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Data Transmission
-It is the physical transfer of data over a point-to-point or point-
to-multipoint communication channel.
-refers to the movement of data in form of bits between two or
more digital devices.
Data Rate
-The speed with which data can be transmitted from
one device to another. Data rates are often measured
in megabits (million bits)or megabytes (million bytes) per
second.
-Also known as throughput
Bit Error
-is the number of received bits of a data stream over
a communication channel that have been altered due
to noise, interference,distortion or bit synchronization errors.
Bit Error Rate (BER)
- is the number of bit errors divided by the total number of
transferred bits during a studied time interval. BER is a unitless
performance measure, often expressed as a percentage
Data
-Entities that convey meaning or information
Analog data are a function of time and occupy a limited
frequency spectrum; such data can be represented by an
electromagnetic signal occupying the same spectrum.
-Digital data can be represented by digital signals, with a
different voltage level for each of the two binary digits.
Signals
-Electromagnetic representation of data.

Analog and Digital Signals
Analog signal
Propagated over a variety of media: wire, fiber
optic, space
Continuously varying according to the source
information
Speech bandwidth: 100Hz to 7kHz
Video bandwidth: 4MHz
Digital signal
A sequence of voltage pulses
Almost unlimited bandwidth

Transmission Medium
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-is the physical path between transmitter and receiver. Can
either be:
Guided electromagnetic waves are guided along a solid
medium such as copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, and
optical fiber;
Unguided wireless transmission occurs through the
atmosphere, outerspace or water.
Simplex transmission
-Signals are transmitted in only one direction. Ex. Television
Half duplex Transmission
-Signals can be transmitted in either direction, but only one
way at a time. Ex. police radio
Full duplex Transmission
-Both stations may transmit simultaneously. Ex. telephone
Bandwidth
-the narrow band of frequencies containing most of the
signal energy
Spectrum
-the range of frequencies contained in the signal








Data
Transmission
Serial
Synchronous Asynchronous
Parallel
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Parallel Transmission
In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted
simultaneously on separate communication lines.
In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used. Thus
each bit has its own line.
All n bits of one group are transmitted with each clock pulse
from one device to another i.e. multiple bits are sent with each
clock pulse.
Parallel transmission is used for short distance
communication.

Serial Transmission
In serial transmission, the various bits of data are transmitted
serially one after the other.
It requires only one communication line rather than n lines to
transmit data from sender to receiver.
Thus all the bits of data are transmitted on single line in serial
fashion.
In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with each clock
pulse.


Types of Serial Transmission
Bit Synchronization is a function that is required to determine
when the beginning and end of the data transmission occurs.
Asynchronous transmission sends only one character at a time
where a character is either a letter of the alphabet or number or
control character i.e. it sends one byte of data at a time.
Synchronous transmission does not use start and stop bits.In
this method bit stream is combined into longer frames that may
contain multiple bytes.

Serial
Slow Data Transfer
Low Cost transmission
Applicable on long distance
communication
Parallel
Fast Data Transfer
Higher Transmission Cost
Applicable on short distance
communication
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ANALOG TRANSMISSION
Analog transmission is a means of transmitting analog
signals without regard to their content.
The signals may represent analog or digital data.
In either case, the analog signal will become
weaker after a certain distance.
Therefore, the analog transmission system
includes amplifiers to boost the energy in the
signal.
Unfortunately, the amplifier also amplifies
noise.
With amplifiers cascaded to achieve long
distances, the signal becomes more and more
distorted.
For analog data such a voice, quite a bit
of distortion can be tolerated and the
data remain intelligible.
For digital data, cascaded amplifiers will
introduce bit errors.

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
Digital transmission is concerned with the content of
the signal.
It can use digital signal, or analog signal.
Repeaters are used instead of amplifiers
A repeater receives the signal, recovers the
pattern of 1s and 0s, regenerates the signal, and
retransmits the signal.
Amplifiers cannot do this, as the signal has no
meaning of 0 or 1
Attenuation is overcome, noise is not cumulative

Advantages of Digital Transmission
Digital technology
The advent of low cost LSI/VLSI
technology has caused a continuing drop
in the cost and size of digital circuitry.
Data integrity
With the use of repeaters, the effects of
noise and other impairments are not
Asynchronous
Usually sends one byte of data at a time
Uses start and stop bit
Slow Data Transmission
Synchronous
Sends multiple bytes at a time
Not using start and stop bit
Fast Data Transmission
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cumulative. Thus it is possible to
transmit data longer distances and over
lower quality lines while maintaining the
integrity of the data.
Capacity utilization
High bandwidth links become
economical.
High degree of multiplexing is easier
with digital techniques.
Security & Privacy
Encryption technique can be readily
applied to digital data and to analog data
that have been digitized.
Integration
By treating both analog and digital data
digitally, all signals have the same form
and can be treated similarly. Thus
economies of scale and convenience can
be achieved by integrating voice, video,
and digital data.




SUMMARY OF DATA TRANSMISSION





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TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS
1. Attenuation - signal strength falls off with distance.
Attenuation is often an increasing function of frequency
2. Delay distortion - occurs because the velocity of
propagation of a signal through a guided medium varies
with frequency.
3. Noise - additional unwanted signals that are inserted
somewhere between transmission and reception.
CATEGORIES OF NOISE


Channel Capacity
- The maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a
given communication channel, under given conditions, is
referred to as the channel capacity.

Nyquist Formula:
Assumption: Channel is noise free
Thermal Noise
Due to thermal
agitation of
electrons
It is present in
all electronic
devices and
transmission
media, and is a
function of
temperature.
Cannot be
eliminated, and
therefore places
an upper bound
on
communications
system
performance

Intermodulation
Noise
When signals at
different
frequencies
share the same
transmission
medium, the
result may be
intermodulation
noise.
Signals at a
frequency that is
the sum or
difference of
original
frequencies or
multiples of
those
frequencies will
be produced
Crosstalk
It is an unwanted
coupling
between signal
paths. It can
occur by
electrical
coupling
between nearby
twisted pairs.
Typically,
crosstalk is of
the same order
of magnitude as,
or less than,
thermal noise.

Impluse Noise
Impulse noise is
non-continuous,
consisting of
irregular pulses
or noise spikes
of short duration
and of relatively
high amplitude.
It is generated
from a variety of
cause, e.g.,
external
electromagnetic
disturbances
such as lightning.
It is generally
only a minor
annoyance for
analog data.
But it is the
primary source
of error in digital
data
communication
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-If the rate of signal transmission is 2B, then a signal with
frequencies no greater than B is sufficient to carry the signal
rate
C = 2B log
2
M
Where:
M is the number of discrete signal levels
B is the given bandwidth
C is the channel capacity in bps

Shannon Capacity Formula:
For a given level of noise, we would expect that a
greater signal strength would improve the ability to
receive data correctly.
The key parameter is the SNR: Signal-to-Noise Ratio,
which is the ratio of the power in a signal to the power
contained in the noise.
SNR = signal power / noise power
SNR
db
=
10 log
10
(SNR)
C = B log
2
(1+SNR)
***Only white noise is assumed. Therefore it represents
the theoretical maximum that can be achieved.

GUIDED AND UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Guided
1. Twisted Pair - Most common medium
Characteristics:
- Separately Insulated
- Twisted Together
- Often bundled into cables
- Analog: Amplifiers every 5km to 6km
- Digital: Use either analog or digital signals, repeater
every 2km or 3km
- Limited distance
- Limited bandwidth (1MHz)
- Limited data rate (100MHz)
- Susceptible to interference and noise

Applications:
Telephone network
Between house and local exchange (subscriber
loop)
Within buildings
To private branch exchange (PBX)
For local area networks (LAN)
10Mbps or 100Mbps
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Advantages:
Cheap
Easy to work with
Disadvantages
Low data rate
Short range

Two types of Twisted Pairs:





1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Ordinary telephone wire
Cheapest
Easiest to install
Suffers from external EM interference
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
a. Metal braid or sheathing that reduces
interference
b. More expensive
c. Harder to handle (thick, heavy)

2. Coaxial cable most versatile medium



Characteristics:
- Outer conductor is braided shield
- Inner conductor is solid metal
- Separated by insulating material
- Covered by padding

Applications:
Television distribution
Ariel to TV
Cable TV
Long distance telephone transmission
Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
Being replaced by fiber optic
Short distance computer systems links
Local area networks
Analog
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Amplifiers every few km
Closer if higher frequency
Up to 500MHz
Digital
Repeater every 1km
Closer for higher data rates


3.Optical Fiber


- Has a glass or plastic core
- Laser or light emitting diode
- Specially designed jacket
- Small in size and weight


Advantages:
Greater capacity
Data rates of hundreds of Gbps
Smaller size & weight
Lower attenuation
Electromagnetic isolation
Greater repeater spacing
10s of km at least

Applications:
Long-haul trunks
Metropolitan trunks
Rural exchange trunks
Subscriber loops
LANs

Transmission Characteristics:
Act as wave guide for 10
14
to 10
15
Hz
Portions of infrared and visible spectrum
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Cheaper
Wider operating temp range
Last longer
Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
More efficient
Greater data rate
Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Optical Fiber Transmission Mode:
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Unguided media
- transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as
wireless communication. Wireless transmission media refers to
the methods of carrying data through the air or space using
infrared, radio, or microwave signals.


Radio is a wireless transmission medium that carries
data via radio frequency signals.
Wireless LANs in a home or business are one
type of radio technology.
Radio signals can be long range (between cities
or regions) and short range (within a building).
Radio signals are susceptible to noise and
electrical interference.

Microwaves are high-frequency radio waves.
Much of long-distance telephone service is
carried by microwaves.
Microwaves travel in a straight line.
Microwave relay stations are built about 30
miles apart.
Satellites are microwave relay stations suspended in
space.
They are positioned in geosynchronous orbits.
Satellites use microwave signals to transmit data to and from
earth-based microwave relay stations
Infrared is a wireless transmission medium that carries
data via light beams.
Transmitter and receiver must be in line of
sight.
An IrDa port is needed to use infrared with a
computer.



MULTIPLEXING
-It is a process of combining many signals into a single
transmission circuit or channel




TYPES
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1. Frequency Division Multiplexing
Assignment of non-overlapping frequency ranges to each
user or signal on a medium. Thus, all signals are transmitted
at the same time, each using different frequencies.
A multiplexor accepts inputs and assigns frequencies to each
device.
The multiplexor is attached to a high-speed communications
line.
A corresponding multiplexor, or demultiplexor, is on the end of
the high-speed line and separates the multiplexed signals

2. Time Division Multiplexing
Sharing of the signal is accomplished by dividing available
transmission time on a medium among users.
Digital signaling is used exclusively.
Time division multiplexing comes in two basic forms:
1. Synchronous time division multiplexing, and
2. Statistical, or asynchronous time division multiplexing.

Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
The original time division multiplexing.
The multiplexor accepts input from attached devices in a
round-robin fashion and transmit the data in a never ending
pattern.
T-1 and ISDN telephone lines are common examples of
synchronous time division multiplexing.

Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
A statistical multiplexor transmits only the data from active
workstations (or why work when you dont have to).
If a workstation is not active, no space is wasted on the
multiplexed stream.
A statistical multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and
creates a frame containing only the data to be transmitted


Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
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3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Multiplexes multiple data streams onto a single fiber optic line.
Different wavelength lasers (called lambdas) transmit the
multiple signals.
Each signal carried on the fiber can be transmitted at a different
rate from the other signals.
Dense wavelength division multiplexing combines many (30,
40, 50, 60, more?) onto one fiber.

4. Code Division Multiplexing
An advanced technique that allows multiple devices to transmit
on the same frequencies at the same time.
Each mobile device is assigned a unique 64-bit code (chip
spreading code)
To send a binary 1, mobile device transmits the unique code
To send a binary 0, mobile device transmits the inverse of code


Digital Encoding Schemes
1. Polar
Uses a positive and negative voltage to represent 1s and 0s. A
separate clock signal is used to keep sender and receiver
synchronized. Fairly resistant to interference because of the
great voltage distance between 1 and 0 signals.

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2. Unipolar
Uses positive voltage but no negative voltage to represent 1s
and 0s. Because of low voltage variance, unipolar systems are
more given to interference problems. Most use separate
clocking signals as polar systems because long streams of 0s
and 1s may be confusing if clocks are not exactly synchronized
at sender and receiver.



3. Bipolar
Similar to the other polar methods except that a positive,
negative and zero voltage are utilized. Whenever a 1 is
encountered, the voltage jumps alternately to the positive
voltage or the negative voltage. 0 is always represented by zero
voltage. This type of encoding is very resistant to interference.



4. Manchester
This coding scheme involves voltage changes midway through
the item of digital data being encoded. This serves the dual
purpose of providing the type of bit being represented plus
providing a synchronization cue for clocking purposes. In this
encoding scheme a positive to negative mid-bit voltage
transition denotes a 0 and a negative to positive transition
denotes a 1. The Manchester coding scheme is known as
"biphase".



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5. Differential
Similar to the Manchester scheme, this method is also a
Manchester biphase encoding scheme. The mid-bit transition
from a positive to negative voltage (or vice versa) takes place
to offer synchronization (clocking). A 0 is represented by a
voltage transition at the beginning of a bit and a 1 is
represented by no change in the voltage at the beginning of a
bit. This type of coding scheme is implemented in local area
networking for token ring systems, while the standard
Manchester method is utilized for another popular LAN type
called Ethernet.








6. RZ
RZ (Return to Zero) encoding Is a variation on bipolar coding.
As in bipolar methods, 1 is represented by a negative voltage
while 0 is represented by a positive voltage. However, RZ
involves switching mid-bit to zero. This provides clocking
information for synchronization and better resistance to
interference as it is easy to detect a voltage change mid-bit.



7. NRZ
NRZ (or Non-Return to Zero) encoding utilizes transitions
between positive and negative voltages to denote 1s and 0s.
Transitions are relied on rather than specific voltage levels. A 1
is represented by a transition where 0 is represented by no
transition. This method is not self-clocking.

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