XXII.

MEASUREMENTS AND CONTROLS IN

BOILER PLANT
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Contents
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MEASUREMENT
3. AUTOMATIC CONTROL
4. FEED WATER CONTROL/DRUM LEVEL CONTROL
5. COMBUSTION CONTROL SYSTEM
6. PULVERISED FUEL FIRING AND MILLING PLANT CONTROL
SYSTEM
7. FURNACE DRAUGHT CONTROL SYSTEM
8. STEAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM
9. SUPER CRITICAL BOILER CONTROL SYSTEM
10. CONCLUSION
FIG. XXII-1 SINGLE ELEMENT FEED WATER CONTROL
FIG. XXII-2 TWO ELEMENT FEED WATER CONTROL
FIG. XXII-3 THREE ELEMENT FEED WATER CONTROL
FIG. XXII-4 FURNACE PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEM
FIG. XXII-5 SUPER HEATER TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM
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XXII. MEASUREMENTS AND CONTROLS IN
BOILER PLANT
1. INTRODUCTION
The practical efficiency of any Boiler Plant whether small or large will depend upon the
manner in which it is employed and controlled and the best results are obtained when the
water in the boiler is evaporated into steam at the correct pressure and in the right quantity
with the burning of correct amount of fuel. It is very essential to know what is happening not
occasionally but all the time to ensure the good performance of the boiler and this purpose is
fulfilled by the instruments.
The problem in the boiler is to regulate its output to match the load demand and to achieve
this with maximum efficiency of fuel burning. However under varying load conditions this
would be a difficult task and instruments are, therefore necessary, to control and monitor the
operating conditions of the boiler. The absence or nonworking of instruments for observing
the working conditions is the main reason why many Boiler Plants do not achieve their best
results.
2. MEASUREMENT
Functions of Instruments and Control
The basic approach is to measure the important variable physical quantities in the boiler such
as draught, carbon dioxide, temperature and flow of fuel, steam, feed water and air and to
regulate these either by manual operation or by automatic control system. The measurement
of air flow will indicate whether the volume of air supplied is in accordance with the required
rate of combustion. It enables the opening or closing the dampers with accuracy, and changing
the rate of combustion to match the load. Also the draught measurement at appropriate points
can help to investigate air leak and blocking up of flue passages by soot etc. In general a
sudden or unaccountable change in the draught reading throughout the boiler settings at once
indicates an abnormality and enables this to be corrected, without resulting in too rapid
combustion, also invaluable carbon being carried away in chimney with consequent loss of
efficiency. Insufficient air on the other hand as indicated by an abnormally low gauge reading
results in unburnt gases being carried away to atmosphere and is one of the causes of black
smoke. Without certain amount of excess air, it is not possible for complete combustion in
practice and the problem is to keep it as low as possible throughout the range of load variations
of the boiler. In an average Boiler House good operating conditions are obtained with a certain
% excess air equivalent to oxygen reading. The measurement of oxygen gives an indication
of the efficiency of combustion, while this measurement in conjuction with temperature
measurement of flue gases will give the value of losses.
Temperature measurement is most important especially if these readings are associated with
those of other instruments. The most reliable way of Knowing whether the full amount of
heat is being utilized is to measure the temperature of flue gases and interpret it in conjunction
with the oxygen content of the gas. Observation based on the flue gas temperature alone may
prove misleading sometimes since a low temperature of the gases does not necessarily mean
a high efficiency which may be result of excess air passing through the furnace or due to the
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infiltration of cold air from outside. Whether this is so or not will be clear from the oxygen
indication. Similarly the abnormal temperature of flue gases may be due to dirty heating
surfaces or the short circuiting of the flue gases. The carbon dioxide measurement is taken
along with oxygen reading for checking. The steam temperature read in conjunction with
steam pressure will indicate whether the boiler is delivering the correct quality of steam.
Before initiating any adjustment of fuel and air flow, observation of the boiler load is
indispensable. A steam flow meter will perform this function and whether or not the corrective
action taken to match the rate of combustion is appropriate can be readily determined by
noting the steam pressure.
For a comprehensive idea of the losses, the boiler blowdown should also be taken into
consideration. Feed water measurement is, therefore, necessary and by subtracting the total
steam generated from the total feed water pumped into the boiler, blowdown losses can be
estimated.
In present day boilers the amount of measurement to be made are enormous. Further, the
process of heat transfer is almost instantaneous in the modern Water Tube Boiler and since its
storage capacity is not much, rapid alterations in the rate of heat input are needed to maintain
the steam pressure constant under all circumstances. It would be quite obvious that any
departure from the designed steam pressure means loss of efficiency and a higher operating
cost.
3. AUTOMATIC CONTROL
As the generation of steam is a continuously interdependent, it follows that the control also
should be continuous and that the needed adjustments of air flow and fuel flow should be
simultaneous. The scope of manual control would be very limited under such circumstances
since the operator cannot observe ail the readings simultaneously and apply corrective
adjustments instantaneously. Further, the effectiveness of manual control very much depends
upon the ability of the operator to judge the load trends and to exercise the corrections without
trial and error. Automatic Boiler control is, therefore, the best course for a range of boilers or
large unit boilers since in this system all adjustments are simultaneous based on exact
measurements.
For automatic control either pneumatic (including hydraulic) or electronic (including electrical)
system can be adopted. Pneumatic system was widely used till the last decade and the
advancement in electronic field in the recent years made electronic system on more favourable
footing where more complex and more number of control functions are involved.
The major advantages of the pneumatic system are :
i) Simple and hence less skilled person can be utilized for servicing.
ii) Less expensive on initial cost.
iii) Reliable and more rugged components are available in the market as this system is
in use for a very a long time.
iv) Higher motive force for actuator is readily available.
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v) Can be adopted in hazardous surroundings as this is flame-proof.
vi) Operation is smooth and overloadproof because of inherent compressibility.
vii) Permits wider ambient temperature operations.
The electronic system has the following advantages :
a) High speed of signal transmission and hence less time lag.
b) Higher amplification is possible with the help of elecrtonic amplifiers.
c) Control medium is unaffected by dust, grease etc.
d) Easily adoptable to complex and integrated control.
e) Greater accuracy due to fast response and feed back from more number of
variables.
f) Cheaper operating cost if this system is adopted for large plants. This needs
Only dip free electric supply while pneumatic system requires large quantity of
clean (moisture, oil, dirt free) compressed air.
However electronic control system with final element operated by electric, hydraulic or
penumatic system is preferred as this results in high speed, high motive force.
Let us now consider one after another, the most important and vital controls that should be
employed in a steam generating unit. (Both pneumatic and electronic).
4. FEED WATER CONTROL/DRUM LEVEL CONTROL
4.1 Purpose
It is but apt that feed water is considered as the life blood of boiler, failure of which even for
a brief duration can result in serious and hazardous effects both to the plant and to personnel.
Erratic flow of feed water will speak on the overall plant efficiency and not only will this
affect the steam temperature control and feed water heaters and pumps, but combustion
efficiency will also be adversely affected. Many boilers today operate at steam temperatures
near the maximum permissible metal temperature and temperature fluctuations as a result of
poor feed water control will be disastrous. In present day boiler design advantage is taken of
the high level of performance achieved by modern boilers of high steam release to water
storage ratio. This high ratio calls for a very sound and reliable feed water control absolutely
imperative for reasons of safety as well as performance. Hence, the object of this control is to
maintain an adequate supply of feed water despite varying load conditions. In boilers fitted
with a drum in which the steam and water separate, it is convenient to effect this control by
maintaining in the drum a reasonably constant level. In discussing modern feed water control,
it is preferable to make brief analysis of various systems that are in common use and select a
suitable type for a particular application.
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4.2 Philosophy of Reversal of Drum Level Change
It is a well-known fact that the instantaneous water level in the boiler drum as indicated by the
gauge glass with change in steam rating, is not a true indication of the quantity of water
contained in the boiler drum. Steam is produced in the boiler drum in the form of continuous
streams of bubbles, rising to the surface of the water, resulting in the distance of a certain
volume of steam below the surface, which increases with the rate of steam generated. This
again results in the rise of water level. In a boiler with large capacity and fairly steady loads
this is no problem.But in the case of small capacity drum and with high steam output to water
storage ratio/boilers, this poses a great problem to the control engineers.
With increase in the rate of steam generation, sudden expansion of the submerged steam
raises the water level and any regulator based solely on the water level in the drum senses this
apparent increase in level of water and begins to close the feed control valve. This further
aggravate the expansion of the immersed steam and rise in water level.
This is obviously a reverse effect to what is actually required (i.e. the feed water flow should
be increased with increase in steam output). In a very short period of time, however, when the
conditions have been stabilised with increased rate of firing, restoring the pressure in the
boiler drum, the level will be found to fall quite rapidly since rate of output of steam is higher
than the inlet of feed water. This fall will further be aggravated by the reason that the single
element control responding to this change will start opening up the feed regulating valve,
rapidly increasing the inflow of relatively cool feed water which will collapse some of the
steam bubbles below the surface and cause a further decrease in water level. This fall in level
in modern boilers may result in uncovering of heattransfer surfaces and resultant overheating
and possibly catastrophic failure.
4.3 Single Element Control
As has been stated before, the quantity of feed water can be regulated to the boiler by
maintaining a reasonably constant level of water in the drum. Hence, it would appear all that
is necessary is to design a control loop such that any variation from the desired level will be
detected by a controller which should send out a correcting signal to regulate the main feed
water regulating valve to bring back the level in the drum to its original desired value. This is
a typical single element system and Figure XXII-1 represents this.
Single element control system, as we have seen responds to changes in level of the water in
the boiler drum and hence, its application is limited to boilers where the steam release/water
storage ratio is low and also where the load variations are not too rapid and of limited magnitude.
This is due to the behaviour of the water level relative to load variations.
4.4 Two Element System
Paradoxically, the difficulties encountered in varying loads using single element control can
be solved by taking into account the very factor causing it, namely the Steam Flow . As
represented in Figure XXII-2, this system is provided with steam flow signal. When load
increases, the action of the impulse, conversion relay is to transmit an equivalent water demand
signal to the controller so as to raise the, water level. At the same time, the level transmitter
will have detected the false rise in level, but due to decrease in drum pressure with reference
to the set point but the control: will still work to open the feed control valve. The water level
will settle to the set point of the controller. Incidentally that is called Feed Forwardor
Anticipatory control system.
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4.5 Three Element System
In the previous two systems, it is presumed that the feed water pressure to be constant at the
inlet of the regulating valve for optimum operation; otherwise pressure changes will affect
the throughput of the valve for any given opening and cause a corresponding change in feed
water flow which will affect the level in the boiler drum calling for a readjustment of the
valve. Erratic feed water pressure will result in instability not only in the final control action
but in the entire feed water system. This makes it necessary to use not only, belt and braces
but also a substantial piece of string which is three element system of feed water control.
The three elements employed are drum level, steam flow and feed water flow. In this system
(Fig. XXII-3) the basic control is from the relation of steam flow to feed water flow. In closed
system, under normal steady conditions, with the drum level at the correct value, the ratio of
steam flow to feed flow will be 1:1. Any change in this condition will result in a control signal
being applied to the feed water control valve. The signal from water level also will affect the
readjustment of the feed water valve to trim the level back to its desired value, once stability
is achieved.
Water flow measurement signal enters the control system to position the regulating valve so
that the water input equals the steam output from the boiler. Therefore any variations in feed
water pressure ahead of the regulating valve, causing change in water flow will at once be
detected by the flow meter and the regulating valve will be adjusted to maintain the proper
feed water flow before the level in the boiler drum is affected.
Referring Fig. XXII-3 it is seen that steam flow and feed water flow signals are respectively
accepted by the differential relay. When the steam and water flow are equal, a fixed signal is
sent from this relay to the feed water controller which also accepts the signal from the water
level controller. Should the steam flow or the feed water flow change, the differential relay it
will give different output signal to the feed water controller. The signal from the level controller
will be compared and the resultant output of controller will be applied to the control valve.
This is called Feed forward cum feed back control system.
Based on the foregoing analysis of the three types of control systems the following
standardization on the limitation of the application of each system has been arrived at. The
main factors are economy, simplicity and reliability.
For small boilers upto nearly 35 t/hr single element system will suffice, provided the drum
pressure is less than 50 kg/cm
2
. For boilers from 35 t/hr to 110 t/hr single element control
systems are not very reliable especially, if the steam release to water storage ratio of the drum
is high Hence two element (Drum and Steam flow) control is recommended. For boilers
above 110 t/hr ratings, three element feed water control is very successfully applied.
5. COMBUSTION CONTROL SYSTEM
The main object of automatic boiler combustion control is to regulate automatically, the heat
input to a boiler in terms of fuel and air supplied in relation to heat output or steam demand.
This should be implemented as efficiently as possible in terms of combustion quality and
furnace stability. The automatic combustion control system will naturally result in :
i) A more constant steam pressure and temperature, resulting in efficiency to both the
steam generating plant and to the steam receiving plant.
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ii) Fuel saving due to increase in efficiency.
iii) Increase in life of equipments and pressure parts.
iv) In the case of more than one boiler connected to a common steam outlet, correct load
distribution is achieved, since the control equipment will ensure that equal outputs
are obtained on each boiler. If necessity arises, the load can be shared in any propor-
tion among the boilers, that is synchronizing is no problem.
If fuel and combustion air supplies are to be adjusted with changes in boiler load, the question
arises as to what can be used to indicate changing load ? The answer is steam pressure. It
decreases with increasing load and vice versa. Hence, variation in steam pressure detected
and the supply of fuel and air adjusted accordingly. Then again, what type of control? On/Off
or proportional? Many oil and gas fired shell boilers are fitted with on/off controls in places
where load changes are not severe and steam pressure variations are not critical and the unit
is too small to think of combustion rate, gas velocity etc. Nevertheless, on/ off control has its
own drawbacks. Therefore, on small, medium and large water tube boilers proportional type
control is fitted. These are normally trimmed then and there.
But still, where a more constant pressure is required such as for electricity generating plants,
then the master pressure controller is fitted with a two-term control unit - proportional plus
integral.
The scheme is often referred to as a proportional positioning control system. It is possible to
maintain a correct fuel/air ratio over the controlled load range by either adjusting the servomotor
of the F.D.fan damper control or by introducing a ratio relay in the air flow control circuit.
This scheme, for its operation, calls for a certain damper position always producing a given
air flow. Further, the oil flow/ valve position relationship is always sensitive to variations in
the oil supply pressure. Hence, certain modifications are required.
A full measuring system will take care of these and will ensure that the right amount of fuel
and air is supplied to the boiler in relation to its load. This system enables to alter the relationship
between the master pressure signal and the individual fuel and air control loops. Further, any
manual adjustment to allow for changes in fuel quality can be effected and hence high
combustion efficiency can be maintained.
In oil fired boilers; depending upon the type of atomisation certain modifications are required.
In mechanical atomisation with straight pressure jet burner, the oil firing rate is a function of
the oil pressure to the burner. It is then only necessary to install an auto control valve in burner
supply line.
Using the return system or spill type, the oil flow through the nozzle is controlled by a valve
in the return line from the burners.
In the most commonly used steam atomising method, the oil pressure to the burner is measured
and compared with the steam pressure and the atomising steam valve regulated keeping the
steam pressure at a fixed value above the oil pressure.
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6. PULVERISED FUEL FIRING AND MILLING PLANT
CONTROL SYSTEM
Most modern power station boilers utilise the available source of coal from the mines and are
equipped with pulverized fuel firing equipment. This naturally calls for installation of the
milling plant. Here again, depending upon the quality of the coal, ash content and volatile
matter, the type of firing system is different. It can be either direct fired or storage system. So
depending upon this, the fuel control loop has to be designed.
i) Direct Fired System
Invariably, the pulverised coal feeding to the burners from the milling plant is governed by
the quantity of primary air tapped and set to the mill from the main air manifold after the air
heaters, for drying and for the transport of the fuel. So, in the case of boiler load changes
calling for either an increase or decrease in the quantity of raw coal fed to the mill and also the
amount of primary air sent to the milling plant, the raw coal feeder and air flow are adjusted.
The main impulse for combustion control is from the outlet steam pressure with an auxiliary
derivative signal from the drum. The latter signal is taken in order to immediately sense, any
variation in pressure due to disturbance on the input side. The output from the regulator is a
parallel position system controlling the quantity raw coal fed and also the amount of primary
air admitted to the mills.
ii) Storage System
In this system, the main control is effected on the quantity of pulverised coal fed to the burners
from the pulverised coal bunker. The controller senses any variation from the desired outlet
pressure of the steam and sends out a corrective signel to vary the speed of the pocket feeder,
which feeds the pulverised coal from the bunker to the burners. In this case, it is not necessary
to disturb the milling plant for any small pressure fluctuations.
But in order to avoid the mill getting obstructed due to the quality of the coal or due to any
other reason, it is necessary to maintain the coal in the mill at a reasonable level. The differential
pressure the mill gives an indication of the coal level. So any variation of the differential
pressure from the desired value is detected by the controller and the output signal from it goes
to control the variator (mechanical or electrical) to alter the speed of the raw coal feeder. But
in installation where a certain quantity of vapour are evolved and are to be sucked by separate
mill tans, it is necessary to control damper of this fan also, to allow for the increase or decrease
in flow of the vapour depending upon the mill load. Hence, a parallel position control system
is utilised. The controller accepts signals from the mill differential pressure and also from the
vapour flow. The output from the controller goes to regulate simultaneously the speed of the
raw coal feeder and also the position of the mill fan damper.
7. FURNACE DRAUGHT CONTROL SYSTEM
In all the combustion control systems, irrespective of the type, an independent control loop is
provided to maintain a constant vacuum inside the combustion chamber. Any variation from
the set value is detected by the controller and the resultant output signal directly goes to
regulate the position of the I.D. fan damper in the case of installations having only one I.D.
fan.
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But in cases, where there are two I.D. fans operating in conjunction, the differential pressure
from each fan is taken as feed back signal to the regulator, the output of which controls the
damper of each fan through synchroniser to ensure same percentage of opening or closing of
the damper in each fan for the same output signal (See Fig. XXII-4). The boilers having
frequent load changes, require Feed Forward signal from air flow for effective control.
8. STEAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM
With the spray attemperation or Desuperheater method, fine jets of water on steam condensate
is sprayed through nozzles into the steam in its passage between the 1st and 2nd stages of
superheaters. In order to achieve this, the temperature of steam is measured and any variation
from a desired value is detected by a controller. The latter then sends out a signal to the
regulating valve in the injection line.
The system as shown in Fig. XXII-5 is suitable for low capacity boilers where the mass of the
superheater and hence, thermal inertia time will be small. This greatly minimises the time lag
in the heat transfer. But in high capacity boilers, where the design involves heavy mass of
superheater stages, the inertia time is high. So the main problem in steam temperature control
is that of time lags. These may be in the primary element and more so in the plant itself. So,
there will be lapse of time from the instant injection quantity is varied, till its effect is felt at
the point where the temperature is to be controlled ; so single element control system may not
be able to restore temperature to the desired value quickly. Instead there will be hunting and
instability for sometime. In order to avoid this, an additional derivative signal is taken at a
point immediately after the point of injection (Fig. XXII-5). So an advanced signal is given
from this sensing element for a time which is set depending on the process time lag. After that
duration, any trimming effect is carried out with respect to the temperature at the point to be
controlled. Further, output steam flow signal as a measure of boiler load variations, is taken
as an auxiliary signal, so that corrective action can be taken at the instant of load change.
Burner tilting if provided, is used for reheater temperature control. Here the controller will
give signal to actuate the burner tilting mechanism to achieve the result. This is a qualitative
control system with best control efficiency and process quality.
9. SUPER CRITICAL BOILER CONTROL SYSTEM
Falling into this category is the oncethrough design. Since there is no drum in this type of
boiler, we do not, of course have a drum level control. In the design of these boilers, water is
preheated, evaporated and superheated during a single passage through the heating surface
Systems. Therefore, in order to maintain the steam temperature at its correct value, it is vital
that the fuel to feed water ratio is accurately maintained. It is, however, not possible to regulate
the steam temperature exclusively by varying the feed water flow because this process involves
long dead time. Hence, a portion of the feed water is used for being injected into desuperheater
arranged at the inlet side of the final superheater. The steam output of the boiler serves as the
command signal for feed water control. The feed water controller is set to a certain ratio of
steam to feed water account for the quantity of injection water taken. For this purpose, it is
required that the injection water should be tapped before the place of measurement of the
main feed water. As a result, constant ratio, of injection water to feed water is obtained over
the whole load range, and the feed water flow is always adopted to the existing heating capacity.
In the combustion control system, the steam flow fuel quantity ratio method is adopted with
the ratio of the feed water to injection water as an auxiliary signal.
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10. CONCLUSION
In this write up the most important controls that should be effected in any boiler has been put
forth. Still there are a few other simple controls which may be required depending upon the
particular boiler design. The method of boiler control to be used is based on the mode of
operation of the boiler, firing method adopted and the type of fuel used in general. In each
application, the boiler control engineer has to consider and analyse the problem before
proceeding to design a control loop. The automatic controller does not necessarily duplicate
what the human operator does by hand. It gives continuous minute attention to the control
application; it cannot reason from new conditions, nor can it forecast beyond the data built
with it. So it is the work of the Control engineer to feed appropriate data as are necessary,
taking into account the design technology and practical operating characteristic of the process.
In the final summation it must be remernbered that automatic controller is not amagic box;
but it is a tool in the hands of an experienced control engineer. And a word of caution!
A controller is a slave and it can do only what it has been told to do; nothing more, nothing
less always. So dont EXPECT a controller just to take care of all your control problems.
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FIG. XXII-1 SINGLE ELEMENT FEED WATER CONTROL
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FIG. XXII-2 TWO ELEMENT FEED WATER CONTROL
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FIG. XXII-3 THREE ELEMENT FEED WATER CONTROL
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FIG. XXII-4 FURNACE PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEM
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FIG. XXII-5 SUPER HEATER TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM
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