many new and far
more exact translations, 16 still today remain so popular with the Polish
readers? 2. For what reason did the Rubaiyat by Omar Khayyam in
the English translation by Edward Fitzgerald become a masterpiece of
English poetry? And, finally, 3. Why does such a talentless Russian tra
vesty of the Aeneid by Nikolaj Osipov (1751-1799) not deserve any kind
of comparison with the ingenious creation of the same title by Ivan
Kotljarevskyj? However, a lack of space forces us to conclude these
remarks with only a few more literary examples, this time to demon
strate the cases in which various distinct means of transformation
clearly overstep the boundaries of transformational translation and thus
produce completely different phenomena, let us say, polemic transla
tions or outrightoriginal polemic creations, which have nothing in
common with translation.
Here belong such transformations as the translation of Goethes
Mignons Lied (Kennst du das Land?) with its renowned ending:
Dahin! Dahin!
Geht unser Weg; o Vater lass uns ziehen! 17
which Pantelejmon Kulis modified in accordance with his sentimental
didacticism:
,
He , , !
, ,
, ! 18
This unashamedly polemic translation in some way echoes that of H.
Kour, when he travestied Paul Valerys early poem La fileuse (
) in the manner of by Pavlo Hrabovskyj (
15 K vint Horacij Flakk, Tvory, pereklad, peredmova ta prymitky A ndrija S odomory
(K iev, 1982), p. 34.
16 I. Franko and other critics often criticized Paszkowski for his inaccuracies and mis
takes. S ee I. Franko, Zibrannja tvoriv u p jatdesjaty tomax, vol. 29 (K iev, 1981), pp.
170-176.
17 Goethes Werke, Bd. 21 (Weimar, 1898), p. 233.
18 Pantelejmon K uli, Vybrni tvory (K iev, 1969), p. 384.
, ...). Instead of Valerys picture of an
ideal (if not typical as compared to its modelGustave Courbets paint
ing La fileuse endormie ) 19 young woman, who, having fallen asleep
as though having died for a moment, remains constantly in touch with
the flowering life surrounding her (similar to his La dormeuse and
La fausse morte), from whom one could expect une nouvelle mort
I / Plus precieuse que la vie,20 Kour portrays a hard-working
wretched woman exploited by an unknown sluggard, . He
describes her as follows:
. . . 21
Of course, nothing of that sort is found in Valry. Moreover, the
realist Courbet does not have such motives either. Courbet was one of
the greatest masters of the rendering of human hands. The hands in his
paintings seem to express a fundamental attitude of his genius, they are
always functional and they are only where conditioned by
appropriate themes, as the stonecutters in his painting of the same title
(unfortunately destroyed in 1945). Thus, even with reference to Courbet
Kour did not have any basis to resort in his translation to such a trans
formation of poetry by the French poet-symbolist. Naturally, he could
have been mistaken. In the attribute oisive (unoccupied) in the phrase
le jardin de loisive, 22 which refers to the same fileuse, he could have
erroneously read a recollection about some other woman, , in
whose house worked an unhappy (though as pretty as a rose)
2:3. However, more likely it is his deliberate polemic with Valry, in
which he deviated even further from the original than Kulis in his trans
lation of Mignons Lied. Kour obviously came close to the same
means to which the Czech writer Karel Capek used to resort to when he
reworked various elements of Anton Chekhovs subjects, to criticize
from his own pragmatic positions the hopeless (as it seemed to him)
tendencies of consistent impressionism.
University o f Alberta
19 Jean D ubu. Valry et C ourbet: Origine de L a fileuse, Revue d histoire littraire de
la France, 65 (Paris, 1965), pp. 239-242.
20 Paul Valry, Euvres (L ibrairie G allimard, 1957), p. 138.
21 Hryhorij K our, Vidlunnja: Vybrnipereklady (K iev, 1969), p. 29.
22 Valry, p. 75.
23 Fem. of farm hand.
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$15 hardbound
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Beauty). 1952. 22 pages $2.00
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Humenn, Dokia. ;
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1978. 384 pages $10.00
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. .
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Vynnychenko, Voldymyr. . (Over There, a Story).
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Vynnychenko, Volodymyr. . ,
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Vynnychenko, Volodymyr. , . (Take the Floor,
Stalin). 1971. 374 pages $10.00
, ,
1945-1965. (J ubilee Publication Dedicated to the Twentieth Anniversary
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70
. . (Tribute to
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Annals of UVAN 1981 1983

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Annals of UVAN 1981 1983

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THE ANNALS OF THE UKRAINIAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES IN THE U.S., INC.

VOLUME XV 1981-1983NUMBER 39-40

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