UNIT 3 POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

UNIT 3 POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS .............................................................................................................. 1

INTRODUCTION TO POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS ........................................................................................................................ 3
POLYNOMIALS THAT YOU ALREADY KNOW AND LOVE ......................................................................................................................... 3
EXAMPLES ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
GENERAL FORM OF A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 4
EXTREME (TURNING) POINTS ................................................................................................................................................................ 4
INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 5
CONCAVITY AND POINTS OF INFLECTION (OPTIONAL TOPIC) ................................................................................................................ 5
BEHAVIOUR OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................................................... 6
DETERMINING THE BEHAVIOUR OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................................. 10
EXAMPLE ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Summary ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Possible graphs of ( ) f x .............................................................................................................................................................. 11
SYMMETRY EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 12
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ....................................................................................................................................................................... 12
HOMEWORK ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
THE ADVANTAGES OF WRITING POLYNOMIAL EXPRESSIONS IN FACTORED FORM ............................................... 14
FACTORING THE F WORD OF MATH .............................................................................................................................................. 14
EXAMPLE 1 .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Solution .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
ORDER (MULTIPLICITY) OF ZEROS ....................................................................................................................................................... 14
Example .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
EXAMPLE 2 .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Solution .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
EXERCISE 1 .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Solution .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
EXERCISE 2 .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Solution .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
HOMEWORK ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
USING TRANSFORMATIONS TO SKETCH THE GRAPHS OF CUBIC AND QUARTIC FUNCTIONS .............................. 17
REVIEW ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 17
EXAMPLE 1 .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Solution .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
EXAMPLE 2 .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Solution .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
HOMEWORK ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
SOLVING POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS OF DEGREE 3 OR HIGHER ...................................................................................... 19
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
LONG DIVISION AND THE REMAINDER THEOREM A LIMITED APPROACH TO SOLVING POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS ........................... 20
EXAMPLES ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
HOW TO FIND A VALUE A SUCH THAT ( ) 0 p a = ............................................................................................................................. 20
A COROLLARY OF THE REMAINDER THEOREM THE FACTOR THEOREM
............................................................................................ 21
EXAMPLE OF USING THE FACTOR THEOREM TO SOLVE A CUBIC EQUATION ........................................................................................ 21
Solution 1 ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Solution 2 ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
HOMEWORK ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
FACTORING POLYNOMIALS .......................................................................................................................................................... 23
REVIEW COMMON FACTORING AND FACTORING QUADRATIC POLYNOMIALS .................................................................................. 23
FACTORING POLYNOMIALS OF DEGREE THREE OR HIGHER ................................................................................................................. 23
FACTORING SUMS AND DIFFERENCES OF CUBES.................................................................................................................................. 24
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-1
EXAMPLES ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
IMPORTANT QUESTION ........................................................................................................................................................................ 24
HOMEWORK ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
SOLVING POLYNOMIAL INEQUALITIES .................................................................................................................................... 25
INTRODUCTORY PROBLEM ................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Solution .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
INVESTIGATION .................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
WORKING WITH EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES .......................................................................... 26
UNDERSTANDING WHY AN INEQUALITY SOMETIMES NEEDS TO BE REVERSED ..................................................................................... 26
EXAMPLES ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
HOMEWORK ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
INVESTIGATING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS .................................................................................................................................. 30
WHAT IS A RATIONAL FUNCTION? ....................................................................................................................................................... 30
GRAPHS OF THE SIMPLEST RATIONAL FUNCTIONS RECIPROCALS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS ....................................................... 30
GRAPHS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FORM ( )
ax b
f x
cx d
+
=
+
(QUOTIENTS OF LINEAR POLYNOMIALS) ..................................... 32
GRAPHS OF OTHER RATIONAL FUNCTIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 33
SUMMARY GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................. 34
HOMEWORK ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
RATIONAL EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES ........................................................................................................................... 35
EXAMPLE 1 .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Solution .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
EXAMPLE 2 .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Solution .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
HOMEWORK ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
APPENDIX ONTARIO MINISTRY OF EDUCATION GUIDELINES ....................................................................................... 37

Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-2
INTRODUCTION TO POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
Polynomials that you Already Know and Love
Class of
Polynomial
Function
General Equation Example Graph Features
Constant
Polynomial
Functions
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-3
( ) , f x C = C
slope =rate of change of y with respect to x =0
Linear
Polynomial
Functions
4 y =
( ) f x mx b = +
m =slope
=steepness of line
=vertical stretch factor
=rate of change of y with respect to x
b =y-intercept

b
m
=x-intercept
Quadratic
Polynomial
Functions
( )
2
f x ax bx c = + +
(Standard Form)
2 1 y x =
( ) ( )
2
f x a x h k = +
(Vertex Form)
a =vertical stretch factor
0 a > parabola opens upward
0 a < parabola opens downward

2
4ac
a

=x-intercept(s) =zeros =roots

If 4 0 b ac
2
b b
2
> , there are two x-intercepts
If 4 0 b ac
2
= , there is one x-intercept
If 4 0 b ac
2
< , there are no x-intercepts
c =y-intercept
co-ordinates of vertex:
2
4
,
2 4
b ac b


a a

Examples

2
5 y x x =
+

General Form of a Polynomial Function
Let n be any whole number and
n
be real numbers such that 0
n
a
0 1 2 1
, , , ,
n
a a a a a

. Then, the function

( )
1
1
n n
n n 1 0
f x a x a x

= + + + a x a + is called a polynomial of degree n.

The degree n of the polynomial is equal to the exponent of the highest power
n
x .
The numbers
n
are called the numerical coefficients or the coefficients of the polynomial.
0 1 2 1
, , , , ,
n
a a a a a

The coefficient
n
a of the highest power
n
x is called the leading coefficient of the polynomial.
Local Maximum
Extreme (Turning) Points
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-4
Local Minimum
In general, an extreme point or a turning point of
a function is any point at which the function
changes direction.
If a point on a graph has a y-co-ordinate that
is greater than or equal to the y-co-ordinate of
any other point on the graph, it is called an
absolute or global maximum point.
If a point on a graph has a y-co-ordinate that
is less than or equal to the y-co-ordinate of
any other point on the graph, it is called an
absolute or global minimum point.
Collectively, maximum and minimum points
are called extreme points.
By contrast, local extreme points are maximum or minimum points in a restricted region of a function.
The global maximum and minimum points of the Earths crust are, respectively, the peak of Mount Everest
(approximately 8848 m above sea level) and the deepest part of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean
(approximately 11033 m below sea level).

Global Maximum Elevation
Global Minimum Elevation Local Minimum Elevation
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
The function f is said to be (strictly) increasing if for all choices of
1
x and
2
x such that
1 2
x x < , ( ) ( )
1 2
f x f x < .
That is, f is said to be (strictly) increasing if ( ) y f x = increases as x increases.
If you imagine walking along the graph of an increasing function, you would always be walking uphill as you
move from left to right.
The function f is said to be (strictly) decreasing if for all choices of
1
x and
2
x such that
1 2
x x < , ( ) ( )
1 2
f x f x > .
That is, f is said to be (strictly) decreasing if ( ) y f x = decreases as x increases.
If you imagine walking along the graph of a decreasing function, you would always be walking downhill as you
move from left to right.

Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-5

Concavity and Points of Inflection (Optional Topic)
Concave Down shape (frowny)
slope decreases
rate of change decreases
Concave Up shape (smiley)
slope increases
rate of change increases
A point of inflection is a point at which concavity changes.


Points of Inflection
Any tangent line
has negative
slope because the
rate of change of
a decreasing
function must be
negative.
x
Any tangent line
has positive slope
because the rate
of change of an
increasing
function must be
positive.
x
A Strictly Increasing Function A Strictly Decreasing Function
As x increases, decreases. ( ) y f x = As x increases, so does . ( ) y f x =
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-6 Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-6
BEHAVIOUR OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
Equation and Graph Degree
Even or
Odd
Degree?
Leading
Coefficient
End Behaviours #of
Turning
Points
#of
Points of
Inflection
Intervals
of
Decrease
Intervals of
Increase
Intervals where Intervals
f is Concave where f is
Down Concave Up
x x +

2 even +1
y + y +
1 0 ( ) , 2 ( ) 2, ( ) , nowhere

2 even 2
y y
1 0
7
,
4





7
,
4




( ) , nowhere
( )
2
2 7 15 f x x x = +

4 even +3
y + y +
3 2
here
approximate
values given
( ) , 0.9
) 0.4,1.2
appr
values given
here
oximate
(
( ) 0.9,0.4

approximate values
given here
( ) 1.2,
( ) 0,0.9
appr
values given here
oximate
( ) ,0
( ) 0.9,
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-7

Equation and Graph Degree
Even or
Odd
Degree?
Leading
Coefficient
End Behaviours #of
Turning
Points
#of
Po f ints o
Inflection
Intervals
of
Decrease
Intervals of
Increase
Intervals where Intervals
f is Concave
Down
where f is
Concave Up
x x +







Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-8
Equation and Graph Degree
Even or
Odd
Degree?
Leading
Coefficient
End Behaviours #of
Turning
Points
#of
Points of
Inflection
Intervals
of
Decrease
Intervals of
Increase
Intervals where
f is Concave
Down
Intervals
where f is
Concave Up
x x +







Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-9

Equation and Graph Degree
Even or
Odd
Degree?
Leading
Coefficient
End Behaviours #of
Turning
Points
#of
Po f ints o
Inflection
Intervals
of
Decrease
Intervals of
Increase
Intervals where
f is Concave
Down
Intervals
where f is
Concave Up
x x +



Determining the Behaviour of Polynomial Functions


Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-10
Example
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-11
Equation
( )
5 3 2
3 4 8 7 5 f x x x x x = + +

General Comments
End Behaviours
#of Zeros
Possible
#of Turning
Points Possible
#of Points of Absolute
Inflection Max, Min
Possible or Neither?
x x +
Degree 5
Since the degree of
this polynomial is
odd, it has opposite
end behaviours.
The leading
coefficient is
negative, which
means that the
graph must extend
from quadrant II to
quadrant IV.
When x is a very large
negative number such
as 1000, 3
y +
5
x has an
po
greater
value of
here
extremely large sitive
value and has a
effect on the
the function than the
other terms. T fore,
as x , y + .
y
The degree is
odd, which
means that the
polynomial
function must
have at least
one zero.
Since the
degree is 5,
there can be no
more than 5
zeros.
The degree of f is
odd, which
means that it has
opposite end
behaviours.
Hence, it must
have an even
number of
turning points.
As a result, f can
have 0, 2 or 4
turning points.
For a polynomial
function, the
number of points
of inflection is at
most two less
than the degree
of the
polynomial.
Hence, there are
either 1. 2 or 3
points of
inflection.
Since th
degree o
is odd, i
cannot
have any
absolute
extreme
points.
e
f f
t

When x is a very large
positive number such as
1000, 3
5
x has a
d has a
value of t
han
n
extremely large negative
value an greater
effect on the he
function t the other
terms. Therefore, as
x +, y .
Even or Odd
Degree?
Odd
Leading
Coefficient
3
Summary
f has opposite end behaviours: As x , ( ) f x ( ( ) lim
x
f x

= ). As x , ( ) f x ( ( ) lim
x
f x

= ).
Since ( )
5 3 2
3 4 8 7 5 f x x x x x = + + , then ( ) 0 5 f = , which means that the y-intercept must be 5.
f has 1 to 5 zeroes
f has 0, 2 or 4 turning points but cannot have any absolute (global) turning points
f has 1, 2 or 3 points of inflection
Possible graphs of ( ) f x

One Zero
Zero Turning Points
One Point of Inflection

Two Zeros
Two Turning Points
One Point of Inflection

Three Zeros
Two Turning Points
Two Points of Inflection

Four Zeros
Four Turning Points
Three Points of Inflection

Five Zeros
Four Turning Points
Three Points of Inflection
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi HF4 n nctions PRF-12
Symmetry Even and Odd Functions
Certain functions can be classified according to symmetry that they exhibit. Two important categories of symmetries are
sho
i HF4 n nctions PRF-12
Symmetry Even and Odd Functions
Certain functions can be classified according to symmetry that they exhibit. Two important categories of symmetries are
shown in the wn in the diagrams below. diagrams below.
Even Functions Odd Functions
M M UO U UO Unit 3 nit 3 Poly Polynomia nomial and l and Ratio Ratio al Fu al Fu


Important Ques
1. Complete th n
tions
e following table. (Do t forget to investigate the graph of each function!)
Function
Odd or
Even?
Explanation Function
Odd or
Even?
Explanation
( ) 2
x
f x = Neither
( ) ( )
1
2
2
x
x
f x
( )
f x

= =
( )
1
2
x
2
x
f x = f x =
( ) tan f x x =
( )
2
log f x x = ( ) csc f x = x
( ) sin f x x = ( ) sec f x = x
( ) cos f x x = ( ) cot f x = x
2. Is it possible for a function to have s n
3. Besides symmetry in the y-axis and , are there any other symmetries
function can
ymmetry in th
rotational sym
e x-axis? Explai
metry ab
.
out the origin that a
have?

x
x
( ) f x
( ) ( ) f x f x =
( ) ( )
, x f x
( ) ( )
, x f x
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2.5 f x x x x = +
An ODD Polynomial Function
For all odd functions f, ( ) ( ) f x f = x
and f has rotational symmetry
about the origin.
( ) ( )
2
2 2.5 f x x x x = + ) (
2 2
5
x x
( ) ( )
, x f x ( ) ( )
, x f x
( ) ( ) f x f x =
An EVEN Polynomial Func
For all even functions f,
(
tion
) ( ) f x f x = and
f is symm ic in the y-axis. etr
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions -13
4. ollowing tables. Complete the f
PRF
Equation
( 2 g + ) x x =
4 2
2 x +
General Comments
(Including any
Symmetry)
End Behaviours
#of Zeros
Possible
#of Turning
Points Possible
#of Points of Absolute
Inflection Max, Min or
Possible Neither?
x x +
Degr



ee
Even or Odd
Degree?

Leading
Coefficient

Possible gr

( ) g x aphs of

Homework
pp. 136 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 16 138:
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Un Polyno 14
DVANTAGES OF WRITING POLYNOMIAL EXPRESSIONS IN FACTORED FORM
Fac The F Word of Math
To the disappointment of many students, a great deal of time is spent developing factoring skills in high school
mathematics. While factoring in and of itself is often tedious and sometimes may even appear to be purposeless, its
importance in understanding polynomial functions cannot be underestimated. For instance, consider the polynomial
func
i MHF4UO Un Polyno 14
DVANTAGES OF WRITING POLYNOMIAL EXPRESSIONS IN FACTORED FORM
Fac The F Word of Math
To the disappointment of many students, a great deal of time is spent developing factoring skills in high school
mathematics. While factoring in and of itself is often tedious and sometimes may even appear to be purposeless, its
importance in understanding polynomial functions cannot be underestimated. For instance, consider the polynomial
func
THE A
toring
THE A
toring
tion ( tion ( )
4 3 2
4 7 22 24 x x x x = + + f x . The table given below illustrates how much more convenient and informative
the factored form of the equation can be.
Information that can be obtained easily when the Information that can be obtained easily when the
it 3 it 3 mial and Rational Functions mial and Rational Functions PRF- PRF-
Polynomial Equation is written in Standard Form Polynomial Equation is written in Factored Form
( )
4
x =
this fo
wing.
3 2
4 7 22 2 f x x x x + + 4
From rm of the equation, we can only determine the
follo
The highest power is
4
x . Therefore, the end behaviours
are the same (as x , y ).
T tercept is 4. ( ) 0 2 f =
( ) ( )( )( )( ) 1 2 3 4 f x x x x x = + +
From this form of the equation, we can easily determine the
much more.
The highest power ( )( )( )
4
x is x x x x =
rs are the same (as
. Therefore, the
end behaviou x , y ).
The y-intercept is ( )( )( ) 1 2 3 4 24 =
he y-in
.
The zeros of the function are 1, 2, 3, 4
There must be 3 turning points
Example 1
Sketch a possible graph of
Solution
( ) ( )( )( )
2
2 1 3 f x x x x = +
Order (Multiplicity) of Zeros
Let r represent a zero of a polynomial
function

( ) f x
is equal to the num
. The order or multiplicity
of r ber of times that r
appears as a root of the polynomial equation
( ) 0 f x = . This can be stated more
precisely as follows:
Let ( ) f x
and let r
that the zero
( )
k
represent a polynomial function
represent one of its zeros. We say
r has order or multiplicity k if k
is the largest possible value such that
x r ( ) f x is a factor of . (i.e. ( )
k
x r
is a factor of ( ) f x but ( )
m
x r is not a
factor of ( ) f x for m k > .)
Example
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4 3 5
2
5 1 4 f x x x x x 2 x = + +
Zero Order (Multiplicity)
4 5
2 1
0 2
1 3
5 4
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-15
Exa
with x-intercepts 2, 3 and
mple 2
2
Write the equation of a cubic function
5
Solution
Let f represent the cubic polynomial function. Note that the x-intercepts of f are the same as the zeros of f. Therefore
equation o ( )
and y-intercept 6.
, the
f f must take the form ( ) ( )( ) 2 3 5 2 x x x + where a f x a = . Then,

( ) ( )( )( )
1
2 3 5 2
2
f x x x x Therefore, the equation of f in factored form is = +
Exercise 1
Write an equation of the graph shown at the right. In addition, state its domain and range.
Solution

Exercise 2
Sketch the graph of
.
( )
4 3
2 f x x x = + .
Solution


Zeros of order (multiplicity) 1
Zeros of order (multiplicity) 2
Zeros of order (multiplicity) 3
Homework
pp. 146 148: 1, 2, 4, 5, 6ef, 7, 8, 9bd, 12, 14, 16
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-16
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-17
USING TRANSFORMATIONS TO SKETCH THE GRAPHS OF CUBIC AND QUARTIC FUNCTIONS
Review
Recall that we can sketch the graph of ( ) ( ) ( )
y g x af b x h k = = + by applying stretches/compressions and translations to
the graph of . ( ) y f x =
( ) ( ( )) y g x af b x h k = = +

( ) ( )
Algebraic Form Transformations expressed in Words Mapping Notation
Base Function for all
Polynomials of Degree n
( )
n
f x x =
General Equation of g
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
n
n
n
g x af b x h k
a b x h k
ab x h k
=
= +
= +

+
Horizontal
1. m a factor of Stretch/co press by
1
1/ b b

= depending on whether
or . If b is negative, there is also a reflection in the y-axis.
2. Shift h units right if or h units left if
0 1 b < < 1 b >
0 h > 0 h < .
Vertical
1. mpress by a factor of a depending on whether or
. If a is negative, there is also a reflection in the
2. Shift k units up/down depending on whether k is positive or negative.
Stretch/co
0 1 a < <
1 a >
x-axis.
( ) , x y

1
, x h ay k
b

+ +



Example 1
Sketch the graph of ( )
3
1
4 1
3
g x x

= + +


2 by applying transformations to the graph of ( )
3
f x x = .
Solution
Method 1 Method 2
First, write the equation of with the
general form
g to conform
( ) ( ) ( )
g x af b x h k = : +
( ) ( ) 2 4
3 3
x

= +

ations should
be able to glance at the
write the
apping notation:
3 3
1 1
4 1 3 2 g x x

= + + +



Then decide what the transform be.
By now, you should
equation and immediately
transformation using m
) 2
First, simplify the equation fully:
( ) ( , 3 3, 4 x y x y +
( )
( )
( )
( )
3
3
3
3
3
1
4 1 2
3
1
4 3
3
1
4 3
3
4
3 2
27
g x x
x
x
x

= + +



2
2
= + +



= +


= + +

+
Then write the transformation
using mapping notation:
( )
4
, 3,
27
x y x y

+


2
Although this answer is not the
same as that obtained using
method 1, it is equivalent to it
when applied to the base
function ( )
3
f x x =

Pre-image Points on Graph of ( )
3
f x x = Image Points on Graph of ( ) ( ) ( )
3
4 13 1 2 g x x = + +
( ) , x y Method 1: ( ) 3 3, 4 2 x y + Method 2: ( ) ( )
3, 4 27 2 x y +
( ) 0,0
( ) 1,1
( ) 1, 1
( ) 2,8
( ) 2, 8
( ) 3,27
( ) 3, 27
( ) 3,2
( ) 0, 2
( ) 6,6
( ) 3, 30
( ) 9,34
( ) 6, 106
( ) 12,110
( ) 3,2
( )
50
27
2,
( )
58
27
4,
( )
22
27
1,
( )
86
27
5,
( ) 0, 2
( ) 6,6
x h b ( ) b x h ( ) ( ) f f b x h a +k + af b x h k
g

Base Graph:
3
y x = Image under the Transformation given Above
Image Points obtained using Method 2 Image Points obtained using Method 1 Note the Pre-image Points

Example 2
Match each function with the most suitable graph. Explain your reasoning.



Solution
degree, a) and b) must describe functio
C. Since equation a) descri es a cubic
ase function
Because they are equations of polynomials of odd
Therefore, they can only match with graphs B and
shift of one unit upward with respect to the b
ns with opposite end behaviours.
polynomial that has a vertical b

3
y x = , it can only be matched w
ph C. Sinc e end behaviours a
ith graph B. Similarly,
nd as equation c) can only be matched with gra x , it can , y e graph A has sam
only match with equation c). Finally y a process of elimination, graph D must match with equation d).
) B, b) C, c) A, d) D

Homework
, b
a
pp. 157 158: 6, 7, 8, 9cf, 0, 11, 13, 15 1


Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-18
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Poly nd Rational Functions F-19
EQUATIONS OF D GRE R HIGHER
Introduction
SO
nomial a
OLYNOMI
PR
LVING P E 3 AL E O
Corresponding Polynomial General Solutio ynomial Equation in Terms of n of Pol # Zeros of Function
Polynomial Function Typic a al Gr phs Degree
Equation (=# of Roots of Equation) Coefficients
( )
1 0
f x a x a = + 1
1 0
0 a x a + = exactly 1
0
1
x
a
a


=

2
1 1 2 0
4 a a a a
( )
2
2 1 0
f x a x a x a = + +
2
2 1 0
0 x a x a a + + = 2 0, 1 or 2
2
2
x
a
=

( )
3 2
3 2 1 0
f x a x a x a x a = + + + 3
2
3 0
0 a x a
3
2 1
a x x a + + + = 1, 2 or 3
The roots of
3 2
3 2 1 0
0 a x a x a a x + + + = can be
t s of the coefficients
so involves
exp
a and
res n
1 0
complicated a raic manipulations. See
Cubic Functi
sed i
a . However, doing
3
a ,
2
a , erm
lgeb
on for more information.

( )
4 3 2
4 3 2 1 0
x a x a x a x a x a = + + + +
4
4 0
0 a x =
0, 1, 2, 3 or 4
The roots of
4 3 2
4 3 2 1 0
0 a x a x a x a x a + + + + =
sed in terms of the coefficients
a and a . However, doing so
can be expres
a ,
f
4 3 2
3 2 1
a x a x a x a + + + +
4 3 2 1 0
involves complicated algebraic manipulations.
See Quartic Equation
a , a ,
for more information.

( )
5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2 1 0
x a x a x a x a x a x a = + + + + +

5
5 4
5 4 3 0
0 a x a x + + =

1, 2, 3, 4 or 5
For any polynomial equation of degree 5 or
higher, it is not possible to express the roots
in terms of the coefficients of the polynomial.
This was proved in 1824 by the brilliant
young Norwegian mathematician Niels
Henrik Abel (1802 1829).
f
3 2
2 1
a x a x a x a + + +

Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions 20
Long Division and the Remainder Theorem A Limited Approach to Solving Polynomial Equations
As summ ed above, linear and quadratic polynomial equations are the only ones for which it is always easy to find
exact solutions! Any cubic or quartic polynomial equation can also be solved exactly but the process is somewhat long
and tedious. Exact solutions for polynomial equations of degree five or higher can be found only in certain special cases.
In most cases, it is impossible to solve polynomial equations of degree five or higher using algebraic methods.
Only a small class of equations can be solved by using algebraic methods. Therefore, methods of approximation are
used. Such methods must be executed by a computer because they involve copious calculations.
For o purposes, we shall solve certain polynomial equations of degree thr y guessing of the roots.
This thod is based on a theorem known as the Remainder Theorem.
ariz
ur
me
ee or higher b one
The Re nder Theorem mai
PRF-
Suppos t p is a polynomial function of degree n and th e tha at a. Then, p can un m be expressed iquely in the for
( ) ( ) ( ) p x x a q x R = + ,
where q olynomial of degree n 1 and is a p R . The v d the re alue R is calle mainder.
( ) p a R = It follow ediately that s imm , that is, the remaind lated s b titu er can be calcu imply y subs ting a into the
( ) p x ( ) is divided by x a , p a polynom . That is, when ial the remainder is .
The r
binom
em der theorem gives us a quick way to calcula btai om linear
ial. It states that a polynomial can be divided by to o
ain te the remainder o
a linear binomial
ned when a polyn
btain a quotient
ial is divided by a
( ) q x , which is a polynomial
gre 1, and a remainder R, which is a real num
p
e n
les
ber. of de
Exam
2
3 2
3 2
2
2
2
x
x
2
2
2 5
1
4
5 1
5 10
11
x x
x x
x x
x
2 0 x
x x
x
x
+ +
+ + +
+

2
3
3
2
2
2
x
2
2
2
2
2 5
1
4
5 10
5 10
0
x x
x x x
x x
x
2 0 x
How
0
x x
x
x
+ +
+
+

to f a Value such that
+

ind a ( ) 0 = p a
To apply the remainder theorem, we need to find a value a such that ( ) 0 p a = . How do we go about finding such a
value? A simple observation can help us narrow down the possibilities.
Let ( )
3 2
p x bx cx dx f + +
( ) p a =
= +
0, then by the remainder theorem
.
If , ( ) ( )( ) ( )
2 3 2
p x x a mx nx s mx n am x anx as = + + = + .
Comparing the two different forms of ( ) p x , we can conclude that b m = , c n am = , d a = n and f as =
Since f as = , we can conclude that a must divide into f.
If ( )
3 2
p x bx cx dx = + + + f and ( ) 0 p a = , then a must divide into f.
( ) ( )( )
3 2
1 2 2 5 p x x x x x x = + + = + + + 11
Notice that
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 5
0 2 2 2 5 11
11
p = + +
= + + +
=

2
2 11 +
( ) ( )( )
3 2
10 2 2 5 p x x x x x x = + = + +
The remainder theorem gives us a
ve certain polynomial
ations of degree 3 or higher. As
can see from the ples at the
,
method to sol
equ
we
left
exam
x a divides in ynomial to a pol
( ) p x whe
zero. By
never the r inder R is
the remainder theorem,
ema
( ) p a R = . e, x a Therefor divides
nomial into a poly ( ) p x whenever
( ) 0 =
this is that
p a . Another way of stating
x a divides into ( ) p x
ial equation
Notice that
if
a is a root of the polynom
( ) 0 = p x . The example below shows
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 5
0 2 2 2 5
0
p = + +
= + +
=

how we can exploit this to solve a
cubic equation.
A Corollary of the Remainder Theorem The Factor Theorem
The Factor Theorem
Let p represent any polynomial function. Then, x a is a factor of ( ) p x if and only if ( ) 0 p a = .
Note
The phrase if and only if in the above statement expresses the logical equivalence of the statements x a is a factor o
( )
f
p x and ( ) 0 p a = . That is, the use of if and only if means that both of the following statement e true. s ar
If x a is a factor of ( ) p x , then ( ) 0 p a = . (This statement is true.)
If ( ) 0 p a = , then x is a factor of ( ) p x a . (The converse of the above statement is also true.)
If P is true then Q is true. (This is called a conditional statement
itional statement.)
if Q ndit al statement or alogical equivalence.)
not all statements
my e
very
he roads are wet, then it is raining. (The converse.)
Statements 1 and 3 are true in all possible cases and hence, we call them true. Ho
are false in some cases, and so, we call them false. It is possible that Mr. Nolfi is e ts
even if the student did not com is/her homework. Similarly, the roads c
Example of using the Factor Theorem to Solve a Cubic Equation
Solve 0
Solution 1
Let 2.
Using the result on the previous page, we know that if
In general, consider the following statements:
.)
If Q is true then P is true. (This statement is called the converse of the above cond
If both of the above statements are true, then we can write
P is true if and only is true. (This statement is called a bico ion
Note that are biconditional. Consider the following:
1. If I do all my homework each and every day, then Mr. Nolfi is extremely happy with ffort. (The statement)
2. If Mr. Nolfi is extremely happy with my effort, then I do all my homework each and e day. (The converse.)
t is raining, then the roads are wet. (The statement.) 3. If i
4. If t
wever, the converses of the statements
xtremely happy with a students effor
an be wet even if it is not raining. plete all of h
3 2
2 45 2052 r r + =
( )
3 2
2 45 205 f r r r = +
( ) 0 f a = , then a m st divid
necessary to try factors of 2052 when searching for values of such that
u e into 2052. Therefore, it is only
a ( ) 0 f a = .
Conclusion
T
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-21
a
(Factors of 2052)
( ) f a
he Graph of
( )
3 2
2 45 2052 f r r r = +

Since the degree of f is odd, f
must have opposite end
behaviours.
1
( ) 1 200 f = 9
( ) 1 200 f = 5
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1 r r = + is not a factor of ( ) f r
( ) 1 r is not a factor of ( ) f r
2
( ) 2 188 f = 8
( ) 2 1856 f =
( ) ( ) ( ) 2 2 r r = + is not a factor of ( ) f r
( ) 2 r is not a factor of ( ) f r
( ) ( ) ( ) 3 3 r r = + is not a fact
3
( ) 3 1701 f = or of ( ) f r
( ) 3 r ( ) 3 3 f =
is not a factor of ( ) f r
159
4
( ) 4 1460 f =
( ( )) ( ) 4 4 r = + r is not a factor of ( ) f r
(r ( ) 4 1204 f =
) 4 is not a factor of ( ) f r
( ) ( ) ( )
6
( ) 6 864 f = 6 6 r r = + is not a factor of ( ) f r
( ) 6 r ( ) 6 0 f =
is a factor of ( ) f r
As shown above, by trial and error we find that ( ) 6 0 f = . Theref divides into ( ) f r ore, 6 r with remainder zero. This
ctor of ( ) f r means that 6 r is a fa .
By long division, we find that
2
3 2
3 2
2
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-22
( ) ( )( )
2
6 2 57 342 f r r r r + . = +
3 2
2 45 2052 0 r r + =
(
2
0
57 342
r
2 57 342
6 2 45 0 2052
2 12
57
342 2052
342 2052
0
r r
r r r r
r r
r
r r
r
r
+ +
+ +

( ) )
2
6 2 342 0 + + = 57 r r r
6 0 r = or 2 57 342 0 r r + + =
2
57 513
4
r = 6 r = or
Solution 2
( ) We know that 6 r is a factor of f r . Therefore, there exist real numbers a, b and c such that
( )( )
2 3
6 2 r ar br c r + + = +
2
45 0 r r + 2052
3 2 2 3 2
6 6 6 2 45 0 2052 ar br cr ar br c r r r + + = + +
( ) ( )
3 2 3
6 6 6 2 ar b a r c b r c r + + = +
2
45 0 2052 r r +
2, 6 45, 6 0, 6 2052 a b a c b c = = = =
2, 12 45, 6 0, 342 a b c b c = = = =
2, 57, 342 a b c = = =
( )( )
3 2 2
2 45 2052 6 2 r r r r + = 57 342 r + +
Homework
pp. 204 206: 5, 6, 7def, 9ad, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-23
OM
nd F ctoring Quadratic Polynomials
s written as a product.
FACTORING POLYN IALS
Review Common Factoring a a
An expression is factored if it i
Common Factoring Factor Simple Trinomial Factor Complex Trinomial Difference of Squares
Example Example
)
Rough Work
(7)(13) =91
7 +(13) =20
Example
Rough Work
Example
2 2
2 2
2 2
98 50
2(49 25 )
2((7 ) (5 ) )
2(7 5 )(7 5 )
x y
x y
x y
x y x y

=
=
= +

3 2 2 4
2 2 3
42 13 39
13 ( 3 )
m n mn p m n q
mn p m nq
+
= +

3 2
20 91
( 7)( 13
n n
n n
+
=

2
2
10 21
(10 15 ) (14 21)
5 (2 3) 7(2 3)
(2 3)(5 7)
x x
x x x
x x x
x x

= +
= +
= +

4m
(10)(21)=210, (15)(14)=210
15 +14 =1
Factoring Polynomials of Degree Three or Higher
Factor each of the following polynomials.
4 3 2
6 2 12 x x x + x
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( )( )
4 3 2
3
3
2
6 2 12
6 2 6
6 2
6 2
x x x
x x x x
x x x
x x x
= +
= +
= +
= +

x

used in certain special cases but does not work very
well in general.
In general, the factor theorem is more useful in
factoring polynomials of degree three or higher.
This method is called factoring by grouping. It can be
4 3 2
4 6 6 4 x x x x +
( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )(
3 2
2
2
4 6 6 4
1 4 10 4
2 1 2 2
2 1 2 1
x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
= +
= + +
= + +
Let 4.
Then,
( )
3 2
4 6 6 f x x x x = +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
1 4 1 6 1 6 1 = + 4 0 f =
x
) 2
5
= + +


Therefore, by the factor theorem,
1 x is a factor of ( ) f x .
2
3 2
3 2
2
2
4 10 4
1 4 6 6 4
4 4
10 6
10 10
4 4
4 4
0
x x
x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
+ +
+

3
64 x
( )( )
2
4 4 1 x x x = + +
Let . Then,
0
Therefore, by the factor
theorem,
( )
3
27 f x x = +
( ) ( )
3
3 3 27 f = + =
3 x +
6
This is an example of
how a difference of
cubes is factored.
Notice that the quadratic
factor cannot be factored
further.
c
Let .
Then,
0
Therefore, by the factor
theorem, is a factor
of
2
4 b a
( )( )
2
4 4 1 16
16 64
48
0
=
=
=
<

( )
3
64 f x x =
( )
3
4 4 64 f = =
4 x
( ) f x .
2
3 2
3 2
2
2
4 16
4 0 0 64
4
4 0
4 16
16 64
16 64
0
x x
x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
+ +
+ +

3
27 x +
( )( )
2
3 3 x x x 9 = + +
This is an example of how a
sum of cubes is factored.
Notice that the quadratic factor
cannot be factored further.
c
2
4 b a
( ) ( )( )
2
3 4 1 9
9 36
27
0
=
=
=
<

is a factor of
( ) f x .
2
3 2
3 2
2
2
3 9
3 0 0 2
3
3 0
3 9
9 27
9 27
0
x x
x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
7
+
+ + + +
+
+

+
+

Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-24
Factoring Sums and Differences of C
The last two examples on the previous p ge suggest a general method for factoring sums and differences of cubes.
ubes
a
Difference of Cubes Sum of Cubes
Let ( )
3 3
f x x y = , w et, ( )
3 3
f x x y = + , where y re here y represen
Since , by the factor theorem,
ts some constant.
( f y
L pre
Since
sents some constant.
( )
)
3 3
0 y y = = x y
( )
3
3
0 f y y y = + = , by the factor theorem,
( ) x y x y = + must be a factor of ( ) f x
must be a factor of ( ) f x .
2 2
3 2
.
2 2
3 2
3 2
x yx y
3
3 2
2
2 2
2 3
0 0
0
2 3
y x x x
x yx
yx x
yx y x
+ +
+ +

y
x yx y
0
x
3
2 2
2 3
2 3
0 0
0
0
x
2
y x x x y
x yx
x
yx y x
y x y
y x y
+
+ + + +
+

+
+

Therefore,
yx +
y x y
y x y
Therefore, ( ) ( )( )
3 3 2 2
f x x y x y x yx y = = + +
( ) ( )( )
3 3 2 2
f x x y y x yx y = + + x = +



Summary
( )( )
3 3 2 2
x y x y x xy y = + + ( )( )
3 3 2 2
x y x y x xy y + + + =
cubes cubes


Examples
Factor each of the following:
difference sum
(a) 7 (b)
3
8 2 x +
( )
( ) ( ) (
( )
( )( )
3
3
2
2
2
2 3
2 3 2 3 2
2 3 4 6 9
x
x x
x x
= +
= +
= +

3 3
64 8 a b
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )
3 3
3
3
2
2
8 8
8 2
8 2 2 2
a b
a b
a b a b b
=
=
= + +
) 3 x +
x +
( )( )
2 2
8 2 4 2 a b a ab b = + +
a

(c)
4
7 448 m m
( )
( )
( )( )
3 3
2
4
7 4 4 1 m m m m

= + +

6
) (d
9
125 512 x +
( )
3
7 64
7
m m
m m
=
=
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )( )
2
3 3 3
3 6 3
5 8
5 8 5 8 5 8
5 8 125 40 64
x
x x x
x x x
= +
= + +
= + +

3
3 3
2
Important Question
Calculate the discriminant ( c ) of the quadratic polynomials in x obtained in the factorizations of

2
4 b a
3 3
x y and
3 3
x y + . What do you notice? at conclusions can you draw?
Homework
Wh
p. 177: 4, 5, 6ef, 7ef, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17 p. 182: 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-25
POLYNOMIAL INEQUALITIES
y budget of $1800. Each month she mus ent, $375 for transportation, $250 for food
100 in miscel re are her expenses, d
month that Preetika can go to the movies. (Assume an average price of admission of $10.00 per movie.)
n
be te pted to solve this problem by using an equation, tec ncor t. To see this,
consider the following restatement of the problem:
total monthly expenses must be less than or equal to $1750.00
$950 +$375 +$250 +$100 +cost of movies $1750
$1675 +cost of movies $1750
Now if we let x represent the number of times that Preetika goes to the movies in one
month, then we can represent this problem using the following inequality:
We can solve this inequality as follows:
SOLVING
Introductory Problem
Preetika has a monthl t pay $950 for r
and $ laneous expenses. Assuming that the no ot etermine the number of times per
Solutio
Although you might m hnically it would be i rec
1675 10 y x = +
1750 y =
1675 10 1750 x +
1675 10 17 0 x + 5
10 1750 1675 x
10 75 x
10 75
10 10
x

7.5 x
] .5 { } : 7.5 x x ( , or in interval notation, ,7 The solution set of the inequality is .
reetika can stay within her monthly budget if she goes to
movies 7.5 or fewer times per month. Obvi es that Preetika
t t e vies must be a whole number. n afford to go to
the movies no more than 7 times per month.
Investigation
In which cases is the reasoning invalid?
conclu
The solution informs us that P
the
goes o h mo
ously, the number of tim
Therefore, Preetika ca
Consider the following seri
w
es of inequalities.
Can you dra any
2 5 <
sions?
2 6 5 + < 6 +
8 11 <
( ) ( ) 8 2 11 < 2
16 22 <
3 1 <
3 4 + <
3 1 <
3 2 + < 1+
1 1
1 4 +
1 3 <
1 3
5 5
<
2 1 >
2 6 1 6 >
4 5 >
( ) ( ) 3 4 3 5 >
12 15 >
2 1 >
2 3 1 3 + > +
5 4 >
( ) ( 3 5 3 4 >
2
<
1 1
)
15 1
5 5
<

2 >
1 1
5 5
<
? ? ? ? ?
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-26

Working with Equations and Inequalities Similarities and Differences
1. Whether solving an equation or an inequality, whatever operation is performed to one side must also be performed to
the other side. Another way of stating this is that whatever function is applied to one side must also be applied to the
other side.
2. Whether solving an equation or an inequality, the general approach is to apply inverse operations to both sides in the
order OPPOSITE the order of operations.
3. When the same function is applied to both sides of an equation, equality is always preserved.
4. However, when the same function is applied to both sides of an inequality, the inequality is NOT always preserved.
Whenever a strictly i rved. ncreasing function is applied to both sides, the inequality is prese
However, when other fu preserved. nctions are applied to both sides, the inequality may not be
In particular, if both sides of an ineq negative number, the inequality must be uality are multiplied or divided by a
reversed. This happens because mu rs by a negative value causes the order of ltiplying or dividing a set of numbe
the numbers in the set to be inverted.
Understanding why an Inequality sometimes needs to be Reversed
Consider the values in the following table. Note that in the first three columns, the values are in ascending order (i.e.
r way of interpreting this is that the operations of adding and subtracting
preserved the order of the values. In the fourth column, however, the values are in descending order (i.e. written from
largest to smallest). The operation of multiplying by 2 caused the order of the values to be reversed. A slightly more
extreme example is given in the fifth column. When the function
written from smallest to largest). Anothe

1
2 y
x
= + is applied, the numbers are in descending
order up to a point, then briefly ascend only to descend once again.
4 y x = + 5 y x = 2 y x =
1
2 y
x
= + x
To the left is a
graphical view of
the table. Certain
operations
(functions)
preserve order,
some reverse
order and others
produce mixed
results.
116 6

12
2 11
4 0 9 8 7 4
2 2 7 4 3 2
2 6 3 4
5 2
4 8 1 8
9 4
6 10 1 12
13 6

Valid Deductions involving Inequalities Invalid Deductions involving Inequalities
6 4
6 5 4 5
11 9
<
<
<

2 2
2 5 2 5
7 3
<
<
<

( ) (
6 6
2 6 2 6
12 12
)
<
<
6 4
6 4 4 4
2 0
<
+ < +
<

<

4 2
14 12
>
>

( ) (
2 4
2 2 2 2
<
>

2 2
2 2
4 2
4 2
1 4 12
116
)
4 4 > 12 12 > 12 8
( ) ( )
6 6
2 6 2 6 >
<

( ) ( )
6 4
2 6 2 4
>
<
<

4 2
14 12
14 2 12 2
9 4 5 2
>
>
+ > +
>

14
>
>
>
>

Examples
v Sol e each of the following inequalities. Note that a good way to visualize the solution is to use a number line.
1. 3 1 8 x + > 2. 35 2 20 x
3. ( ) ( ) 30 3 2 4 2 1 46 x x + +
Solution
3 1 8 x + >
3 1 1 8 1 x + >
3 9 x >
Solution
35 2 20 x
Solution
( ) ( ) 30 3 2 4 2 1 46 x x + +
30 6x
35 2 35 20 35 x
12 2 2 46 x +
2 15 x
30 4 10 46 x +
30 10 4 10 10 46 10 x +
20 4x 36
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-27
3 9
3 3

<

x
3 x <
The solution set of the inequality is
{ } : 3 x x < , or in interval notation,
Remember to reverse
the inequality when
multiplying or dividing
by a negative number.
( ) ,3 .


2 15 x
2 2

15
2
x
20 4 36
4 4 4
x

The solution set of the
5 9 x
15
:
2

inequality is x x

The solution set of the inequality

is { } :5 9 x x , or in
interval notation, [ ] 5,9 .
or in interval notation,
15
,
2

.



4.
2
x 5 6 x + > 0

Solution
2
5 6 0 x x + >
( )( ) 2 3 0 x x >
2 0 x >
3 0 x <
and or and
and or and
or
The solution set of the inequality is
3 0 x > 2 0 x <
2 x > 3 x > 2 x < 3 x <
3 x > 2 x <
{ } : 2 or 3 x x x < >
( ) ( ) ,2 3, .
, or in interval notation,


Shown above is the graph of
2
5 6 y x x = + . Notice that the
parabola dips below the x-axis between x =2 and x =3 and that
it is above the x-axis wherever x <2 or x >3. Remember that
wherever a graph is above the x-axis, all y-values of points on
that part of the graph are positive. Similarly, wherever a graph is
below the x-axis, all y-values of points on that part of the graph
are negative.
0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6
35 2 y x =
46 y =
30 y =
(
20 y =
3 1 y x = +
) ( ) 3 2 4 y x = + 2 1 x +
y = 8
If the product ( )( ) 2 3 x x
is positive, then either both
factors are positive OR both
factors are negative.
5.
3
2 3 x x +
2
17 12 0 x + >
Solution
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-28
0 ( )
3 2
7 1 f x x
3 2
2 3 1 12 x x x + > 7 +
( )( )
2
2 5 12 0 x x + > 1 x
( )( )( ) 1 2 3 0 x x x + > 4
( )( )( ) 1 4 2 3 x x + > 0
As can be se from the fa
nd
x
ctorization of
2, its zeros are 4, 1 a
en
( )
3 2
2 3 17 1 f x x x = + + x
3
2
.
From the gra h of ( ) p f x shown at the right, its obvious
that ( ) 0 f x > (i.e. the graph is
between 4 and 1 or if x is
above the x-axis) i
greater than
f x is
3
2
. Thus, the
solution set of the inequality is
3
: 4 1 or
2
x x x

< < >


.
To verify this solution set, consider the table shown below.
et L 2 3 1 x x 2 = + + . Since, ( ) 1 0 f = by the
( ) f x . factor theorem, 1 x must be a factor of

2
3 2
3 2
2
2
2 5 1
1 2 3 17 12
2 2
5 17
5 5
12 1
2
12 1
0
x x
x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
+

2
2
+ +

+
+


4 x < 4 1 x < <
3
1
2
x < <
3
2
x >
( ) 1 x
+ +
( ) 4 x +
+ + +
3
2

+
Their
Product
+ +

We can also ber ( ) f x over each interval.

use a num line to determine the sign of
4 1 3 2
x
( ) f x
0 0 0
+ +
( ) 5 0 f < ( ) 0 0 f >
5
0
4
f

( ) 2 0 f > <


Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-29
The height of one section of a roller coaster can be modelled by the polynomial function 6.
( ) ( ) (
2 2
2
1
30 55
40000000
) x x x , where h x = ( ) h x is the height above the ground in
metres, measured at the position x metres along the ground fr
will the roller coaster car be more than 9 metres above the ground?
Solution
inequality
om the start. At what points
This problem is equivalent to solving the ( ) ( )
2 2
2
1
30 55 9
40000000
x x x > .
Expanding and simplifying e lity that is hopelessly complicated. Therefore, it is best to
sing grap raphing calculator, sketch
produces a polynomial in qua
use a graphical approach in this case.
By u hing software such as TI-Interactive or a g
the graphs of ( ) )
2 2
2
1
30 55
40000000
y x x x = and ( 9 y = . Then find the
ple the Intersection option in the
Calculate menu in TI-Interactive). Once the points of intersection are found,
e roller coaster is
d wherever the graph
points of intersection (using for exam
its easy to see the approximate solution set of the inequality.
of
Th
more than 9 m above the groun
( ) ( )
2 2
2
1
30 55
40000000
y x x x = lies above the graph of 9 y = .
Therefore, the roller coaster will be more than 9 m above the ground approximately between 4.7 m and 21.7 m from
the starting point and approximately between 40 m and 1 m from th
Homework
48. e starting point.
pp. 213-215: 1f, 3, 5bef, 7f, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16, 8 pp 25-228: , 2, 5, 6b 7ace, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 18 1 . 2 1d df,
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-30
S INVESTIGATING RATIONAL FUNCTION
What is a Rational Function?
J ust as a rational number is the ratio of two integers, a rational function is the ratio of two polynomial functions.
Rational Numbers have the form
a
r
b
= where , , b 0 a b (a and b are integers, b must be nonzero)
Rational Functions have the form ( )
( )
( )
p x
r x
q x
= where ( ) p x and ( ) q x are polynomial functions such that ( ) 0 q x .
Gr als of Polynomial Functions
Us
Le
VA rizontal Asymptote(s) IPIntervals on which the Function is Positive
IN nction is Increasing
ID is Concave Up
IC n which the Function is Concave D t which the Function is 1 or 1
aphs of the Simplest Rational Functions Reciproc
e a graphing calculator or graphing software to complete the following table.
gend
Vertical Asymptote(s) HAHo
Intervals on which the Function is Negative IIIntervals on which the Fu
Intervals on which the Function is Decreasing ICUIntervals on which the Function
DIntervals o own PONPoints a
Graph of Function Graph of its Reciprocal
Ch
Characteristics of the
aracteristics of
Reciprocal of the
Function
Function
( ) f x x =
Zeros: none
VA: 0 x =

( )
( )
1 1
Zeros: 1 (at 0 x = )
VA: none
HA: none
IP: ( ) 0,
g x
f x x
= =
HA: 0 y =
IP: ( ) 0,
IN: ( ) ,0
IN: ( ) ,0
II: none
II: ( ) ,
( ) ,0 ,( ) 0, ID:
ID: none
ICU: none
PON:
ICU: ( ) 0,
ICD: ( ) ,0
ICD: none
( ) 1, 1 , ( ) 1,1
PON: ( ) 1, 1 , ( ) 1,1
( ) ( )
2
1 f x x =

( )
( )
( )
2
1 1
1
g x
f x
x
= =

Zeros: ____________
VA: ____________
HA: ____________
IP: ____________
IN: ____________
II: ____________
ID: ____________
ICU: ____________
ICD: ____________
PON: ____________
Zeros: ____________
VA: ____________
HA: ____________
IP: ____________
IN: ____________
II: ____________
ID: ____________
ICU: ____________
ICD: ____________
PON: ____________
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-31

Characteristics of the
Characteristics of
Graph of Function Graph of its Reciprocal Reciprocal of the
Function
Function
Zeros: ____________ Zeros: _____
VA: ____________
________
____________
II: ____________
PO _
_______
VA: ____________
IP: ____________
IN: ____________
II: ____________
______
________
_____
( )
2
4 f x x = ( )
( )
2
1 1
4
g x =
f x x
=

HA: ____________ HA: ____________
IP: ____
IN:
ID: ____________
ICU: ____________
ICD: ____________
ID: ______
ICU: ____
ICD: _______
N: ___________ PON: ____________
Zeros: ____________
__
__
____________
______ __
_______ ____
____
_____
_____
_______ ____
_____
____ _____
____ _____
____________
______ __
___
______ __
____________
______ __
_______ ___
VA: __________
HA: __________
IP:
IN: ____
II: _
ID: ________
ICU: _______
ICD: _______
PON: _
Zeros: _______
VA: ___
HA: ___
IP:
IN: ____
II: _________
ID: ____
ICU:
ICD: ____
PON: __
( )
( )
1 1
2 3
g x
f x x
= =

( ) 2 3 f x x =

( ) ( )( ) 2 3 f x x x = + ( )
( ) ( )( )
1 1
2 3
g x
f x x x
= =
+


Zeros: ____________
VA: ____________
HA: ____________
IP: ____________
IN: ____________
II: ____________
ID: ____________
ICU: ____________
ICD: ____________
PON: ____________
Zeros: ____________
VA: ____________
HA: ____________
IP: ____________
IN: ____________
II: ____________
ID: ____________
ICU: ____________
ICD: ____________
PON: ____________
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-32
ons of the Form ( )
ax b
f x
cx d
+
=
+
Graphs of Rational Functi (Quotients of Linear Polynomials)
Compl e.
Legend
The following symbols are used in addition to the abbreviations given on
DDomain RRange Xx-intercept(s) Yy-intercept
ete the following tabl
page 30.
Graph and Characteristics of Rational Function Graph and Characteristics of Rational Function
Zeros: ____________
VA: ____________
HA: ____________
IP: ____________
IN: ____________
II: ____________
ID: ____________
ICU: ____________
ICD: ____________
D: ____________
R: ____________
X: ____________
Y: ____________




Zeros: ____________

VA: ____________
HA: ____________
IP: ____________
IN: ____________
II: ____________
ID: ____________
ICU: ____________
ICD: ____________
D: ____________
R: ____________
X: ____________
Y: ____________
( )
1
1
x
f x
x
+
=

( )
3
x
f x
x
=

x , ( ) f x , ( ) f x As _______
As x , ( ) f x _______
As 1 x

, ( ) f x _______
As 1 x
+
, ( ) f x _______
As x _______
( ) x f x _______ , As
, ( ) As 3 x

f x _______
As 3 x
+
, ( ) f _______ x
( )
2
3 4
x
f x
x

=
+


Zeros: ____________
VA: ____________
HA: ____________
IP: ____________
IN: ____________
II: ____________
ID: ____________
ICU: ____________
ICD: ____________
D: ____________
R: ____________
X: ____________
Y: ____________




Zeros: ____________
IP: ____________
IN: ____________
VA: ____________
HA: ____________
II: ____________
ID: ____________
ICU: ____________
ICD: ____________
D: ____________
R: ____________
X: ____________
Y: ____________
3
2
( )
6
f x
x
x
=

x , ( ) f x , ( ) As _______
As x , ( ) f x _______
As
4
3
x

, ( ) f x _______
As
4
3
x
+
, ( ) f x _______
As x f _______ x
As x , ( ) f x _______
As 3 x

, ( ) f x _______
As 3 x
+
, ( ) f x _______
Graphs of other Rational Functions
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-33

Graph and Characteristics of Rational Function Graph and Characteristics of Rational Function
Zeros: ____________
VA: ____________
HA: ____________
IP: ____________
II: ____________
ID: ____________
ICD: ____________
D: ____________
________
Y: ____________
Zeros: ____________
VA: ____________
( ) ( )
2
9
1
x
f x
x
=
+

2
1
2 3
x
f x

HA: ____________
IP: ____________
II: ____________
ID: ____________
ICD: ____________
D: ____________
________
Y: ____________



IN: ____________
ICU: ____________
R: ____________
X: ____
x x
+
=

IN: ____________
ICU: ____________
R: ____________
X: ____
x , ( ) f x As _______
As x , ( ) f x _______
As , 1 x

( ) f x _______
As 1 x
+
, ( ) f _______ x
As x , ( ) f x _______
x , ( ) f x As _______
( ) f x As 3 x

, _______
As 3 x
+
, ( ) f x _______
( )
2
Zeros: ____________
VA: ____________
HA: ____________
Zeros: ____________
VA: ____________
HA: ____________
1
f


1
x
x
x
=

IP: ____________
IN: ____________
ID: ____________
ICU: ____________
D: ____________
Y: ____________



II: ____________
ICD: ____________
R: ____________
X: ____________
( )
2
1 0.5
1
x
f x
x
+
=

IP: ____________
IN: ____________
ID: ____________
ICU: ____________
D: ____________
Y: ____________
II: ____________
ICD: ____________
R: ____________
X: ____________
x , ( ) f x As _______
As x , ( ) f x _______
As , 1 x

( ) f x _______
As 1 x
+
, ( ) f _______ x
As x , ( ) f x _______
x , ( ) f x _______ As
( ) f x As 1 x

, _______
As 1 x
+
, ( ) f _______ x
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-34
f Rational Functions Summary General Characteristics o
Rational Functions of the Form
( ) =
ax b
f x
cx d
+
+

General Rational Functio Reciprocals of Polynomials ns
Let f represent a polynomial function of
degree one or greater.
Wherever has a zero, ( ) y f x =
( )
1
y
f x
= has a vertical asympto
The x-axis (i.e. the line ) is
always a horizontal asymptote of
te.
0 y =
( )
1
y
f x
= .
Wherever increases, ( ) y f x =
( )
1
y
f x
= (and vice e
an
decreases v rsa)
Since d
( )
( ) y f x =
1
y
f x
= ha
x-
ve
the sa e ( ) y f x = lies ab m sign, if
ax so doe
ove
the is
( )
s
1
y
f x
= (and
vice versa).
A point whose y-co-ordinate is
invariant. That is, such a poin
on both and
1 is
es

t li
( )
( ) y f x =
1
y
f x
. =
( ) y f x =
or a hole at
has either a vertical asymptote
d
x
c
= .
A hole will occur if ax b + and cx d +
divides out have a common factor that
nl in such a way that
remains. More precisely
o y a constant
, a hole
occurs at
d
x
c
= if ( ) cx d ax b k + = +
k. In this

ber for some non-zero real num
case, ( )
ax
f x
b
cx d
+
=
+

( )
,
cx + k d
d
k k
d c cx
= =
+

As x , ( )
a
f x
c
. Therefore,
( ) y f x = has a hori as at zontal ymptote
a
x
c
= .
Let f and represent
polynom
the rational function q as
g
ial functions and define
( )
( )
f x
( ) q x
g x
= .
Wherever ( ) 0 g x = ,
( )
( )
( )
f x
q x
g x
= either has a
vertic
If
al asymptote or a hole.
( ) q x k as x ,
whee r k , then ( ) q x has
ontal asymptote at a horiz
y k =
only if
( )
. Note that this can
occur the degree of
f x is less than or equal to
the degree of ( ) g x .
If the degree of ( ) f x is
exactl
degree
y one greater than the
of ( ) g x , then ( ) q x
has an oblique asymptote.

Homework
pp. 254-257: 1, 4, 5gh, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16
p. 262: 1, 2, 3
pp. 271-274: 1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 14
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-35
S AND INEQUALITIES
Example 1
When and Homer two hours to eat a certain umber of
hamburgers. By himself, Homer can eat the same number of hamburgers in fifteen
?
Let
t 15 represents the time that it takes
RATIONAL EQUATION
eating together, it takes Peter n
fewer minutes than it takes Peter to do th
hamburgers by himself
e same. How long does it take Peter to eat the
Solution
t represent the amount of time, in minutes, that it takes Peter to eat all the burgers.
Homer to do the same. In addition, Then
1
t
represents the fraction of burgers eaten b
when eating alone
y Peter in
one minute

1
15 t
in one minute when eating alone
represents the fraction of bu

rgers eaten by Homer
1
0
represents the fraction of burgers
12
eaten by Peter
and Hom when eating together
(Fraction Peter eats in one minute) +(Fraction Hom one m y eat to
To u
takes Ho inutes to eat all the burgers b
himself. This means that in one m
nderstand this, consider an exam t
mer 180 m y
ple. Suppose that i
inute, he eats
1
of
180
the burgers.
Also, 15 0 t >
minutes to ea
becaus
t all the burge
e it takes Homer more than zero
rs. Therefore, 15 t > .
er in one minute
er eats in inute) =fraction the gether in one minute
Therefore,
1 1 1
15 120 t t
+ =

.


)
( ) ( )
1 1
120 15 120 15
15 t t
t t t t




=
1
1
20

+
( ) ( )
( 120 15 t ) ( ) 120 15 t t t + =
0 1 15t
2
120 12 800 t t t + =
2
255 1800 0 t t + =
( ) ( ) ( )(
( )
2
255 255 4 1 1800
2 1
t

=
255 57825 255 1
2 2
t

= =
5 257

255 15 257
7.27
2
t

= or
255 15 257
247.73
2
t
+
=
Clearly, 7.27 minutes cannot be the correct answer. First of all, we observed above that 15 t > . Furthermore, if it takes
Homer and Peter two hours together to eat all the burgers, Peter cannot possibly eat all of them in only 7.27 minutes.
Therefore, it must take Peter about 247.73 minutes (4 hours, 7 minutes, 44 seconds) to eat all the burgers.
( ) 120 15 120 15
1 1
t t t t

120 15
1
1 15 1 120
t t
t t


+ =

1


1 1
1
1
1
1
Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-36
Example 2
8
2 x Solve
x
< .
inequality be reversed. A
ltiplying both sides by x requires two cases, one for and another for . Instead of
e solution into two cases, it is easier to use the following approach.
Solution
Since the value of x could be negative, multiplying both sides by x might require that the
solution that involves mu 0 x > 0 x <
dividing th
8
2 , 0 x x
x
<
8
2 0 x
x
<
2
2 8
0
x x
x x x
< (Write each term with a common denominator)
2
2 8
0
x x
x

<
( )( ) 4 2
0
x x
x
+
<
This final inequality states that the expression on the left side must be negative. A chart such as the following is an
( )( ) 4 2 x x +
is negative. organized method of determining the intervals on which
x

( )( ) 4 2 x x
x
+
2 x < or if 0 4 x < < The expression is negative if . Hence, the solution set of the inequality is
{ } : 2 or 0 4 x x < < < x . In interval is notation th can be written ( ) ( ) , 2 0,4 .

Homework
pp. 285-287: 6, 7cf, 11, 12, 13, 15 16 ,
pp. 295-297: 1, 3, 4ef, 5f, 4, 15 11, 1

Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-37
PPENDIX ONTARIO MINISTRY OF EDUCATION GUIDELINES A





Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-38

Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-39

Copyright , Nick E. Nolfi MHF4UO Unit 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions PRF-40