SYNOPSI S

The Evolution of Environmental Management Philosophy Under

Rapid Economic Development in China
Ping Li, Zhongliang Huang, Hai Ren,
Hongxiao Liu, Quan Wang
Received: 12 August 2010 / Accepted: 15 August 2010 / Published online: 29 September 2010
This synopsis was not peer reviewed.
The International Energy Agency (IEA 2010) recently
reported that China consumed 2.25 9 10
9
tons of oil
equivalents in 2009, i.e., China had become the worlds
largest energy consumer. Subsequently, the National
Energy Bureau of China stated that the IEA report was
inaccurate (Gai 2010). This debate reminds us the two
important conferences held in the end of 2009. At the rst
conference (the Climate Change Conference of United
Nations), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC 2009) stated that global climate changes might be
more severe than predicted. Although there is disagreement
about the IPCC report (Folster and Nystrom 2010), most
scientists believe that climate change is a real and
severe challenge and that controlling greenhouse gas
emission is the most effective way to reduce global
warming (Tollefson 2010).
The goal of the second conference (The 2009 United
Nations Climate Change Conference) was to develop a new
emissions-reduction timetable. The representative of each
country balanced the national interest in maintaining eco-
nomic development against the international need to reduce
global warming. The major countries nally made com-
mitments to reduce emissions (Ding et al. 2009).
The Sustainable Development Strategy Research Group
of Chinese Academy of Sciences found that, during tech-
nological advancement, the developed countries greatly
increased their C emissions, and in the absence of restric-
tive policy and resource constraints, per capita C emissions
increased with increases in per capita GDP. In part because
of the oil crisis in 1970s and the constraints of Kyoto
Protocol, per capita and total C emissions have peaked and
begun to decline in most developed countries (Wu and
Wang 2009; Ding et al. 2009). C emissions per unit of GDP
in China are also decreasing, but greater reductions are
possible. From 1990 to 2005, China reduced energy con-
sumption per unit of GDP by 47% and C emissions per unit
of GDP by 45% (Wu and Wang 2009). Considering stage
of development, population growth, increase of per capita
consumption, and cost effectiveness, China can better reduce
C emissions by reducing energy consumption. Reducing
poverty and solving other social problems, however, make
it difcult to reduce C emissions.
While trying to reduce energy consumption and C
emissions per unit of GDP, China has also recognized the
value of terrestrial ecosystem management and vegetation
restoration for C xation. The estimated net C xation of
terrestrial ecosystems in China was 3.85.2 9 10
9
tons
from 1980 to 2000, equivalent to 30% of the emissions
from fossil fuel combustion over the same period (Piao
et al. 2009). In 2008 in China, forests covered about 195
million ha (5% of the world total) and plantations covered
62 million ha (29% of the world total) (Ren et al. 2010).
About 5.96.2 9 10
9
tons of C is stored in Chinese vege-
tation (Yu and Li 2009). The total C storage of all forests in
China was about 1.5 9 10
9
tons during 19802000, with
the afforestation projects between 1970 and 1990 contrib-
uting 450 million tons. In 2004 alone, the net absorption of
Chinese forests was roughly 500 million tons of CO
2
equivalents, accounting for more than 8% of the national
greenhouse gas emissions over the same period (Yu and Li
2009). Over the past 10 years, the Chinese government has
invested 70 9 10
9
US dollars in plantation and forest res-
toration projects (Ren et al. 2010). The potential C xation
of current restoration projects in China is approximately
20 9 10
9
tons with a duration of about 100 years. In the
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AMBIO (2011) 40:8892
DOI 10.1007/s13280-010-0090-8
next 50 years, implementation of forestry projects is
expected to increase forest C storage per year by 182194
million tons (Yu and Li 2009).
CHINAS ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEMS
Chinese pollution problems are inseparable from economic
and social development. Before the Peoples Republic of
China was established in 1949, pollution problems were
small and localized, and economic development did not
appear to conict with environmental protection.
During the Great Leap Forward in late 1950s to early
1960s, however, serious environmental pollution and eco-
logical damage resulted from increased industrialization
and especially from increased iron and steel production.
During the Cultural Revolution, from 1966 to 1976,
environmental pollution and ecological damage increased.
At that time, economic development favored output
quantity rather than production efciency, resulting in a
waste of resources and pollution (Xue 2008). To feed the
growing population, grasslands and forests were destroyed,
and lakes and coastal areas were reclaimed (Ren et al.
2007).
Since the reform and opening-up policy in 1978, Chinas
economy has grown rapidly. The country is now a world
leader in agricultural and industrial production, its infra-
structure has greatly improved, the level of export is very
high, and the amount of foreign investment is the highest
among developing countries. As a consequence, the
income of Chinese citizens has grown (Table 1) (National
Bureau of Statistics 2008; Lu and Chen 2009). With this
rapid economic development, China now faces enormous
social and environmental problems (Zhang and Zhang
2005).
To balance economic growth and environmental pro-
tection, the Chinese government has developed projects
that promote ecological protection and environmental
management (Ren et al. 2008). Many ecosystems in China,
however, still face serious problems (Yang 2001; Ren et al.
2007). The Communist Party of China implemented the
ecological civilization construction strategy in 2007.
Whereas an agricultural civilization considers land
assets as the basis of wealth, and an industrial civiliza-
tion focuses on capital, materialism, and high consumption,
an ecological civilization emphasizes green wealth, i.e.,
Table 1 Statistical data describing Chinas economic and social development from 1978 to 2007
Parameter 1978 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2007
Total population by the end of year (by million) 963 987 1,059 1,143 1,211 1,267 1,308 1,321
Natural growth rate of the population (%) 12.0 11.8 14.3 14.4 10.6 7.6 5.9 5.2
GDP (910
9
Yuan) 3,645 4,546 9,016 18,668 60,794 99,215 183,218 249,530
The primary industry 1,028 1,372 2,564 5,062 12,136 14,945 22,420 28,095
The secondary industry 1,745 2,192 3,867 7,717 28,680 45,556 87,365 12,1381
The tertiary industry 872 982 2,585 5,888 19,978 38,714 73,433 100,054
Per capita GDP (Yuan) 381 463 858 1,644 5,046 7,858 14,053 18,934
GDP growth rate over the previous year (%) 11.7 7.8 13.5 3.8 10.9 8.4 10.4 11.9
Export amount (910
9
Dollars) 98 181 274 621 1,488 2,492 7,620 12,180
Import amount (910
9
Dollars) 109 200 423 534 1,321 2,251 6,600 9,558
Actual utilization of foreign capital (910
9
US Dollars) 229 696 2,307 5,204 8,092 9,698
Urban residents income per capita (Yuan) 343 478 739 1,510 4,283 6,280 10,493 13,786
Rural residents net income per capita (Yuan) 134 191 398 686 1,578 2,253 3,255 4,140
Grain output (million tons) 304.77 320.56 379.11 446.24 466.62 462.18 484.02 501.48
Crude oil output (million tons) 104.05 105.95 124.90 138.31 150.05 163.00 181.35 186.66
Power output (910
9
KWH) 25.66 30.06 41.07 62.12 100.70 135.56 250.03 327.77
Crude steel output (million tons) 31.78 37.12 46.79 66.35 95.36 128.50 353.24 489.66
Automobile output (by thousand) 149 222 437 514 1,453 2,070 5,705 8,887
Highway mileage (thousand kms) 890.2 883.3 942.4 1,028.3 1,157 1,402.7 3,345.2 3,583.7
Waste water discharge amount (910
9
tons) 3.54 3.562 4.152 5.245 5.567
COD discharge amount (million tons) 7.08 7.70 14.45 14.142 13.818
Exhaust emission discharge amount (trillion m
3
) 108,000 138,145 146,431 132,213
Industrial solid wastes (hundred million tons) 5.8 6.5 8.2 13.4 17.5
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resource security, environmental security, and social
safety. An ecological civilization produces high-quality
products with minimal pollution and encourages people to
conserve resources and protect the environment. Estab-
lishing an ecological civilization requires coordinated
regional development that considers social, economic, and
environmental needs (Hu 2007).
VIEWS ON ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
PHILOSOPHY HAVE CHANGED IN CHINA
With the convening of the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment in 1972, the Chinese government
realized the China, like other countries, had serious envi-
ronmental problems (Kang 2008). In 1973, the State Council
of China held the rst National Environment Protection
Conference and issued regulations concerning environ-
mental protectionthe rst document on environmental
protection in China. The document established policy that
emphasized overall planning, rational distribution, com-
prehensive utilization, and environmental protection for the
benet of the people. Afterward, environmental protection
institutions were set up to reduce and recover waste water,
waste gas, and waste residue. In spite of the establishment of
an environmental science and technology system and some
achievements in pollution control, environmental protection
continued to focus on easy, short-term, and end-treatment
solutions.
From the 1980s to 1990s, China began to recognize the
value of the environmental and natural resources and
attempted to internalize the external costs of industriali-
zation and other aspects of development. In other words,
the negative effects of pollution and environmental damage
were to be reected in the price of products and services
(Ye and Wan 2008).
In 1990s, the focus of environmental protection in China
changed from end-treatment to control over pollution
sources. Clean production was emphasized, and both the
concentration and quantity of discharged pollutants were
monitored. Nevertheless, priority was given to economic
development, and environmental pollution and degradation
continued (Yang, 2001).
Since 2000, China has realized that environmental
problems relate to development and that environmental
strategies should guide rather than follow economic
development. The outline of the national program for eco-
environmental conservation issued in 2000 indicates that
environmental deterioration must be completely stopped by
2030; that areas with rich biological resources, including
rst-level branches of major river system and wetlands,
must be protected; and that damaged ecosystems must be
reconstructed and restored (Xu et al. 2009). At the same
time, the Chinese government has shifted its emphasis from
environmental security to ecological security and enhanced
ecosystem services (Information Ofce of State Council
2006).
While China has attached great importance to the study
of natural systems, its research on the social system has
been limited. Past research on the social system has
emphasized that economics and prot maximization are the
basis for development and modernization. It is this
kind of development and modernization, however,
that has degraded Chinas ecological systems and polluted
its environment. Because of limitations in fossil fuel sup-
plies and the recognition of environmental deterioration,
and because of governmental incentives and technological
innovations, traditional industries are being replaced by
more efcient and less harmful industries (Shang 2009). At
the Sixth National Environmental Conference, Premier
Wen Jia-bao emphasized the importance of three transi-
tions: (1) we must replace the focus on economic growth
with a focus on environmental and economic development;
(2) we must no longer view environmental quality as sec-
ondary to economic development; and (3) we must use
administrative methods to rationally and comprehensively
combine environmental and economic management.
HOW ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY CAN GUIDE
THE ECONOMY
China is facing unprecedented challenges in its efforts to
protect the environment and natural resources. The rapid
deterioration of the nations environmental quality and
depletion of its natural resources are threatening the lives
and health of its citizens and the potential for sustained
economic growth. In response, the Chinese government has
recently elevated the importance of environmental protec-
tion in its national development strategy (Li 2004; Task
Force on Environmental Governance 2006). In the current
environmental strategy, policy and initiatives guide the
economy (Xu et al. 2009). Policy is being connected to
human activity and the environment in four coordinated
ways described in the following paragraphs.
(1) The creation of sustainable styles of life and produc-
tion. Economic development in China should increas-
ingly depend on the inventiveness and hard work of
its citizens rather than on the exploitation of its
natural resources and ecosystems (Qi et al. 2007).
China should encourage the development and use of
low-carbon technologies so that green industries will
develop. China should also increase the conservation
of natural resources and the protection of its ecosys-
tems. Education programs should enhance public
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awareness of the benets of low-carbon consumption,
reduced pollution, and conservation of resources and
ecosystems.
(2) The continued reform and opening-up of the economy
and optimization of industry. The industrial develop-
ment strategy should be strengthened, and population
distribution should be adjusted accordingly. The
ability of cities to absorb rural labor should be
increased. While urbanization continues, terrestrial
ecosystems must be managed and restored so that
they serve as valuable pools for C storage.
(3) The improvement of policy that will guide the
development of the low-carbon economy. This will
involve the establishment of a nationwide social
security system, a decision consultation system, an
ecological resource and environmental compensation
mechanism, a mechanism for planning and coordi-
nating regional development, and a policy system that
will encourage the development of an ecological
civilization.
(4) The strengthening of international cooperation for the
peaceful use of global environmental resources.
China has only 7% of the world land area, its per
capita consumption of freshwater is only 25% of the
world average, and its farmland per capita is only
14% of the world average. Yet, China feeds more
than 20% of the world population and serves as the
factory to the world. This imbalance contributes to
environmental problems in China and should be
corrected by the rational use of global environmental
resources. Apart from fairly purchasing global energy
sources and primary products, China should invest in
other countries, should export labor and technology,
should produce and sell products in other countries
and nally should share experiences with other
countries.
Acknowledgments This research was supported by the Key Sup-
porting Project of Ministry of Science and Technology of P.R. China
(2007BAC28B04, 2008BAJ10B03-5) and the Guangdong Sci-Tech
Planning Project (07118249). Although the research described in this
article has been funded in part by the above-mentioned agencies, it
has not been subjected to the Agencies required peer and policy
review and, therefore, does not necessarily reect the views of the
agencies and no ofcial endorsement should be inferred. We thank
Prof Bruce Jaffee for polishing the English.
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Ping Li
Address: Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management
of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China.
Address: Graduate University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing 100049, China.
Zhongliang Huang (&)
Address: Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management
of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China.
e-mail: [email protected]
Hai Ren (&)
Address: Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management
of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China.
e-mail: [email protected]
Hongxiao Liu
Address: Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management
of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China.
Quan Wang
Address: Institute of Silviculture, Shizuoka University, Shizuoka 422-
8529, Japan.
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