Geology of Hungary

Geology and History of Evolution of
the Tisza Mega-Unit

2
Tibor Szederke nyi, Janos Haas, Andras Nagymarosy,
and Ge za Hamor
The Tisza Mega-unit (Tisia Terrane) forms the
basement of the Pannonian Basin south of the
Mid-Hungarian Lineament (see Fig. 1 in Intro-
duction). In the territory of Hungary the pre-
Neogene basement crops out only in two relatively
small, isolated areas in South Transdanubia the
Mecsek Mountains and Villany Hills (Figs. 1, 2 in
Introduction). However, more than 3,000 wells,
oil and uranium prospecting boreholes provide
information on the geologic features of the base-
ment and the younger overburden of the basins.
Signicant parts of the Tisza Mega-unit extend
into Croatian (Slavonian), Serbian (North Vojvo-
dina) and Romanian (West Transylvanian) terri-
tories (Szederkenyi 1974, 1984; Kovacs 1982;
Fulop 1994; Kovacs et al. 2000). In Romania and
Croatia large mountains and uplands (Apuseni
Mts., Papuk Mts., Psunj Mts.) provide an excellent
opportunity to study its structural setting and stra-
tigraphy.
The Tisza Mega-unit forms a more than
100,000 km
2
-large lithosphere fragment broken
off of the southern margin of Variscan Europe
during the Jurassic (Bathonian), and after com-
plicated drifting and rotational processes it occu-
pied its present-day setting in the Pannonian
Basin during the Early Miocene (Balla 1986;
Csontos et al. 1992; Horvath 1993). The crystal-
line basement and the overlying Upper Palaeo-
zoic and Mesozoic overstep sequences show
heterogeneous lithology and lithostratigraphy,
indicating various phases of geologic evolution.
On the basis of these features both pre-Mesozoic
and Mesozoic sequences are classied into
numerous units and subunits. The pre-Mesozoic
(Variscan) basement of the Tisza Mega-unit is
actually a composite terrane which was accreted
during the Variscan Orogeny. During the Alpine
cycle true terrane dispersion did not occur, but
facies zones were differentiated in the Jurassic
and nappe-systems were formed in the Creta-
ceous.
2.1 Pre-Variscan to Variscan
Evolution
The Tisza Mega-unit is a Variscan orogenic col-
lage whichwas accreted duringthe Carboniferous
Permian, becoming part of the European continent.
However, at present the boundaries of the Tisza
Mega-unit are determined by the Alpine structural
evolution (Fig. 1 in Introduction, 1.1). Its north-
western boundary is the Mid-Hungarian Linea-
ment (Szepeshazy 1975; in the earlier literature:
ZagrebKulcsHernad Lineament: Wein 1969;
ZagrebZemplin Lineament: Grecula and Varga
1979). It is overthrust southwestward onto the
ophiolite-bearing Sava Zone (in sense of Schmid
et al. 2008; Ustaszewski et al. 2008). Overthusts of
the Vardar and Mures (Trasylvanian) ophiolite
belts mark the southern and southeastern boundary
of the Tisza Mega-unit (Sandulescu et al. 1981;
Csontos and Voros 2004; Schmid et al. 2008).
J. Haas (ed.), Geology of Hungary, Regional Geology Reviews,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-21910-8_2, #Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012
103
The northeastern border is provided by the North
Transylvanian or Somes Line.
The name Tisza Mega-unit is derived from
the term Tisia, of the so-called median-mass con-
cept which arose at the beginning of the
twentieth century in the Hungarian geology
(Prinz 1914, 1923, 1926; Loczy 1918; Kober
1921). A common feature of these hypotheses
was the assumption of an old (Palaeozoic or
older) and rigid crystalline central massif which
much as a rigid boot-stretcher strained the Car-
pathians during their uplifting. The name of this
hypothetical ancient core-massif was Tisia, named
after the Tisza River by Prinz (1914). Today it is
plausible that the basement of the Pannonian Basin
is not a rigid crystalline massif. However, the old
name has been preserved, although in a sense
signicantly different from the original one.
2.1.1 Crystalline Complexes
Within the crystalline basement of the Tisza
Mega-unit, three units (terranes) have been dis-
tinguished, separated from each other by major
fracture zones. The units can be subdivided into
subunits bounded by fracture zones of secondary
importance. Thus, all units and subunits have
tectonically determined extensions and bound-
aries and show characteristic lithostratigraphic
columns and evolution.
The pre-Alpine units (terranes) and the sub-
units constituting them are as follows (Kovacs
et al. 2000; Fig. 2.1):
SlavoniaDrava Unit (Terrane)
Babocsa Subunit
Baksa Subunit
Kunsag Unit (Terrane)
Moragy Subunit
Koros Subunit
Bekes Unit (Terrane)
Kelebia Subunit
Csongrad Subunit
Battonya Subunit
Sarkadkeresztur Subunit
In addition to the large units (terranes) listed
above, several small units (outliers nappe
remnants, tectonic wedges) are also found in the
Tisza Mega-unit which show entirely different
lithological and metamorphic features than
Fig. 2.1 Pre-Alpine structural units of the Tisza Mega-unit (After Szederkenyi 1997.
104 2 Geology and History of Evolution of the Tisza Mega-Unit
those of large terranes. They are: Horvatherte-
lend Unit, Szalatnak Unit, O
falu Unit, Tazlar

Unit, A
lmosd Unit.
2.1.2 Lithostratigraphy of the
Tectono-stratigraphic Units and
Tectono-metamorphic Evolution
Conventional stratigraphic methods cannot be
applied in the metamorphic complexes because
the original features of the rocks are largely or
totally destroyed, and boundaries of metamor-
phic units generally cut across those of the pre-
metamorphic lithological units. The basement of
the Tisza Mega-unit is affected, in the over-
whelming majority of cases, by medium to
high-grade metamorphism, as a result of which
the former units have been amalgamated. Conse-
quently, new lithological units were developed,
with new borders and a new metamorphic age
reecting the age of last heating.
The lithostratigraphic chart (Fig. 2.2) displays
both metamorphic features and the tectono-meta-
morphic history of the rock columns. The col-
umns indicate the time-range of the protolith
accumulation. Top of the columns shows the
timing of the last progressive metamorphic
event. The outliers (nappe remnants and tectonic
wedges) either hang in space in the lithostrati-
graphic table (because their parent complexes are
unknown), or within the rock column of the host
unit.
Subunits of the SlavoniaDrava and Kunsag
Unit are relatively autochthonous (parau-
tochthonous) compared to those of Bekes Unit,
representing the crystalline basement of an
Alpine nappe-system.
The lateral relationships of metamorphic lithos-
tratigraphic units are clearly expressed in the gen-
eral similarity of protoliths and metamorphic
character as well as in time of culmination of
metamorphic phases, which are accompanied by
migmatisation and palingenesis. Apart from the
outliers there are some essential differences
between the two main groups of lithostratigraphic
charts. They are manifested in the following
points:
Pre-Variscan deformation has only been
detected in the parautochthonous units;
Variscan late kinematic heating (with
andalusite mineralisation) occurs primarily
in the nappe units;
Late Cretaceous contact metamorphism
belonging to the banatitic intrusions in the
Hungarian part of the Tisza Mega-unit only
occurs in the nappe units.
2.1.2.1 SlavoniaDrava Unit
The SlavoniaDrava Unit is located in southeast-
ern Transdanubia, extending southward into east-
ern Croatia. It is bordered by the MidHungarian
Lineament to the northwest and by the Mecse-
kalja Fracture Zone to the east. No outcrops of
this terrane are found in Hungarian territory, but
there are some in the Papuk and Psunj Mts. in
Croatia. A general NW-SE-striking of forma-
tions is characteristic all over the Slavonia-
Dravia Terrane, underscoring its relationship to
the East Croatian crystalline basement.
Babo csa Complex
This complex makes up the northwestern part of
the SlavoniaDrava Unit. It consists mostly of
medium-grade gneiss with subordinate micas-
chist and amphibolite intercalations. Apart from
an uncertain Caledonian measurement (Jantsky
1979) a double Variscan metamorphism has been
established. The rst phase is represented by a
Barrow-type deformation with 69 kbar pressure
and 1727
C/km thermal gradients; the second is

an andalusitic, higher-temperature phase (34
C/km
thermal gradients A
rkai 1984; Torok 1989).

On the SE part of the complex the crystalline
rocks are overlain by Upper Carboniferous
molasse.
Baksa Complex
This unit makes up the crystalline basement of
Villany Hills and its northern foreland up to the
Mecsek Mts. Its southwestern border is a fracture
zone (transcurrent fault) running between the
Kunsag and SlavoniaDrava Units (Kassai 1977).
Petrographically this complex consists of
weakly-folded migmatite, gneiss, micaschist,
2.1 Pre-Variscan to Variscan Evolution 105
marble, dolomitic marble, and calc-silicate
gneiss (Fig. 2.3) characterised by an isograd sys-
tem with sillimanite to chlorite zones and iso-
grads showing a southwest progressive trend
(Szederkenyi 1976).
The thickness of this complex exceeds 10 km.
Two marble and dolomitic marble members
(250 m and 25 m-thick, respectively) occur in
the sillimanite zone accompanied by fairly thick
(2330 m) amphibolite beds. At the northern
margin of the complex high-temperature over-
printing with andalusite was encountered
(Lelkes-Felvari and Sassi 1983). Altogether, at
least three phases of polymetamorphism could be
recognised.
2.1.2.2 Kunsa g Unit
The Kunsag Unit extends over the area located
between the Middle Hungarian Lineament and
the Mecsekalja Fracture Zone as well as the
northern front of the Bekes Unit (South Hungarian
Nappe Belt). An eastward continuation towards
Ma
290.0
362.5
408.5
439.0
510.0
Gyd Serpentinite Fm.
Grcsny Eclogite Fm.
falu
Serpentinite Fm.
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fluvial facies
swamp facies
lacustrine facies
bathyal facies (affected by very low
grade metamorphism)
acidic intrusive rocks
phyllite and micaschist
quartzphyllite and gneiss
metamorphic limestone and marble
metamorphic dolomite
amphibolite
serpentinite
migmatite
eclogite
grade metamorphism
Alpine low and medium grade
metamorphism
Variscan low, medium and high
Pre-Variscan medium grade
metamorphism
Fig. 2.2 Pre-Alpine metamorphic complexes of the Tisza Mega-unit and their sedimentary cover (After Csaszar (ed.)
1997)
the Apuseni Mts. of Romania can be postulated,
but a true correlation between them is lacking
so far (c.f. Krautner 19961997). In Hungary,
crystalline rocks of this terrane only crop out in
the Mecsek Mts. (Moragy Hills).
Mo ra gy Complex
It constitutes the Moragy-Kecskemet granitoide
range and the accompanying migmatite-gneiss-
micaschist anks on both sides. The most char-
acteristic part of the complex is the granitoide
range itself. Forming an axial belt of an ENE-
WSW-striking synclinal zone this body is about
200 km long and 2530 km wide, forming a
continuous zone from Szigetvar (South Transda-
nubia) to Szolnok (central part of the Great Hun-
garian Plain), where it disappears beneath the
Upper Cretaceous Paleogene ysch complex
(Jantsky 1979).
It is a granite-granodiorite-diorite rock asso-
ciation; 340354 Ma old (U/Pb dating; Klotzli
et al. 2004); the 307312 Ma age data can be
regarded as cooling time (Lelkes-Felvari and
Frank 2006). It contains biotite and/or amphibole
rich xenolites (Fig. 2.4) which was dated at
440400 Ma (Rb/Sr ages; Svingor and Kovach
1981; Kovach et al. 1985), suggesting a pre-
Variscan (Caledonian?) metamorphic event.
Detailed investigations carried out in connection
with the establishment of a radioactive waste
repository in the Moragy Hills (SE Mecsek),
resulted in the discovery of a huge monzodiorite
body of ENE WSW strike in the axial part of a
granitoide range. All rocks in this body are of
monzonitic character. In contrast to the former
hypothesis about the migmatitic origin of grani-
toids (Szadeczky-Kardoss 1959), the major char-
acteristics of the rock association indicates rather
plutonic than migmatitic origin (Kiraly 2009).
The granitoids are syn-collisional, S-type, mixed
meta-, and peraluminous (Buda 1981, 1985,
1995). They are accompanied by crystalline
schists showing typical polymetamorphism
which ank the syncline. In the rst phase of
Variscan deformation a Barrow-type event took
place at 68 kbar pressure and 1426
C/km ther-
mal gradients (Szederkenyi et al. 1991). In the
second phase a low-pressure/high temperature ret-
rogression occurred along the Mecsekalja Frac-
ture Zone and in the eastern continuation of
Mecsek Mts. (Lelkes-Felvari et al. 1989) with
late kinematic (322 Ma) andalusites. The granitic
rocks were affected by multistage deformatmation
subsequently (Maros et al. 2010).
Koros Complex
It constitutes a more than 250 km-long narrow,
discontinuous granite range embedded in a
1520 km-wide migmatite belt (Fig. 2.1). Within
the range ve lens-shaped granite bodies,
510 km wide and 1525 km long, can be found.
They are made up of S- and I-type porphyroblastic
biotitegranite/granodiorite rocks (Buda 1985,
1995), and were formed in the axis belt of a
syncline. The granite-migmatite range is accom-
panied on both sides by medium-grade ortho- and
paragneiss micaschist amphibolite associa-
tions as anks of the ENE WSW striking
syncline. Based on revision of the isotope ages
of the Koros Complex two metamorphic events
were determined (Lelkes-Felvari et al. 2003). The
rst was dated at 310 Ma; it is characterised by a
general Barrow-type metamorphism. It was fol-
lowed by a local overprint in the NE part of the
Koros Complex at 202299 Ma. From the same
rock body 330 Ma age was measured on the zircon
and 310295 from biotite of ortogneiss (Balogh
et al. 2009). Apart from the heated area, the phase
Fig. 2.3 Sillimanitestaurolite gneiss from the Baksa
Complex, core Baksa-2, 950.4 m. Scale bar: 0.2 mm
(Photo: T. Szederkenyi)
typied by andalusite is absent from the metamor-
phic history of the Koros Complex. In its axial
zone several small eklogite bodies (Gorcsony
Eklogite) were encountered.
2.1.2.3 Be ke s Unit
This unit extends over the area of the southern
part of the Great Plain, corresponding to the
western continuation of the Romanian Codru
and Bihor Nappe System into Hungary and
Northern Serbia. Its northern border coincides
with the northern front of the Upper Cretaceous
nappe system (BekesCodru Zone; South Hun-
garian Nappe System). The western continuation
of this terrane is uncertain due to the lack of
relevant tectonic and lithologic evidence. How-
ever, based on sporadic data it may extend south
of the Mecsek Mts. (Baksa Unit).
Kelebia Complex
This complex is located in the westernmost part
of the Bekes Unit. It is limited by a nappe bound-
ary to the west and north, and by the A
sottha-
lomBordany Depression to the east. Southward
it extends into Serbian territory. Strongly folded
two-mica-schist (and locally chlorite-schist)
forms this low and medium-grade metamorphic
rock complex of unknown thickness. A Barrow-
agmatite with porphyroblastous feldspars
agmatite without porphyroblastous feldspars
mesocrystalline granite of fluidal structure
porphyroblastous granite (microkline porphyroblasts)
massive granite containing microkline porphyroblasts
pseudo-pegmatite
aplite
fault line
0 1 2 m
345 165
68
70
60
68
38
60
64
40
48
52
63
Fig. 2.4 Exposure of the Moragy Granite, Pince Hill, Moragy (After Szederkenyi 1987)
type Variscan metamorphic phase and several
small, Upper Cretaceous quartz diorite intrusions
and dikes with denite contact zones characterise
the progressive metamorphism of the complex.
Csongra d Complex
This part of the Bekes Unit is limited by a nappe
boundary to the north, by the A
sotthalomBor-
dany Depression to the west, and the Mako
Trough to the east. Its southern border is in the
Serbian Backa. A characteristic peculiarity of the
Csongrad Complex is a 200 m-thick marble/
dolomitic marble member which was encoun-
tered near Szeged; it has the distinction of being
the only carbonatic rock association in the crys-
talline basement of the Great Plain. Besides this
marble a small, deep-plutonic granite occurrence
and related migmatites, as well as medium-
grade, slightly folded gneissmicaschist, are
also typical. The main metamorphic events
were a rst Variscan (Barrow-type) phase with
68 kbar pressure and 500570
C temperature at
350330 Ma, a second Variscan phase with blas-
tomylonitisation at 330320 Ma, a third, late
kinematic, high-temperature and low-pressure
retrogression (P 34 kbar pressure and T
580600
C temperature) at 320315 Ma, and

nally Late Cretaceous quartz diorite magmatism
and related contact metamorphism. The latter is
comprised of small, elongated intrusions and
accompanied by relatively broad (400600 m),
tourmaline-rich muscovite schist aureoles, with a
ENE-WSW strike (Szederkenyi 1984; Szederke-
nyi et al. 1991).
Battonya Complex
It is known in a 1525 km-long and 1015 km-
wide body consisting mainly of granite and a
few associated migmatite and crystalline schist
occurrences. In Hungary, the boundaries are the
Mako Trough to the west, the Bekes Basin to the
east and the nappe boundary to the north. Por-
phyroblastic orthoclase-biotite granite and asso-
ciated enclaves make up the predominant
portion of this deep-plutonic body. This pluton
forms a more than 150 km-long and not very
wide continuous range, stretching from the Ser-
bian Backa to the Apuseni Mts. of Romania.
The deep-plutonic granite magma, after in-situ
melting, moved upward a little as an intrusion
during the Variscan late kinematic period
(Szepeshazy 1969; Szederkenyi 1984; Kovach
et al. 1985). All deformational and age data are
the same as those of the Csongrad Complex.
Sarkadkeresztu r Complex
This is an isolated, 15 km-long and 5 km-wide
crystalline ridge on the eastern side of the Bekes
Basin which consists of light grey gneiss-granite.
It is accompanied on both sides of the range by
a high and medium-grade gneissmicaschist
amphibolite association showing the same defor-
mational characters and age as those of the Cson-
grad Complex (Szederkenyi 1984).
2.1.2.4 Outliers
Lithostratigraphic units encountered in small
nappe remnants, or in tectonic wedges are charac-
terised below. Their location is shown in Fig. 2.1.
O
falu Phyllite
Meta-graywacke (Fig. 2.5), phyllite, crystalline
limestone and interbedded meta-basalt, actino-
lite-schist, porphyrite and porphyroid form a
low-grade metamorphic sequence which is
stuck as a wedge within the Mecsekalja Tec-
tonic Belt in a length of 40 km and a width of
more than 2 km. The weakly folded and tilted
(locally vertical) rock slabs are strongly sheared
in most cases except for a few siliceous shale and
crystalline limestone intercalations. The silici-
cation of these exceptions is attributed to synse-
dimentary submarine volcanic activity. Some
plant remnants and conodont fragments have
been preserved. Since the carbonised plant rem-
nants show supporting tissue the fossils must
have been derived from botanically fairly
advanced plants (Kedves and Szederkenyi
1997), suggesting that the age of the protoliths
is not older than Late Silurian. The strongest
shearing took place at the northern margin of
the formation and due to considerable friction-
generated heat a weak melting event also devel-
oped within it.
O
falu Serpentinite
It is near a small (12 m wide and about 100 m
long), nearly vertical serpentinite body; a
tectonic wedge within the O
falu Phyllite. These

rocks of lherzolitic origin (Ghoneim and
Szederkenyi 1979) are interpreted as an obducted
lower lithosphere remnant (Balla 1983b).
Gyo d Serpentinite
It consists of two occurrences about 56 km long
and 600700 m wide (Fig. 2.1). Serpentinite and
talc-schist at Helesfa form a nearly vertical len-
ticular body, wedged into Variscan granites
along broad shearing zones. The complex con-
sists of sheared and perfectly serpentinised harz-
burgite showing a diapiric structure (Szederkenyi
1974, 1977). The other occurrence at Gyod is
located at the northern margin of the Baksa Sub-
unit. Its host rocks are medium-grade crystalline
schist belonging to the Baksa Complex. No
traces of shearing are observable, so the process
of serpentinisation could not have been com-
pleted. In a central narrow slab less serpentinised
harzburgites were preserved (Fig. 2.6). Accord-
ing to Balla (1983b) both members of the Gyod
Serpentinite can be regarded as remnants of
obducted oceanic lithosphere.
Gorcsony Eclogite
In the Gorcsony area, south to the Mecsek Mts.
and in the southern part of the Great Hungarian
Pain small eklogite bodies were encountered in
the metamorphic basement in several drillings.
These bodies represent partly tectonic wedges in
paragneiss (Ravasz-Baranyai 1969, partly xeno-
lites in orthogneiss (Zachar 2008). The eklogites
are generally strongly altered and they consist
mostly of simplectitic rocks. However, in one
of the occurrences at Janoshalma, the xenolites
which are enclaved in ortogness largely retained
their original characteristics. The typical miner-
als are as follows: garnet, klinopiroxene, kyanite,
K-feldspar and secondary amphibole, plagio-
clase, klinozoizite and phengite. 710
C tempera-
ture and 26 kbar pressure were calculated by
Fig. 2.5 Meta-graywacke from the O
falu Formation.
Scale bar: 5.5 mm (Photo: T. Szederkenyi)
Fig. 2.6 Serpentinised harzburgite from the Gyod Ser-
pentinite. Core Gyod-2, 84.8 m. Scale bar: 0.05 mm
(Photo: T. Szederkenyi)
Zachar and M. Toth (2009). The occurrences of
the Gorcsony Eklogite as well as Gyod, Helesfa,
and O
falu serpentinites are interpreted as parts of

a supposed 510 km broad Variscan suture zone
(Szederkenyi 1977, 1984; Toth and Zachar 2002;
Zachar 2008).
Szalatnak Shale
It is comprised of strongly folded, dark grey
shale which was encountered at two localities.
At Szalatnak, in the Eastern Mecsek Mts., basalt
agglomerate (80 m-thick) occurs within the
shale. The more than 1,500 m-thick sequence is
tectonically underlain by the Moragy Complex.
Thin, siliceous stripes are characteristic for the
shale. Thin anthracite intercalations also occur,
mainly in the lower member, containing grapto-
lite fragments (Oravecz 1964) and a characteristic
Llandoverian conodont and Muellerisphaeridae
fauna (Kozur 1984). The sequence was affected
by very low-grade metamorphism (prehnite-
quartz facies; Szederkenyi 1974) which turns
into a low-grade one (A
rkai et al. 1996) in the

lower part of the formation. The Szalatnak Shale
extends over an area of 200 km
2
covered by
Permian and/or Lower Triassic sandstone. Tecton-
ically, it is a Late Variscan nappe remnant of
unknown vergency. During the Carboniferous
(before the nappe movements) a small (about
1 km-large) granodiorite body was intruded into
the lower member. Its Rb/Sr ages (Svingor and
Kovach 1981) indicate a Variscan late kinematic
origin (328310 Ma). Its geochemical character-
istics differ from those of the Moragy Granite.
Beneath KarpatianBadenian terrestrial sediments
similar shale was encountered in the western fore-
land of the Mecsek Mts. (Horvathertelend see
Fig. 2.1)
Ta zla r Phyllite
This unit makes up an approximately 15 km-long
and 300 m-wide double body wedged into the
gneiss of the Moragy Subunit along a NE-SW-
striking fault zone in the central area of the
DanubeTisza Interuve (Fig. 2.1). The lithol-
ogy of these bodies is dened as greenish-grey
carbonate-phyllite with black graphitic phyllite.
Their age is uncertain; according to Fulop
(1994) it may be Early Palaeozoic or Early
Carboniferous.
A
lmosd Formation
This is a low-grade chlorite-schist/two-micas-
chist and graphite-bearing biotite-schist associa-
tion which forms an Upper Cretaceous nappe
outlier (over an area of about 20 km
2
) thrusted
over the metamorphics of the Koros Complex at
the RomanianHungarian border. It shows NW
vergency and is genetically the same as the low-
grade metamorphics of the Bekes Unit (South
Hungarian Nappe Belt).
2.1.3 Protoliths and Polymetamorphic
Deformations
In the pre-Alpine basement of the Tisza Mega-
unit the prevailing rock association consists of
gneiss and micaschist as well as related anatectic
granitoids which were derived from graywacke/
argillite-type sedimentary sequences (Szederke-
nyi 1984), with mac lava and tuff intercalations
several metres thick. The latter generally show a
tholeiitic basalt and tuff character (Szederkenyi
1983). Based on geochemical data and discrimi-
nation analyses these volcanics represent back-arc
basin tholeiite (T-MORB; Toth 1995). In the rock
sequences of South Transdanubia and the southern
part of the Great Plain some acidic tuff intercala-
tions also occur, indicating a presumed continen-
tal margin volcanic effect. In the Baksa and
Csongrad Complexes carbonatic (marl, limestone,
dolomitic marl, dolomite) interlayers several
metres thick occur in a psammiticpelitic sedi-
mentary sequence. Carbonatic layers or lenses
are completely absent from the other units.
Apart from several outliers (eroded frag-
ments of nappes and tectonic wedges) the meta-
morphic evolution comprised one or more
progressive and several retrograde phases.
According to basic metamorphic conditions
three characteristic elds can be separated
(Fig. 2.7). (1) High-pressure, relatively low-
temperature metamorphism (25 kbar pressure
and 12
C/km thermal gradient) was encountered

in a few smaller, covered occurrences extending
along the axis of Kunsag Unit. (2) Metamor-
phism characterized by medium-pressure and
temperature (Barrow-type) deformation with
46.5 kbar pressure and 2427
C/km thermal
gradient. This type predominates in the Kunsag
Unit but was detected in the entire area of the
Tisza Mega-unit. (3) Low-pressure and high tem-
perature metamorphism characterised by
23 kbar pressure and 70
C/km thermal gradient

overprinting the Barrow-type metamorphic com-
plex mainly in the southern and north-eastern
sections of Tisza Mega-unit.
The complete succession of polymetamorphic
deformations can be interpreted as follows:
1. The rst phase corresponds to the previously
described deformation type 1.
2. A medium pressure and temperature Barrow-
type progressive metamorphic event corres-
ponding to deformation type 2. It is probably
the very rst manifestation of Variscan meta-
morphismandthe most powerful deformationin
the metamorphic history of the Tisza Mega-unit.
3. Blastomylonitisation and a subsequent low-
pressure and high-temperature event occurred
in the metamorphics of southern part of the
Tisza Mega-unit belonging to the deformation
type 3.
4. Tensional and compressive phase of Tethyan
development during the Mezozoic ended with
retrograde metamorphism in the Late Creta-
ceous nappe movements.
5. Thermal (contact) metamorphism related to
Late Cretaceous-Eocene quartz diorite intru-
sions which were encountered in the Bekes
Unit.
6. Hydrothermal metasomatism linked to the
subsequent volcanic events (Lower Permian,
Lower Cretaceous, and Miocene); effect of ther-
mal waters in the fractured basement domes.
2.1.4 Tectono-metamorphic Events
Based on the determined ages of the succession
of metamorphic events and related deformation
characters, as well as on P-T conditions and the
presence of specic indicator rocks (eclogite,
blueschist, ultramacs), the following pre-Alpine
tectono-metamorphic evolution can be estab-
lished for the crystalline rocks of the Hungarian
part of the Tisza Mega-unit:
1. A Variscan orogenic event (its exact age is
unknown). Its remnants are preserved in a
narrow (510 km wide), poorly explored belt
in the axis on the Kunsag and Slavonia-Drava
10
8
6
4
2
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 T C
Stage 0
Stage I
Stage II
blastomylonitization +
high-temperature event
the whole Tisza Mega-unit
SzegedBks (Codru)
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
melting
distene
andalusite
sillimanite
diagenesis
P
1
and P
2
hydrothermal
metasomatosis
Alpine retrogression
K
2
contact metasomatosis
stability boundary
Stage IV
Stage III
eclogite facies
metamorphism
2
H
2
O
P
=
P
T
O
T
A
L
(
k
b
)
Fig. 2.7 P-T diagram of the metamorphic events in the Tisza Mega-unit (After Szederkenyi 1997)
units. High-pressure and low-temperature
eclogites occur in some places (Korosvidek,
Janoshalma, Gorcsony), as well as obducted,
serpentinised ultramac bodies in South-east
Transdanubia have been interpreted as Varis-
can in general.
2. A Variscan collisional event that can be
regarded as culmination of Variscan orogeny.
When accretion of Variscan Europe occurred
the formation of crystalline rock associations
was accompanied by mega, macro and micro-
folding, shearing and blastomylonitisation.
Palingenetic (?) granite belts were formed in
the axial zones of synclines during the same
period, although the Late Variscan low-
pressure and high-temperature regime (late
orogenic heating in the 330270 Ma period)
undoubtedly contributed to the granitisation
as well.
3. Following granite genesis but prior to the Late
Carboniferous basin formation several impor-
tant tectonic events took place. They are as
follows:
Nappe formation, producing nappes of
unknown vergency. Their remnants were
encountered at Horvathertelend and Szalat-
nak,
NW-SE-striking transcurrent faulting bor-
dering the SlavoniaDrava Unit to the east,
and
Strike-slip faults with an ENE-WSW strike
(the oldest manifestation of the so-called
Mecsekalja Fracture Zone as well as the
BajaTazlarTurkeveNy rabrany Frac-
ture Zone) which surround the tectonic
wedges of the O
falu and Tazlar units.

2.2 Post-Variscan Evolution
2.2.1 Late CarboniferousPermian
Continental Formations
Non-metamorphic (locally anchimetamorphic)
molasse-type overstep sequences cover the crys-
talline basement of the Tisza Mega-unit, locally.
They show varying stratigraphy and strongly
varying thickness. Permian formations crop-
ping out in the Mecsek Mts. (Fig. 2.8) have
been known for a long time, but the covered
Upper CarboniferousPermian ones only for
3040 years, as a result of uranium prospecting.
The oldest such overstep formation is of Late
Carboniferous age. It overlaps both subunits of
the SlavoniaDrava Unit. The next overstep
stage is represented by the Lower Permian Kor-
pad Sandstone and/or Gyurufu Rhyolite, which
appear in every unit but did not cover them
entirely. The third stage occurred in the Early
Triassic as manifested by the widespread exten-
sion of the Jakabhegy Sandstone.
2.2.2 Late CarboniferousPermian
Cover of the SlavoniaDrava
Unit
Variscan post-orogenic sedimentation began
earlier in the Villany area than in the Mecsek
one and produced a Late Carboniferous and/or
Early Permian, molasse-type overstep sequence
which was draped over the eroded surface of the
crystalline basement (Jambor 1969; Hetenyi and
Ravasz-Baranyai 1976; Kassai 1976; Barabas-
Stuhl 1988). It covers the basement between the
Villany Hills and Mecsek Mts. as well as in the
Drava Basin, and also occurs in erosional
patches or wedges within tectonic zones in the
area of the Great Plain. The lithostratigraphic
classication of this sequence is as follows
(Fig. 2.9).
The Teseny Sandstone is found partly in the
northern foreland of the Villany Hills and also in
the Drava Basin. It is underlain by the Baksa and
Babocsa metamorphic complexes and overlain by
the Turony Formation in the Villany Hills and/or
MiocenePliocene sediments of the Drava Basin.
This 1,500 m-thick formation consists of a cyclic
alternation of grey and dark grey conglomerate,
sandstone, siltstone, shale and thin coal (anthra-
cite) seams with signs of very low-grade (burial)
metamorphism. The dark grey ne-grained sand-
stone is full of remnants of a rich fern ora per-
mitting this sequence to be assigned a
Westphalian D as well as Stephanian age.
2.2 Post-Variscan Evolution 113
The Tazlar Carbonatephyllite consists of an
approximately 100 m-thick, 12 km
2
-large, nar-
row tectonic wedge that might be the northeast-
ern continuation of the Mecsekalja Fracture
Zone. It is composed of sheared, dark grey car-
bonatephyllite with quartz, sericite, and gra-
phitic phyllite intercalations, which underwent
Alpine low-grade metamorphism (A
rkai et al.
1985). Based on lithological analogy its age is
conditionally assumed to be Late Carboniferous.
The Nagykoros Sandstone is composed of
grey, sometimes organic matter-rich, fossil-free,
non-metamorphic, medium and ne-grained
molasse-type sandstone wedged into the NE con-
tinuation of the Kapos Line(?) at Nagykoros.
Based on analogues its age is tentatively
10
11
2
1
1
1
18
12
15
17
12
13
9
8
7
13
8
8
7
7
7
7
3
3
3
4
4
5
5
5
4
4
4
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
2
2
2
2
2
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
9
9
9
9
9
9
12
12
13
13
13
14
14
17
17
15
15
D
A
N
U
B
E
15
15
9
16
16
16
16
0 10 km
SZIGETVR
SELLYE
PCS
SIKLS
MOHCS
KOML KADARKT
Grcsny High
Bly Basin
BONYHD
VILLNY HILLS
MECSEK MTS.
M
ecsekalja Line
Fig. 2.8 Pre-Cenozoic geological map of South Trans-
danubia (after Haas et al. 2010). Legend: 1 Senonian
continental, shallow and deep marine formations,
2 Lower Cretaceous platform limestone, 3 Lower Creta-
ceous basic volcanites and their reworked deposits,
4 Middle Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous pelagic lime-
stones, cherty limestones, 5 Lower and Middle Jurassic
pelagic ne siliciclastic formations, 6 Jurassic shallow
marine and condensed pelagic limestone formations,
7 Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic coal bearing siliciclastic
formation, 8 Middle Triassic shallow marine siliciclastic
and carbonate formations, 9 Lower Triassic siliciclastic
formation of uvial and delta facies, 10 Low-grade
metamorphic Mesozoic formations, 11 Mesozoic rocks in
general, 12 Permian rhyolite, 13 Permian continental sili-
ciclastic formations, 14 Upper Carboniferous continental
siliciclastic formation, 15 Low-grade metamorphic Lower
Paleozoic formations, 16 Variscan medium-grade meta-
morphic complex (gneiss, mica schists, marble), 17 Var-
iscan granitoid rocks, 18 Variscan metamorphic rocks
(gneiss, mica schists, amphybolite), 19 regional Cenozoic
tectonic line, 20 local Cenozoic tectonic line, 21 Cenozoic
fault, 22 Cenozoic overthrust, 23 Mesozoic tectonic line,
24 Mesozoic nappe boundary, 25 Mesozoic overthrust
regarded as Late Carboniferous. The relationship
with the tectonically similar Lower Permian
sandstone wedge (belonging to the Korpad Sand-
stone Formation), which was also encountered
near Nagykoros, is unknown (Szederkenyi
1984).
The 300 m-thick Turony Formation is made up
of an alternation of violet-brown siltstone and
MECSEK VILLNY MTS. LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
Formation
Boda Siltstone Formation
Cserdi Conglomerate Formation
Gyrf Rhyolite Formation
Korpd Sandstone Formation
Turony Formation (sandstone, siltstone)
Tseny Sandstone Formation
45370 m
50850 m
90250 m
Pfalzian
Asturian
Erzgebirgian
245
253
258
265
273
280
290
300
Tatarian
Kazanian
Kungurian
Artinskian
Sakmarian
Asselian Saalian
Stephanian
Westphalian
Namurian
310
1
0
0
0
5
0
0
>
3
0
0
1
0
0
7
0
0
5
0
8
0
2
5
1
0
0
0
2
0
8
0
0
1
5
0
1
4
0
0

m
U
P
P
E
R
U
P
P
E
R
M
I
D
D
L
E
P
E
R
M
I
A
N
C
A
R
B
O
N
I
F
E
R
O
U
S
L
O
W
E
R
Ma.
R
O
T
L
I
E
G
E
N
D
Z
E
C
H
S
T
E
I
N
CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY
T
H
I
C
K
N
E
S
S
Fig. 2.9 Stratigraphic chart of the Upper Palaeozoic Formations of South Transdanubia (After Barabas-Stuhl in Fulop
1994)
ne-grained sandstone. Several thin, rhyolite tuff
and dolomitic marl intercalations also occur.
Amphibian footprints of Anthichnium (Saurich-
nites) salamandroides and Platytherium psamo-
bates were also found, suggesting a Stephanian
age (Barabas-Stuhl 1975). Kassai (1976) regards
this formation as an equivalent of the Boda Silt-
stone of the Mecsek Subunit; Fulop (1994) places
it at the CarboniferousPermian boundary.
Following the deposition of the Turony For-
mation in the Permian, continental sedimentation
extended over the accreted terranes of the Tisza
Mega-unit, resulting in the formation of uniform
sequences above previously different units. The
characteristics of the Korpad Sandstone Forma-
tion are the same as those of its Mecsek equiva-
lent. Its thickness varies from 100 to 700 m. The
extension of the formation is continuous beneath
the Villany Hills and in its northern foreland. It
is generally covered by the Gyurufu Rhyolite
and/or the Lower Triassic Jakabhegy Sandstone
Formations. It occurs not only in the southeastern
Transdanubian area but also in the basement of
the DanubeTisza Interuve, in the form of a
300330 m-thick, not entirely well-dened tec-
tonic wedge near the town of Nagykoros, settled
upon the granite basement (Szepeshazy 1962).
Furthermore, as a small denudation remnant
above the crystalline schist and below the rhyo-
lite lava sheet, this formation was also encoun-
tered at Totkomlos in the Tiszantul (Trans-Tisza
area) in a thickness of 150 m, with the same
lithologic characteristics as in the Villany Hills.
The Gyurufu Rhyolite Formation covers
either the before-mentioned formation (in the
northern foreland of the Villany Hills) or the
crystalline basement. Petrographically and
chemically it is the same as its Mecsek equiva-
lent, but its thickness and extension are the larg-
est among the Hungarian rhyolite occurrences.
Its thickness in the northern foreland of the Vil-
lany Hills reaches 450 m, decreasing eastward,
but in the neighbourhood of the village of Egerag
as a vent facies it exceeds 800 m (Fazekas
et al. 1987). All rhyolite and related rocks form a
single strato-volcano characterised by lava-
ignimbrite and tuff alternation, with the lava
rocks predominating. Another but much smaller
(several m-thick), rhyolite lava sheet was found
at Melykut (DanubeTisza Interuve), lying on
0 100 % 50
Composition of the
medium-grained sandstone
C
o
l
o
u
r
C
y
c
l
e
s
variegated
Upper Carboniferous
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
m
magmatic quartz
K-feldspar
plagioclase
metamorphic rock
fragments
volcanic rock
fragments
magmatic rock
fragments
red
Colour:
grey
coarse
conglomerate
sandstone
fine
conglomerate
siltstone
Fig. 2.10 Key-section of the Korpad Sandstone Forma-
tion in core Siklosbodony Sb-1 (After Barabas-Stuhl in
Fulop 1994)
crystalline schist and covered by Upper Creta-
ceous sediments.
The Cserdi Conglomerate Formation was
encountered in a few boreholes (Nagykozar, Mar-
iakemend, and Bata) in very variable thickness
(from 25 to 350 m). It overlies the Gyurufu Rhyo-
lite Formation and is covered by the Boda Silt-
stone or the Lower Triassic Jakabhegy Sandstone.
In each case the properties are the same as those of
the equivalent formations in the Mecsek Mts.
The Boda Siltstone Formation occurs in a very
thin (max. 20 m-thick) development, and only in
the northern foreland of the Villany Hills beneath
Lower Triassic redbeds (Barabas-Stuhl 1988).
Both the Cserdi and Boda Formations are miss-
ing in the basement of the Great Plain.
2.2.3 Permian Cover of the Kunsa g
Unit
Covering various types of crystalline rock
(granite, crystalline schist, serpentinite) a
2,5003,200 m-thick Permian sequence occurs
in the entire area of the Mecsek Mts. In the
axial zone of the Western Mecsek brachianticline
they are at the surface, but in other parts of the
mountains they are covered by Lower Triassic
red sandstone (Jakabhegy Sandstone Formation)
and younger Mesozoic rocks (Barabas 1979;
Barabas-Stuhl 1981). The Permian succession
of the Mecsek Mts. is made up of the following
formations:
The Korpad Sandstone consists of
300320 m-thick, variegated (red, grey and
green) but predominantly red, coarse-grained
sandstone and conglomerate (Fig. 2.8) consisting
of polymict rock fragments and pebbles (Jambor
1964; Barabas-Stuhl 1988). The frequently inter-
bedding reddish-brown, ne-grained sandstone
and siltstone exhibit a characteristic slurry struc-
ture. The sequence displays a denite cyclicity.
As a basal formation the Korpad Sandstone over-
lies the granite of the Moragy Complex in the
western sector of the Mecsek Mts. in the form of
a basal conglomerate. Its upper boundary is an
erosional surface covered by rhyolite lava. Based
on sporomorphs and megaora the age of this
formation is Early Permian (Barabas-Stuhl
1981).
The Gyurufu Rhyolite consists of a reddish-
brown or reddish-lilac volcanic body of
50130 m thickness. In several places the rather
monotonous lava masses are punctuated by thin
rhyolite ignimbrite layers. The upper boundary
of the formation is a typical erosional surface
(Fazekas et al. 1987). The whole rock Rb/Sr
age is 277 45 Ma (Balogh and Kovach 1973).
The Cserdi Conglomerate, as a transgressive
sequence, overlies the eroded surface of the
Gyurufu Rhyolite. It gradually passes upward
into the overlying Boda Siltstone. The thickness
of the formation varies between 250 and 1,000 m.
Forming a typical uviatile, cyclic, redbed
sequence, it consists of a regular (sometimes
irregular) alternation of conglomerate, sandstone
of various grain-sizes and siltstone (Jambor
1964; Barabas and Barabas-Stuhl 1998).
The Boda Siltstone develops from the under-
lying Cserdi Conglomerate with a 100 m-thick
transitional interval, and a similar transitional
zone occurs at the top of the formation. The
formation is made up of a 900 m-thick, monoto-
nous, reddish-brown siltstone with a few ne-
grained sandstone and dolomite-rich interlayers.
At the basin margins the thickness of the forma-
tion decreases dramatically (1050 m). Lamina-
tion and ripple marks are common in the entire
succession, indicating a lacustrine sedimentary
environment in an arid climate. Phyllopods indi-
cate an Early Permian age (F ulop 1994) but
according to sporomorph studies the formation
is early Late Permian (Barabas-Stuhl 1981; Bar-
abas and Barabas-Stuhl 1998).
The Kovagoszolos Sandstone is the youngest
lithostratigraphic unit of the Mecsek Permian
sequence. As a result of copper and lead ore
traces in its lowermost member and uranium
ores in its upper part, detailed prospecting was
carried out, yielding detailed data on the charac-
teristics of the unit which were summarised by
Barabas (1979), Barabas-Stuhl (1988), Fulop
(1994), and Barabas and Barabas-Stuhl (1998).
The thickness of the formation varies between
150 and 1,400 m from west to east. Four
members were distinguished (the uppermost one
being questionable). The Bakonya Sandstone
Member consists of variegated (grey, green and
red) sandstone with disseminated chalcopyrite
and galenite enrichments; the Kovagotottos
Sandstone Member contains grey sandstone and
siltstone with characteristic (Upper Permian)
plant remnants and a greenish uranium ore-
bearing level in its uppermost segment
(Fig. 2.11); the Cserkut Sandstone Member is
composed of red sandstone beds, and nally the
Totvar Sandstone Member consists of a violet
gravel-rich sandstone. Based on sporomorphs
the uppermost part of the Kovagoszolos Forma-
tion can be assigned to the Triassic, i.e. the
Permian/Triassic boundary can be drawn within
the formation (Barabas and Barabas-Stuhl 1998).
The Kovagoszolos Sandstone consists of
well-bedded (locally cross-bedded), uviatile,
coarse, medium, and ne-grained sandstone
and lacustrinepaludal siltstone. Numerous
grey-coloured beds contain coalied macroora
represented by Ullmannites, Voltzites and Baiera
species (Heer 1877).
Uranium ores and enrichments were formed at
the contact of the Kovagoszolos and Cserkut
Sandstone Members (Viragh and Vincze 1967;
Vincze and Somogyi 1984). The uranium ions
originated from the weathering of adjacent
granite, rhyolite, and crystalline masses and were
precipitated and enriched by physico-chemical
processes along fracture zones as U-oxides, phos-
phates, etc., together with chrome and vanadium-
bearing silicates in the transitional interngering
interval of the before-mentioned members. After
40 years of exploitation the uranium mining oper-
ation went bankrupt and ended in the late 90s.
2.2.4 Permian Cover of the
Be ke sCodru Unit
Remnants of Upper Palaeozoic lithostratigraphic
units are rare above the crystalline rocks of the
Bekes Unit, with the exception of the Gyurufu
Rhyolite Formation. The Korpad Sandstone was
encountered in a single hydrocarbon exploration
well near Totkomlos. It is made up of 130 m of
red conglomerate and coarse- to ne-grained
sandstone.
The Gyurufu Rhyolite is the only widespread
Permian formation in the area of the BekesCodru
Unit. It forms numerous isolated lava sheets
which lie on the erosional surface of the crystal-
line basement or the Korpad Sandstone, and is
covered by Lower Triassic redbeds or Miocene
as well as Pliocene sediments. At least three effu-
sion centres have been identied, represented by
their feeder facies (Fazekas et al. 1987.) The lava
sheets are rarely intercalated by ignimbrite or tuff
layers, with the exception of Kiskunmajsa where
ignimbrites and crystal tuff form a fairly high
percentage of the volcanics. The thickness of the
occurrences varies between 20 m and more than
200 m; their chemical character shows an alkaline
nature. Generally they are made up of rhyolite
with a few tuff or ignimbrite intercalations, but
subordinately rhyo-dacite also occurs. The age of
the volcanism, according to Rb/Sr measurements
on whole rock samples from Battonya, is
240 45 Ma (Balogh and Kovach 1973).
2.3 Alpine Evolution
In the early stages of the Alpine evolutionary
cycle the Tisza Mega-unit (microplate) was
Fig. 2.11 Coarse-grained green arkosic sandstone with
brown felsites clasts from the U-ore-bearing horizon of
the Kovagoszolos Sandstone Formations, Bakonya, core
No. 2061. Scale bar: 0.2 mm (Photo: T. Szederkenyi)
located at the southern margin of the European
continental plate, being a segment of the northern
shelf of the Tethys (Fig. 1.24). This palaeogeo-
graphic reconstruction is also constrained by
characteristics and distribution of the Triassic to
Middle Jurassic facies (Bleahu et al. 1996; Haas
and Pero 2004).
During the Permian to Middle Jurassic interval,
within the Tisza Mega-unit the Mecsek Zone was
subjected to the strongest terrigenous inuence.
Consequently, this unit must have been located
in the external part of the shelf, relatively close to
continental source areas. The VillanyBihor Zone
may have belonged to the middle shelf and the
BekesCodru Zone to the outer shelf.
Following the lling up of the Permian conti-
nental rift basins a fairly uniform ramp came into
being by the Middle Triassic. In the Mecsek
Zone segmentation of this ramp (formation of
half-grabens) already began in the Late Triassic
and became even more pronounced in the Early
Jurassic.
In the Middle to Late Jurassic the opening of
the LigurianPenninic Oceanic Branch led to the
breaking off of the Tisza Microplate (Tisia Ter-
rane) from the European Plate and the formation
of deep pelagic basins in the Mecsek Zone. In
connection with the rifting, basic volcanic activ-
ity commenced in the Mecsek Zone; however, it
only reached its paroxysm in the Early Creta-
ceous (Harangi et al. 1996).
The VillanyBihor Zone was a relatively ele-
vated threshold between the deep basins of the
Mecsek and BekesCodru Zones. In the latter
unit deep marine siliceouscarbonate sedimenta-
tion predominated in the Late Jurassic, and then
shifted gradually toward ysch-type deposition
in the Early Cretaceous.
Compressional zones appear to have shifted
from the internal belts toward the external ones
during the Cretaceous. This is reected by the
appearance of turbiditic and related pelagic basin
formations in the VillanyBihor Zone in the
Albian and in the Mecsek Zone in the Cenoma-
nianTuronian (Csaszar 2002). However, the Late
TuronianConiacian period was the major time of
thrusting (nappe formation) in the Apuseni Mts.
and most probably also in the basement of the
Great Plain. Turbiditic siliciclastic sequences indi-
cate the evolution of exural basins both in the
Mecsek and VillanyBihor Zones.
Flysch sediments characterise the Palaeogene
sequences in the Mecsek Zone (Szolnok Sub-
zone). The strongly deformed and imbricated
structure of these rocks may be related to the
collision of the ALCAPA and Tisza Mega-units
at the time they were emplaced into their
juxtaposed position in the Late Palaeogene
Early Neogene.
2.3.1 Fluvial Sedimentation in the
Early Triassic
The continental rift troughs of the Tisza Mega-
unit had been lled up by terrestrial sediments
and volcanic rocks by the end of the Permian. In
the course of the Early Triassic the marine trans-
gression only reached the innermost zones of the
mega-unit. Outliers of the Codru Nappes in the
Apuseni Mts. (Romania), containing marine
Lower Triassic deposits, indicate this. In a pre-
dominant part of the mega-unit continental sili-
ciclastic sedimentation predominated (Alpine
Buntsandstein facies). On the basis of sporo-
morph studies the Permian/Triassic boundary
can be drawn within the upper part of the uvia-
tile Kovagoszolos Sandstone (Barabas and Bar-
abas-Stuhl 2005) which represents the nal stage
of lling of the Late Palaeozoic rift troughs
(Fig. 2.12).
In the Early Triassic a new sedimentary cycle
began with the deposition of coarse conglomer-
ate and red sandstone. These sequences extended
over a large area, far beyond the Permian rift
troughs, even onto the eroded surface of the
Variscan metamorphic complex.
At the base of the red siliciclastic formation
(Jakabhegy Sandstone) coarse conglomerate
occurs in 110 m thickness (Fig. 2.13). The size
of the components may attain 20 cm and quartz,
rhyolite, ignimbrite, and granite are the most
common rock types encountered. Above the con-
glomerate unit the 150400 m-thick formation is
made up of cross-bedded sandstone (Fig. 2.14).
The sandstone succession is punctuated by
2.3 Alpine Evolution 119
pebbly horizons and siltstone interlayers which
show a denite cyclicity. The material of the
sand is predominantly quartz; however, the
amount of feldspar is also signicant (2030%).
Based on sedimentological features of the rock
sequences a uviatile depositional environment
can be assumed for the lower part of the forma-
tion, and for its upper part a tide-dominated delta
facies has been proposed (Csicsak and Szakmany
1998). Statistical analysis of cross-bedding direc-
tions in the uvial facies suggests transportation
from N to S (Nagy 1968). No marine fossils were
found in the formation; however, sporomorphs
found in the upper part of the unit point to the
upper part of the Lower Triassic (Barabas-Stuhl
1981).
2.3.2 Transgression in the Anisian
Siliciclastic Ramp Sedimentation
In the tectonically calm interval of the Early
Anisian a eustatic sea level rise may have led to
Fig. 2.13 Pebbly sandstone and conglomerate beds at the
basal part of the Lower Triassic Jakabhegy Sandstone,
Kovagoszolos (Photo: Cs. Pero)
0
500
1500
1000
m
granite (Carboniferous) crystalline shales
0 2 4 km
Villny
Mts.
North foreground
of Villny Mts.
Mriakmnd Hills
and Ellend Basin
Mecsek
Mts.
Mrgy
Mts.
Patacs Siltstone Formation
S N
conglomerate sandstone siltstone
acidic volcanic rocks
C-P
P
P
T
P/T boundary
Jakabhegy Sandstone Formation
Fig. 2.12 Late Palaeozoic continental basin in the area of South Transdanubia (After Haas et al. 1986)
Fig. 2.14 Cross-bedded sandstone in the Lower Triassic
Jakabhegy Formation, Kovagoszolos, Mecsek Mts.
(Photo: Cs. Pero)
general transgression in the Tisza Mega-unit
area. The inundation of the topographically
levelled area resulted in the formation of a
widely extended ramp. On the ramp a very wide
tidal at and a relatively narrow subtidal zone
came into being. Coevally the inux of ne-
grained terrigenous material continued. In this
environment red and green ne-grained sand-
stone and siltstone and green siltstone were
deposited (Patacs Siltstone).
In the outcrops of the Mecsek Mts. the red
sandstone layers of the Patacs Formation
(Fig. 2.15) show parallel and cross-lamination,
and ripple marks are common. In the green
siltstone-claystone layers a rich phyllopod fauna
was found; brachiopods (Lingula tenuissima) and
bivalves (Costatoria costata) also occur. The
sporomorph assemblage indicates an Early Ani-
sian age (Barabas-Stuhl 1981). The thickness of
the formation is about 200 m in the Mecsek Mts.
According to core data, however, it is not more
than 15 m in the area of the Villany Hills and
between the two areas. The formation was also
encountered in exploration wells in the basement
of the Great Plain.
In the Mecsek Mts. the siltstone layers of the
Patacs Formation of shallow-marine to tidal at
facies are gradually substituted by dolomitic
marl and dolomite layers with evaporitic nodules
and laminae of sabkha facies (Freytet and Cross
1984). Thereafter grey marl layers with thick
evaporitic dolomite interbeds become predomi-
nant. The thickness of the formation, consisting
of an alternation of ne terrigenous, dolomitic
and evaporitic layers (Hetvehely Formation) may
attain 200 m in the Mecsek Mts., and only 70 m
in the Villany Hills.
Rkahegy Dolomite Fm.
Hetvehely Dolomite Fm.
Lapis Limestone Fm.
Patacs Siltstone Fm.
Zuhnya Limestone Fm.
Csukma Fm.
Kantavr Fm.
Mszhegy
Sandstone
Fm.
Mszhegy
Sandstone
Fm.
Karolinavlgy
Sandstone Fm.
Szeged Dolomite
Fm.
Jakabhegy Sandstone Fm.
Mecsek Coal Fm.
RHAETIAN
NORIAN
CARNIAN
LADINIAN
ANISIAN
SCYTHIAN
area
age
MECSEK ZONE VILLNYBIHAR ZONE
BKS BASIN
Mecsek Mts. Villny Mts. Bcska K rs
Csandapca
Dolomite
Fm.
Fig. 2.15 Triassic formations of the Tisza Mega-unit (After Csaszar et al. 1997)
This evaporitic facies shows a denite simi-
larity to the Rot facies of the Germanic facies
realm. Periodically a restricted, shallow inner
ramp/lagoon may have been the site of deposi-
tion. During sea level highstands the gradually
ning terrigenous material may have been depos-
ited in the subtidal zone of the open ramp. How-
ever, in the lowstand intervals the inner parts of
the ramp may have become restricted and super-
haline conditions have come into being. This was
followed by sabkha-type evaporite formation and
dolomitization during the subaerial exposure
intervals.
2.3.3 Shallow Carbonate Ramp
Evolution in the Middle Triassic
At the end of the Early Anisian terrigenous inux
decreased, resulting in a predominance of car-
bonate deposition in the shallow ramp and plat-
form areas which extended over most of the area
of the Tisza Mega-unit. Carbonate sequences
were formed on a wide, back-platform ramp,
showing a close genetic relationship with the
Muschelkalk facies of the Germanic Basin
and European margin of the Tethys (Nagy
1968; Torok 1993, 1998).
Within the Tisza Mega-unit the Mecsek Unit
represents the deeper zone of the ramp and the
VillanyBihor Unit the shallower one, where
the ramp passed over into a platform. In the
Codru nappes even the offshore shelf margin
facies appear. Although sequences of the Me-
csek and VillanyBihor zones differ from each
other the facies transitions between them are
plausible and differences in their lithology are
caused partly by differences in their burial dia-
genetic history, resulting in variable grades of
dolomitization.
The evaporite formation is overlain by dolo-
mite (Rokahegy Dolomite). In the Villany Hills
the thickness of the dolomite unit may attain
100 m. It is laminitic and often contains peloidal
or ooidic interlayers. In the Mecsek Mts. the
thickness of the formation is less than 20 m; it
may have formed on a shallow ramp. Dolomiti-
zation may have taken place under subaerial
conditions during sea level lowstands.
The next stages of ramp evolution are repre-
sented by sequences consisting of an alternation
of thin-bedded and marly, nodular limestone and
marl with bioturbated beds and crinoid and mol-
lusc coquina interlayers. The colour of the rocks
becomes lighter and the thickness of the beds
increases upward; bioturbation is common and
oncoidal-oolitic intercalations also occur. The
features of this 300 m-thick formation (Lapis
Limestone) are similar to those of the Wellen-
kalk facies of the Germanic Triassic (Torok
1993; Figs. 2.16, 2.17). The site of deposition
of the lower part of the formation may have
been the deeper ramp, near to and just beneath
the storm wave base. The bivalve-gastropod
coquina layers and graded crinoidal beds were
deposited by storm-generated currents. The
upper part of the unit was formed in a shallower,
occasionally strongly agitated environment
above the wave base.
Dark grey, nodular, intraclastic clayey
limestone with calcareous marl intercalations
represents the upper part of the Anisian
(Zuhanya Limestone). Brachiopod coquinas are
common and typical (Fig. 2.18). Coenothyris
vulgaris (Schlotheim), Tetractinella trigonella
(Schlotheim), and Punctospirella fragilis
(Schlotheim) are the most characteristic species
of the brachiopod assemblage (Torok 1993).
Encrinus radiates (Schauroth) and Holocrinus
sp. are typical and age-diagnostic representa-
tives of the crinoids (Hagdorn et al. 1997).
These layers may have been deposited on a
deeper open ramp. This is also indicated by the
appearance of conodonts and a few ammonites
(Kovacs and Papsova 1986). The characteristic
nodular structure was probably caused by
intense bioturbation and, in connection with it,
by early diagenetic deformations of the semi-
consolidated sediments. An early diagenetic ori-
gin of the nodules is also supported by the
occurrence of redeposited nodules in the storm
coquinas.
The upper member of the Zuhanya Limestone
consists of dark grey, thin-bedded limestone with
lilac, reddish, or yellowish patches. Bedding
planes are wavy and clayey; bituminous inter-
layers are common. These features indicate
restriction of the basin which led to oxygen
depletion in the near-bottom zone. Non-
stratiform, patchy dolomitization, common in
the Zuhanya Formation, is the result of deep
burial diagenesis.
In the BekesCodru Zone, in the basement of
the southeastern part of the Great Plain, above
the Lower Anisian shallow marine siliciclastic
and evaporite units, dark grey massive dolomite
with a poor foraminiferal, mollusc and ostracode
fauna was encountered in many boreholes. This
formation (Szeged Dolomite), which probably
includes a large part of the Anisian, may have
been deposited in an oxygen-depleted, relatively
deep marine basin (Berczi-Makk 1986).
A general shallowing of the Muschelkalk
basin began in the latest Anisian to Early Ladi-
nian (Torok 1998). In the Mecsek Mts. this
shallowing-upward trend is reected by the
appearance of thick-bedded limestone with ooi-
dal and crinoidal interlayers. In certain parts of
the Mecsek Mts-. and Villany Hills, however,
this stratigraphic interval is represented by
brownish-grey, yellowish-grey dolomite with
FWB
SWB
mud dwellers
soft bottom
trace fossils
reworked
trace fossils
slumps
slidings
bioturbation
with trace fossils
soft bottom
bivalves
small lenticular
crinoid bodies
localized firm grounds
with borings
sh
o
rt
c
r
i
n
o
i
d
s
transport
long
l
o
n
g
-
r
a
n
g
e
t
r
a
n
s
p
o
r
t
s
h
e
l
l
s
distal
tempestites
current ripples
and hummocks
coquinas erosive base
FWB
SWB
normal marine fossils
(ceratites, condonts)
nodular
limestones
brachiopods
(Coenothyris)
bivalves
gutter
casts
local firm grounds
on storm sheets
mud dwellers
input of
crinoids
a
l
t
e
m
a
t
i
n
g
l
i
m
e
s
t
o
n
e
s
/
m
a
r
l
s
mud covered parautochthonous
shell beds
proximal allochthonous
coquinas
mud
MIDDLE ANISIAN MID-RAMP
MIDDLELATE ANISIAN OUTER RAMP
Fig. 2.16 Characteristic features of the Anisian carbonate formations in the Mecsek Mts. and the interpreted
depositional environments (After Torok 1993)
dolomitic marl intercalations in the upper part of
the formation.
In the BekesCodru Zone light grey dolomite
was encountered in cores (Csanadapaca Dolo-
mite). Characteristic calcareous algae (Gyropor-
ella ampleforata Gumbel and Diplopora
annulata Schafhautl) indicate a Ladinian age
and a protected inner platform depositional envi-
ronment (Berczi-Makk 1986).
2.3.4 Differentiation of the Facies
Zones of the Tisza Mega-Unit
During the Middle Triassic more or less uniform,
shallow marine carbonate sedimentation charac-
terised the area of the Tisza Mega-unit. A denite
differentiation of the facies zones was initiated in
the Late Triassic, when extensional half-grabens
began to be formed in the Mecsek Zone
(Fig. 2.19). Subsequently subsidence accelerated
in the grabens in connection with the opening of
the Penninic Ocean Branch in the Jurassic (Haas
and Pero 2004) and intensive rift volcanism com-
menced in the Early Cretaceous.
The facies of the VillanyBihor Unit also
show signicantly distinctive features from the
Late Triassic on; in the JurassicEarly Creta-
ceous interval the threshold nature of this zone
became quite denite, manifesting itself in shal-
low marine facies punctuated by gaps in the
Jurassic and establishment of carbonate plat-
forms in the Cretaceous.
In the Bekes-Codru Zone carbonate platform
facies are known from the Upper Triassic (in the
Codru Mts.). In the Jurassic increasingly deeper
marine facies appear which may be related to the
evolution of the Neotethys. The separate evolu-
tion of the zones also continued during the
CretaceousPalaeogene convergent regime.
Due to their denitely divergent evolution the
further history of the differentiated zones (units)
of the Tisza Mega-unit will be discussed sepa-
rately.
2.3.5 Mecsek Facies Unit
2.3.5.1 Intensification of Continental
Input in the Late Triassic
Shallowing at the end of the Middle Triassic,
accompanied by intensication of terrigenous
input, led to fundamental changes in the sedi-
mentary pattern all over the Tisza Mega-unit. In
the Mecsek Unit, above the carbonate ramp
facies, there is a black limestone horizon char-
acterised by pebble-sized oncoids and bivalve
(Trigonodus) coquina. In the central part of the
Mecsek Mts. it is overlain by black, thin-bedded
argillaceous limestone with black marl inter-
layers, coal stripes, and sandstone layers appears
(Kantavar Formation). The faunal assemblage is
poor in species, but the number of specimens of
the monospecic ostracode fauna (Darvinula
liassica) is extremely large (Monostori 1996).
Fig. 2.17 Thin-bedded, laminated limestone with soft
sediment deformation structures in the Anisian Lapis
Limestone. Lapis road cut, Mecsek Mts. (Photo: Cs. Pero)
Fig. 2.18 Brachiopod coquina in the Anisian Zuhanya
Limestone, Pecs, Mecsek Mts. (Photo: Gy. Konrad)
Small gastropods, charophytes, and carbonised
plant remnants (e.g. Equisetites and Anatopteris)
are also common. Changes of features of this
sequence reect a transition from brackish
water to freshwater environment. Based on spor-
omorphs the age of the formation is latest Ladi-
nian to earliest Carnian (Bona 1995).
The Kantavar Formation is overlain by grey
arkosic sandstone and siltstone and grey or
greenish/reddish shale (Karolinavolgy Sand-
stone). The thickness of the formation in the
Mecsek Mts. is about 500 m, but signicantly
thinner in the DanubeTisza Interuve segment
of the Mecsek Zone.
The lower part of the formation contains thin
coal interlayers. In addition to ostracodes and
phyllopods marine bivalves and gastropods also
occur in a restricted number. The rich sporo-
morph assemblage suggests a Carnian age
(Bona 1995). Depending on the sea level, sedi-
mentation took place in lagoonal, lacustrine, or
deltaic depositional environments. A signicant
increase in terrigenous input may have corre-
sponded to a climatic change (pluvial event)
which resulted in similar trends both in the Neo-
tethys basins and the Germanic Basin during the
Carnian. The middle part of the formation is
made up mainly of sandstone and siltstone of
lacustrine or lacustrine-deltaic facies; lagoonal
facies are subordinate. The basal part of the
upper member of the formation is characterised
by coarse-grained, cross-bedded uvial sand-
stone (Nagy 1968). Greenish-grey claystone of
lacustrine facies becomes predominant upsec-
tion. Further upward there is a gradual transition
into the overlying coal-bearing succession.
Based on sporomorphs the upper member can
be assigned to the Rhaetian (Bona 1995).
2.3.5.2 Coastal Swamp and Shallow
Marine Siliciclastic Ramp in the
Early Liassic
Thin coal interlayers already appear in the uvial
succession in the latest Rhaetian. At the begin-
ning of the Liassic uviallacustrinepalustrine
sedimentation continued but paralic coal-swamp
deposits became predominant in the sedimentary
record (Mecsek Coal). The thickness of the coal-
0 2 4 6 8 km
200
m
400
carbonates
sandstone
coal-bearing
formations
Gyre Monyord Pcs
terrigenous
influx
MIDDLE
TRIASSIC
M
I
D
D
L
E

T
R
I
A
S
S
I
C
U
P
P
E
R

T
R
I
A
S
S
I
C
H
E
T
T
A
N
G
IA
N
LO
W
ER SINEM
URIAN
N
S
Fig. 2.19 Conceptual cross-section of the Mecsek half-graben showing the depositional pattern until the Early Jurassic
(After Nagy 1969)
bearing series is usually 150300 m; in the south-
ern part of the Mecsek Mts., however, it may
attain 1,200 m. This asymmetric thickening,
already encountered in the Upper Triassic Kar-
olinavolgy Sandstone, may be explained by the
formation of an extensional half-graben (Nagy
1969). In the Alpine-Carpathian region Lower
Liassic, coal-bearing, siliciclastic sequences,
showing features similar to those in the Mecsek
Zone, are classied as Gresten Facies, which is
considered to be a characteristic facies of the
European shelf of the Tethys.
The basal uppermost Triassic part of the Me-
csek Coal was formed predominantly in lacus-
trine as well as lacustrine/deltaic facies
(Fig. 2.20). No mass extinction event was
encountered in the micro- and macroora in the
Triassic/Jurassic boundary interval (Ruckwied
et al. 2008). The formation is made up of a cyclic
alternation of arkosic sandstone, siltstone, clays-
tone and coal layers; the periodical environmen-
tal changes reect also in the diverse
palynomorph assemblages (Ruckwied et al.
2008). In some horizons of the succession well-
preserved prints of plants were found (Equisites,
Thaumatoporites, Nilssonia, etc.). The numerous
and diverse ferns, large amount of horstails, and
dominancy of Komlopteris indicates wet and
warm climatic conditions (Barbacka 1994; Bar-
backa and Bodor 2008). In the marine sublittoral
layers euryhaline molluscs occur, locally in large
amounts (Cardinia, Gervilleia, Gryphaea,
Anomia, etc.). The Hettangian middle member
of the formation is mainly uvial with channel,
ood plain, and swamp facies; however, passing
upward, coquinas of brackish-water molluscs
appear in increasing frequency. Thin
(0.51.5 m) rhyolitic tufte interlayers occur in
this member (Nemedi-Varga 1983). The Lower
Sinemurian upper member of the Mecsek Coal
may have been deposited in a tidal at marsh
environment. However in some layers remnants
of crinoids also appear, indicating a temporary
establishment of normal salinity conditions.
Steeply dipping, strongly deformed, 0.46 m-
thick coal seams of the Mecsek Coal was
exploited during more than 200 years until 2002
(Fig. 2.21). This is the only coking coal deposit in
Hungary. The mining region was located in the
environs of Komlo and Pecs extending over an
area of 350400 km
2
. Number of coal seams of
commercial value was 15 in Pecs area with 28 m
total thickness and 9 in Komlo area with 24 m
total thickness.
The coal formation is overlain by ne-grained
sandstone and dark grey marl with crinoidal
limestone interlayers, Late Sinemurian in age
(Vasas Marl). The thickness of the formation in
the Mecsek Mts. is 250650 m. In the lower part
of the succession Liogryphaea beds occur which
may have formed in a very shallow marine
m
a
r
i
n
e
f
l
u
v
i
a
l
l
a
c
u
s
t
r
i
n
e
0 1 2 km
50
100
150
m
0
marine
flood plain
lacustrine
lagoon
fluvial
channel
swamp
delta
P
c
s
b
n
y
a
S
z
a
b
o
l
c
s
V
a
s
a
s
K
o
m
l
l
,

B
t
a
K
o
m
l
K
o
s
s
u
t
h
S
z
s
z
v
r
N
a
g
y
m
n
y
o
k
S N
Fig. 2.20 Changes in the facies characteristics and thick-
ness of the Mecsek Coal Formation in the Mecsek Mts.
(After Nagy 1969)
environment. Other bivalves and crinoid ossicles
also occur locally in rock-forming quantity.
Poorly-preserved plant remnants are common.
The upper part of the formation is rich in mol-
luscs, ammonites, belemnites, echinoderms, bra-
chiopods, and foraminifera, indicating a deeper
ramp environment of normal salinity (Csaszar
et al. 2007). The entire sequence suggests grad-
ual deepening and transgression. The sea level
rise may also have caused a decrease in terrige-
nous input, and no deltas appear to have been
located close to the Mecsek Basin.
2.3.5.3 Pelagic Marl Facies in the
Middle Liassic to Early
Dogger Interval
During the later part of the Sinemurian, most
probably as a combined result of eustatic sea
level rise and accelerated subsidence, water
depth continued to increase. Coevally the conti-
nental source area, which still provided a large
amount of terrigenous material, moved even
farther away from the site of deposition. In
accordance with this palaeogeographic setting
an open marine deep basin had been the site of
deposition until the middle part of the Jurassic.
In this basin ne-grained terrigenous material
and pelagic biogenic ooze were deposited
together; however, their ratio continuously
changed. This heavily bioturbated marl
sequence, the so-called Fleckenmergel or
Allgau Facies is also characteristic of the
European Tethys margin. In the rapidly subsid-
ing southern zone of the Mecsek half-graben its
thickness may attain 2,000 m, whereas in the
northern part of this structural unit, as well as in
the subsurface parts of the Mecsek Zone (i.e. in
the basement of the Transdanubian area and the
Great Plain), it is generally only 150300 m.
In the upper part of the Sinemurian the car-
bonate content increases and grey, slightly bio-
turbated marl, silty marl and calcareous marl
with crinoidal limestone intercalations become
characteristic (Hosszuheteny Marl; Fig. 2.22).
Ammonites, belemnies, brachiopods, bivalves
(Vadasz 1935) and sponge spicules and forami-
nifera are common (Raucsik and Merenyi 2000).
This 50350 m thick formation of Late Sinemur-
ian to Early Pliensbachian age was deposited
under open marine conditions in the deeper
zone of the open shelf.
The higher part of the Pliensbachian is char-
acterised by rhytmic alternation of hemipelagic
spotted marl, calcareous marl, redeposited cri-
noidal limestone and mixed carbonatesilici-
clastic turbidite (Mecseknadasd Sandstone)
(Raucsik and Merenyi 2000; Raucsik and
Varga 2008). In the rapidly subsiding southern
zone of the Mecsek Mts. area the thickness of
the formation may attain 1,000 m, and only
70 m in its northern zone. The depositional
environment may have been a shallow bathyal
basin. The predominance of the sand-sized ter-
rigenous material may reect a lowering sea
level and/or a climatic change.
Upsection, silty marl becomes predominant
again and the share of sandstone decreases
(O
banya Shale). This approximately 150 m-

thick formation represents the Lower and Middle
Toarcian. In the Lower Toarcian a 10 m-thick,
Fig. 2.21 Alternation of sandstone and coal beds in the
Mecsek Coal Formation. Open-pit mine at PecsVasas
(Photo J. Haas)
very peculiar black shale intercalation with thin
sandstone and crinoidal limestone interlayers as
well as ammonites, belemnites, thin-shelled
pelagic bivalves and sh remnants can be found
(Dulai et al. 1992). The black shale facies indi-
cates that anoxic conditions prevailed near the
sea bottom. Based on ammonites this anoxic
layer can be exactly correlated with the Early
Toarcian global anoxic event (Jenkyns and
Clayton 1986; Jenkyns 1988).
Above the black shale intercalation the typical
Fleckenmergel facies resumes. The Upper
Toarcian Bajocian is characterised by rhythmic
alternation of spotted marl, calcareous marl and
clayey limestone, 200500 m in thickness
(Komlo Calcareous Marl) (Raucsik and Varga
2008). It contains predominantly pelagic fossil
elements: Bositra shell fragments, radiolarians,
sponge spicules, echinodermfragments, belemnite
rostra, and ammonoids (Vadasz 1935). The pelagic
fossil assemblage suggests a relatively deep
marine depositional environment supplied with
large amount of ne-grained terrigenous material
from a distant source area.
In the southern and northern margins of the
Mecsek Basin grey and red crinoidalbrachio-
podal limestone, coeval with the Komlo Calcar-
eous Marl has been encountered. This facies may
characterise uplifted, shallower marginal blocks
of the Mecsek Basin.
2.3.5.4 Siliceous and Carbonate Deep-Sea
Facies in the Late Dogger to Malm
Interval
At the end of the Bajocian the sedimentation
character fundamentally changed: the amount of
terrigenous material and consequently the sedi-
mentation rate signicantly decreased; continu-
ous and probably accelerated subsidence led to
increased water depth. These changes in the sed-
imentary pattern can be related to the separation
of the Tisza Mega-unit from the European plate.
Due to oceanic opening between the European
Plate and the Tisza Block the Mecsek Zone was
cut off from its previous continental source area.
Consequently, condensed pelagic carbonates and
siliceous sediments, similar to coeval sequences
in the Transdanubian Range or the Alpine region,
were formed. Changes in the fossil assemblage
(e.g. ammonites, brachiopods), that is the appear-
ance and then prevalence of Mediterranean ele-
ments, may also be attributed to this process
(Geczy 1973; Voros 1993).
Reecting the changes in the depositional
regime the spotty marl (Fleckenmergel) facies
is overlain by greenish-yellowish-reddish marl,
then by red calcareous marl and nally by nodu-
lar, argillaceous limestone rich in poorly-
preserved ammonoids and pelagic microfossils
(Bositra shell fragments, Protoglobigerina, radi-
olarians). This 1020 m-thick formation (O
banya
Limestone) of Bathonian age (Galacz 1995) was
deposited in a deep, pelagic, starved basin, above
the aragonite compensation depth.
Tithonian
Kimmeridgian
Oxfordian
Callovian
Bathian
Bajocian
Aalenian
Toarcian
Pliensbachian
Sinemurian
Hettangian
L
I
A
S
S
I
C
D
O
G
G
E
R
M
A
L
M
area
epoch
MECSEK ZONE
Mecsek Mts. N. Great Plain
Mrvr Limestone Fm.
Vrkony
Limestone
Fm.
Kisjbnya Limestone
Fm.
Fonysz Limestone
Fm.
Dorog Calcareous Marl
Fm.
bnya Limestone Fm.
Pusztakisfalu
Limestone Fm.
Mecsekndasd Sandstone Fm.
Mecsek Coal Fm.
Kecskeht Lmst. Fm.
Vasas Marl Fm.
Fig. 2.22 Jurassic formations of the Mecsek Zone (After
Csaszar ed. 1997)
The next unit consists of brownish- and
greenish-grey, thin-bedded, siliceous calcareous
marl (Dorogo Marl) with a few poorly preserved
ammonites, Bositra fragments, and radiolarians.
It also contains altered pyroclastics but only in a
small quantity. The thickness of this formation
of Callovian age does not exceed 1020 m. The-
calcareous marl passes upward into siliceous
limestone (Fonyaszo Limestone). In the basal
part of the formation brownishgreenish, highly
silicied radiolarite occurs. Above it, the
30120 m-thick formation is made up of thin-
bedded, yellowish-grey, reddish, and greenish
cherty limestone. The rocks are poor in mega-
fossils; the microfossils suggest an Oxfordian
age.
The Kimmeridgian to Lower Tithonian inter-
val is represented by red, nodular, locally cherty
limestone with ammonoids and aptychi (Kisujba-
nya Limestone) with features of the Mediterra-
nean Ammonitico rosso facies. The limestone
consists predominantly of Saccocoma ossicles.
The thickness of the formation is 10 to 50 m.
The red nodular limestone passes upward into
greyish- or yellowish-white, thin-bedded lime-
stone and argillaceous limestone, locally with
intraclasts and chert nodules (Marevar Lime-
stone), similar to the Mediterranean Maiolica
Facies. Its thickness may attain 100 m. The
layers are poor in megafossils but they contain
a rich calpionellid microfauna which emplaces
the formation into the Upper TithonianBerria-
sian. The site of deposition may have been a deep
pelagic basin. Intrabreccia intercalations in the
pelagic sequences and the chronostratigraphi-
cally mixed microfossil assemblage (Nagy
1986) indicate a signicant gravity mass ow
activity resulting in the redeposition of the
unconsolidated and semiconsolidated sediments.
In the upper part of the formation, in addition
to the redeposited carbonate grains, ne pyro-
clastics and volcanic bombs appear in the layers,
indicating the intensication of volcanic activity
in the Berriasian.
2.3.5.5 Basaltic Magmatism in the Early
Cretaceous
The very intensive and areally extensive Early
Cretaceous alkaline basalt magmatism is one of
the most characteristic features of the Mecsek
Unit. It was connected to rifting which had
already been initiated in the Late Triassic and
led to crustal attenuation and formation of exten-
sional basins. Products of the magmatic activity
crop out in the Mecsek Mts. and can also be
traced in other parts of the Mecsek Zone, in the
basement of the Tertiary basins, in Transdanubia
and the Great Plain (Haas and Pero 2004).
Traces of volcanic activity can already be
observed in the Jurassic formations; however,
the culmination of the volcanism occurred in
the Early Cretaceous, mainly in the Valanginian,
although it extended into the Hauterivian (Me-
csekjanos Basalt). In the western Mecsek Mts.
basaltic and trachytic small intrusions and dykes
are typical, generally with alkaline metasoma-
tism, whereas in the eastern part of the range
rocks of basalttephritephonolite series and
kalithrachyte occur in equal amounts (Kubovics
et al. 1990). Pillow lava, lava breccias, and hya-
loclastite indicate submarine volcanism. Dikes,
sills, and subvolcanic bodies are common. In the
basement of the Great Plain feldspar-rich basalt
showing spilitisation, Mg-metasomatic alter-
ation, and carbonatisation was also encountered.
The geochemical and mineralogicalpetro-
graphic features suggest continental rift-type vol-
canism (Kubovics and Billik 1984; Harangi et al.
1996).
In the Mecsek Mts. basalt is overlain by con-
glomerate and sandstone, and marl. Locally the
clastic layers are again covered by basaltic lava
rocks. In the clastic beds (Magyaregregy Con-
glomerate) a signicant part of the clasts were
derived from the volcanic build-up. It contains a
rich shallow-marine fauna (rudists, gastropods,
and corals) was found together with cephalopods
and other pelagic fossils. It is obvious that the top
of the volcanic centres reached sea level, allow-
ing colonisation by shallow marine biota around
the volcanoes; atoll-like carbonate build-ups
were formed (Mecsek-type atolls Csaszar
2002). As a consequence of rapid erosion of the
volcanoes together with the encroaching atolls
lithoclasts and bioclasts accumulated in the dee-
per basins between the volcanic highs while vol-
canic activity may have been continuing
(Fig. 2.23). Rhytmic alternation of limestone or
calcareous marl and siltstone or silty marl (Hida-
sivolgy Marl) characterises the successions of the
central part of the basins located relatively fare
from the volcanoes (Csaszar 2002).
In the southern part of the Mecsek Mts. the
thickness of the volcanic complex is signicantly
reduced, and volcanites are overlain by a
400500 m-thick ValanginianHauterivian
sequence consisting predominantly of crinoidal
limestone.
2.3.5.6 Tectogenic Episodes and Flexural
Basins in the Late Cretaceous
In the Mecsek Mts. Cretaceous formations youn-
ger than Barremian do not occur, except for a
single locality where Turonian pelagic marl was
found. Similarly there is no rm evidence for
deposition between the Barremian and the Tur-
onian in any other part of the Mecsek Zone.
Based on observations in the VillanyBihor
Zone it seems probable that in the Tisza Mega-
unit the rst phase of Alpine orogeny occurred in
the Late AlbianCenomanian, and may have
resulted in the erosion of a signicant part of
the previously deposited Cretaceous formations.
Coevally with and/or subsequent to the
assumed orogenic movements deep basins came
into being in the foreland of the thrust belts.
There is only little evidence for the existence of
this kind of basin in the Turonian. In the Mecsek
Mts. red marl and calcareous marl rich in plank-
tonic foraminifera were encountered (Vekeny
volcanoclastics
sandstone
Magyaregregy Conglomerate Fm.
Hidasivlgy Marl Fm.
lavas
pyroclastics and hyaloclastics
Mrvr Limestone Fm.
(TithonianBerriasian)
Mecsekjnos Basalt Fm.
colonial organisms
monopleurid rudists
requinid rudists
ostreids
other bivalves
gastropods
gravel
sand
debris flow
Fig. 2.23 Conceptual cross-section of the Lower Cretaceous volcanic and volcano-sedimentary complex in the
Mecsek Mts. (After Csaszar and Turnsek 1997)
Marl; Balla and Bodrogi 1993; Csaszar 2002).
Similar rocks and fossil assemblages were found
in a well in the Great Plain area; however, in
some boreholes south of the previously-
mentioned well grey, foraminifera-bearing,
pelagic marl representing the same stratigraphic
interval was encountered.
In the Romanian Apuseni Mts., in the eastern
part of the Tisza Mega-unit, the most intensive
nappe formation occurred in the Coniacian
(Ianovici et al. 1976); this is probably true for
the entire mega-unit (Haas and Pero 2004). It
follows that pelagic sedimentation was probably
interrupted, uplifting and subaerial denudation
may have taken place, and subsequently new
basins came into existence. Senonian (Campanian
to Maastrichtian) pelagic sequences encountered
in many wells in the Great Plain area may have
been deposited in these basins.
In the Trans-Tisza area, in the northeastern
part of the Mecsek Unit, Campanian-
Maastrichtian sequences made up of an alterna-
tion of sandstone and siltstone layers and subor-
dinately shale and conglomerate interlayers were
also found (Debrecen Sandstone; Szepeshazy
1973; Szentgyorgyi 1989). The thickness of the
formation is not known exactly but certainly
exceeds 500 m. The composition of the sand-
sized grains indicates a predominantly metamor-
phic source area. The lithologic features of the
formation indicate turbiditic (ysch-type) sedi-
mentation (Szolnok Flysch Complex, hereafter
SFC); however, the fact that the rocks are gener-
ally strongly compressed, and also that relatively
few core data are available, make it difcult to
recognise typical ysch characteristics.
Southwest of the area of extent of the Debre-
cen Formation the CampanianMaastrichtian
interval is represented by marl, calcareous
marl, silty marl, and argillaceous limestone
(Izsak Marl). In the lower part of the formation
rusty brown, and reddish colours predominate
and grey becomes dominant upsection. In the
westernmost occurrence of the formation in the
DanubeTisza Interuve area red colour pre-
vails in the entire sequence and the carbonate
content is the highest (Szentgyorgyi 1989). This
red marl shows features very similar to those of
the Puhov Marl, a characteristic Upper Cretaceous
formation of the Pieniny Klippen Belt in the Car-
pathians. The formation is rich in pelagic micro-
fossils (calcisphaerulids and foraminifera). The
Izsak Marl is a typical bathyal basin facies, depos-
ited far from the continental source areas.
2.3.5.7 Palaeogene Flysch Deposition in
the Szolnok Flysch Trough
The Szolnok Flysch Zone (hereafter SFZ) is
located in the basement of the Great Plain
(Figs. 1.86a. 1.88), extending along SWNE
strike in a length of 130 km from the town of
Szolnok toward the Ny rseg and Maramures area
in Romania and Sub-Carpathian Ukraine
(Dudich 1982). The Szolnok Flysch has been
drilled all along this belt in Hungary and also in
some hydrocarbon exploration wells in East
Romania as well (Paraschiv 1979).
The SFZ is located at the northeastern edge of
the Tisza Mega-unit. The width of this belt is
1520 km, but locally it may attain 3040 km.
The belt is parallel to a relatively elevated crys-
talline ridge to its south. North of the ridge the
crystalline basement drops to a considerable
depth and is overlain by the ysch sequence
(Korossy 1959). The contact may be a tectonic
one.
Hydrocarbon exploration wells encountered
thick sequences of Senonian to Oligocene age,
locally showing turbiditic sedimentation features.
It has often been argued in international geologic
literature whether the Szolnok Flysch is a true
ysch or not. Based on the detailed study of the
available cores Szepeshazy (1973) claimed sev-
eral times that it is a ysch sequence, although not
all members of the succession show clear turbidi-
tic features. Therefore the ysch character of the
entire sedimentary succession of the Szolnok
Zone has been generally accepted by the Hungar-
ian geologic community and is cited overwhelm-
ingly as Szolnok Flysch. The term Szolnok
Flysch Zone has been used by several authors
as a name of a tectonic unit as well. However, if
we dene a "true ysch" not only based upon its
turbiditic character, but also to its geodynamic
setting (e. g. submarine trench deposit, subduction
related sequence, a foreland basin of prograding
nappe piles, etc.), the Szolnok Flysch cannot be
considered as true ysch. This is why several
authors distinct Inner Carpathian ysches (e.g. Pod-
hale Flysch, Maramures Flysch, Szolnok Flysch)
and Outer Carpathian true isches in the region.
Beneath a 2,000 to 3,000 m-thick Quaternary
and Neogene sedimentary and volcanic cover the
over 1,000 m-thick clastic sedimentary series of
the SFZ has been encountered in several wells in
the last 40 years. The total thickness of the Szol-
nok Flysch is unknown since no well has ever
reached its base. One of the exploration wells
stopped within the complex after 1,400 m of
penetration.
Previously the Szolnok Flysch was thought
to have been deposited continuously from the
Cretaceous to the Oligocene (Szepeshazy 1973).
Detailed studies of the available core samples
(Baldi-Beke et al. 1981; Baldi-Beke and Nagy-
marosy 1993; Nagymarosy and Baldi-Beke
1993; Nagymarosy 1998) have shown that only
a few Cretaceous and Palaeogene nannoplankton
zones can be proved, and that others are
completely missing. According to the most
recent information the Szolnok Flysch
sequence is non-continuous and it can be subdi-
vided into several discrete units. The hiatuses
must be interpreted as submarine unconformities
or submarine erosional events, since it is difcult
to suppose several very quick basin inversions
and subaeric erosions.
Although more than 100 wells reached the
ysch sequence its lithological composition is
only incompletely known, because of insufcient
coring and the lack of any continuously cored
section.
The age of the oldest beds is Campanian and
the cores can be assigned either to the Izsak
(Puchov) Marl or to the Debrecen Sandstone
Formations. The top part of the Cretaceous
(Maastrichtian) and practically the entire Palaeo-
cene is missing in the core material. Nannoplank-
ton assemblages of a few isolated cores have
been interpreted by Baldi-Beke and Nagymarosy
(1993) as transitional beds between the Palaeo-
cene and Lower Eocene (NP 910 nannoplankton
zones). These cores consist of red, variegated,
green or greenish-grey, rarely dark grey marl,
locally non-calcareous shale and also nely rhyth-
mic, turbiditic sandstone. Their distribution is
restricted to a few drilling sites in the southwest-
ern segment of the ysch belt (Fig. 2.24).
The Middle to Upper Eocene part of the ysch
series was encountered much more frequently
than the Cretaceous and Palaeocene one. Grey
and variegated shale with nely rhythmic sand-
stone, poorly sorted sandstone, polymict con-
glomeratic sandstone, conglomerate and breccia
are the characteristic rock types. Limestone and
sandy marl, rarely Nummulites and Lithotham-
nium-bearing and very probably redeposited,
were observed in the surroundings of Hajduszo-
boszlo. The Middle and Late Eocene deposits
were reported in the entire area of the Szolnok
Zone (Fig. 2.25).
Most cores were classied into the Upper
Lutetian and Bartonian. Lower Lutetian is
entirely missing and Priabonian biozones in the
cores are rare.
The distribution of the Oligocene deposits is
restricted to the northeastern part of the Szolnok
Zone (Figs. 1.94, 2.26). They are practically
absent in the Tisza Valley. Flysch characters
are absent from the Oligocene part of the
sequence. The most typical Oligocene lithofacies
consists of clayey marl (very similar to the Kis-
cell Clay) with sandstone intercalations (rarely
cross-bedded). Lepidocyclina-bearing conglom-
erate was encountered at one site.
The presence of the Lower Oligocene is
uncertain in the Szolnok Zone. Upper Kiscellian
and Egerian (NP 2425 nannoplankton zones)
deposits were cored quite frequently.
The actual preservation and recent distribu-
tion of the SFZ is strongly controlled by
Early Miocene compressional tectonics and
subsequent denudation until the Middle Mio-
cene. Tectonic imbrication and erosion can be
suspected as well, mainly for the deeper part of
the sequence. This may also explain the lack
or rarity of the Palaeocene and Cretaceous parts
of the complex. In some Palaeocene cores red
and variegated, non-calcareous and non-
fossiliferous shale may suggest deposition
below or about at the CCD.
For the Eocene the calcareous nannoplankton
assemblages of the Szolnok Flysch sequence
indicate pelagic conditions. The composition of
nannoplankton assemblages differs strongly
from that of the coeval near-shore assemblages
of the Hungarian Palaeogene Basin (see Baldi-
Beke 1984; Baldi-Beke and Nagymarosy 1993),
underlining the possibility that no direct
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NYREGYHZA
MISKOLC
CAREI
(NAGYKROLY)
DEBRECEN
ORADEA
(NAGYVRAD)
SZOLNOK
BKSCSABA
SZEGED
ARAD
Trkeve
Krsszegapti
Pspkladny
Kaba
Bucsa
Kisjszlls
Kengyel
Rkczifalva
Tiszapspki
Fegyvernek Nagykr
Szandaszls
Alcsi
Trtel
Kunmadaras
Karcag
Hajdbszrmny
Hajdhadhz
Balmazjvros
Tiszaigar
Tatrls
Nagyivn
Ndudvar
Jzsa
Ebes
Hajdszoboszl
x x x x x x x
0 25 50 km
1
2
S

L

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V A K I A
U

K

R

A

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N

E
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U

M

A

N

I

A
S
E
R
B
I A
Fig. 2.24 A distribution of the Palaeocene to Early Eocene (NP 910 nannoplankton zones) beds in the Szolnok Flysch
trough. 1 the northern boundary on the crystalline basement; 2 extension of the Palaeocene to Early Eocene beds
palaeogeographic connection between the two
basins existed. The Oligocene nannoplankton
assemblages of the Szolnok Flysch show less
pelagic and more near-shore features than the
Eocene ones (Baldi-Beke and Nagymarosy
1993). Taking into consideration all the petro-
graphic and palaeontological features of the
Szolnok Flysch a gradual change in
T
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s
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NYREGYHZA
MISKOLC
CAREI
(NAGYKROLY)
DEBRECEN
ORADEA
(NAGYVRAD)
SZOLNOK
BKSCSABA
SZEGED
ARAD
Trkeve
Krsszegapti
Pspkladny
Kaba
Bucsa
Kisjszlls
Kengyel
Rkczifalva
Tiszapspki
Fegyvernek
Nagykr
Alcsi
Trtel
Kunmadaras
Karcag
Hajdbszrmny
Hajdhadhz
Balmazjvros
Tiszaigar
Tatrls
Nagyivn
Ndudvar
Jzsa
Ebes
Hajdszoboszl
x x x x x x x
0 25 50 km
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I A
Fig. 2.25 Distribution of the Middle to Late Eocene (NP 1619 nannoplankton zones) beds in the Szolnok Flysch
trough. 1 the northern boundary on the crystalline basement; 2 extension of the Middle to Late Eocene beds
depositional conditions, from deep water/pelagic
to shallower/nearshore, can be assumed.
Korossy (1959, 1977), Juhasz (1966) and
Szepeshazy (1973) emphasised the strongly tec-
tonised character of the Szolnok Flysch. Dips
between 70
o
and 90
o
as well as sheared and
compressed sections (e.g. cores with vertical
dip and folded structures) were frequently
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0 25 50 km
1
2
NYREGYHZA
MISKOLC
CAREI
(NAGYKROLY)
DEBRECEN
ORADEA
(NAGYVRAD)
SZOLNOK
BKSCSABA
SZEGED
ARAD
Trkeve
Krsszegapti
Pspkladny
Kaba
Bucsa
Kisjszlls
Kengyel
Rkczifalva
Tiszapspki
Fegyvernek
Nagykr
Alcsi
Trtel
Kunmadaras
Karcag
Hajdbszrmny
Hajdhadhz
Balmazjvros
Tiszaigar
Tatrls
Nagyivn
Ndudvar
Jzsa
Ebes
Hajdszoboszl
Fig. 2.26 Distribution of the Oligocene (NP 2425 nannoplankton zones) beds in the Szolnok Flysch trough. 1 the
northern boundary on the crystalline basement; 2 extension of the Oligocene beds
reported. However, strongly compressed and
imbricated structures are not only conned to
the Szolnok Zone in this region. Pap (1990)
described a number of imbrication structures
from the basement of the eastern part of the
Great Plain, also outside of the Szolnok Zone.
He mentioned a borehole section located in the
southern part of the ysch belt where even Ter-
tiary (i.e. Upper Eocene) rocks were involved in
the compressional structures. In two cases nan-
noplankton studies revealed that older, Creta-
ceous deposits have been thrusted over
younger, Tertiary ones in the vicinity of Debre-
cen and Nadudvar (Nagymarosy and Baldi-
Beke 1993).
The examples presented here conrm that the
Szolnok Flysch has been subjected to compres-
sional tectonics and signicant displacement fol-
lowing deposition. The youngest formation
involved with certainly in these imbricated struc-
tures is of Late Eocene age; however, the heavily
tectonised character of some Oligocene beds
(sheared rocks with steep dips) suggests that
compression must have taken place after the
deposition of the Oligocene layers, in the Early
Miocene before deposition of the overlying, non-
compressed Middle Miocene (Badenian) rocks.
The signicant differences in thickness of the
sequences may also be attributed to tectonic
erosion.
The Szolnok Flysch is in an unusual posi-
tion inside the Carpathian arc. No direct connec-
tion with any Carpathian or Dinaridic ysch units
is evident. The SFZ can be traced eastward to
Carei and Satu Mare (Romania) and then disap-
pears beneath young volcanic masses of the
Gutin Mts. However, the stratigraphic content
of the Szolnok Flysch sequence provides
some help in correlating it with the other ysch
units.
It could be possible, on the one hand, that the
Szolnok Flysch might be a displaced continua-
tion of one of the Outer Carpathian ysch belts
which disappears near the northeastern termina-
tion of the Mid-Hungarian Lineament. The
northeastern termination of the Szolnok Flysch
points toward the Maramures area. In this sector,
the Pieniny Klippen Belt (Botiza Klippen; see
Sandulescu 1980; Sandulescu et al. 1981) forms
a bend and strikes southwestward in the direction
of the Szolnok Flysch, as does the Outer Car-
pathian Magura Nappe that also ends in this
region. The Magura Nappe and the Pieniny Klip-
pen Belt (Botiza Klippen) pinch out toward the
west. There is no known prolongation of the
Pieniny Klippen Belt and the Magura Nappe
further to the SE or SW. Consequently, the
Szolnok Flysch (or a part of it) may be the
continuation of the above-mentioned tectonic
units.
According to another hypothesis, the Szol-
nok Flysch would be the continuation of the
Inner Carpathian Flysch Belt, i.e. of the Trans-
carpathian Flysch in Maramures. Thus, the
Szolnok Flysch may be the subsurface prolon-
gation of any of these three units (or a tectoni-
cally mixed structure of all three units).
However, the autochthonous Central Inner
Transcarpathian Flysch also pinches out toward
the SW at the surface.
The comparison of the stratigraphic patterns
of the individual units permits a choice among
these solutions (Gyor et al. 1999). The several
hiatuses in the Szolnok Flysch sequence sug-
gest its marginal position during the Senonian
and Palaeogene. Therefore its correlation with
the continuous, basinal Outer Carpathian
sequences seems improbable and can be
excluded.
Similar Palaeocene and Eocene gaps have
been observed, both in the Pieniny Klippen Belt
and the Transcarpathian (Maramures) Flysch
Basin, where the diagnostic Puchov Marl also
occurs (Bombit a 1972; Dicea et al. 1980; Szasz
1975).
The SFZ may have been deposited under con-
ditions similar to those of the Transcarpathian
or Maramures Flysch on the northern slope of a
continental microplate (Tisza Mega-unit,
Fig. 2.27). It can therefore be assumed that the
Szolnok Flysch and Transcarpathian Flysch
units are strongly related in their genesis and
might form a continuous subsurface belt. This
can be conrmed by a strong similarity between
their stratigraphic columns.
The present-day distribution of the Szolnok
Flysch shows considerable variation, which is
not due to changes in the depositional systems
but only to the effects of post-depositional ero-
sion. In the southwestern segment of the unit
only CretaceousPalaeoceneEocene deposits
occur, without younger layers. In the middle
part of the Szolnok Zone Upper Cretaceous to
Oligocene deposits occur. In the northeastern
continuation of the belt, i.e. in the Maramures
area (Romania), Upper Cretaceous to Lower
Miocene successions are known.
An explanation for this distribution pattern,
i.e. the shift in the ending of sedimentation in
the SzolnokMaramures Belt, could be a result
of Late EoceneOligocene palaeogeographic
palaeotectonic dynamics (Fig. 2.27; Csontos
et al. 1992).
In the northeastern prolongation of the Szolnok
Zone the Botiza and Lapus Nappes are thrusted
over Early Miocene deposits. This post-Oligocene
compression shows a strong similarity to that in
the Szolnok sector (Sandulescu et al. 1981), indi-
cating a pre-Badenian tectogenesis for this belt.
2.3.5.8 Continental Palaeogene Basin
in the Mecsek
South of the Mecsek Mts. (see Nagymarosy in
Csaszar et al. 1990; Weber 1982, 1985) more
than 150 m of Palaeogene continental clastic
deposits (maximum thickness 400 m) were
encountered in the Szigetvar area. Palynologic
studies have identied the lower part of this
sequence as Eocene; the higher part was assigned
to the Late Oligocene. According to Varga et al.
(2004) the age of the whole sequence is Late
Eocene.
Diagnostic lithofacies are variegated shales,
clays, marls, sandstones, clast-supported con-
glomerates and breccias. Thin beds of coal and
paleosols also occur. The Palaeogene rocks of
this South Mecsek graben were most probably
formed in an isolated, continental depositional
basin.
2.3.6 Villa nyBihor Facies Unit
2.3.6.1 CoastalTerrestrial Sedimentation
in the Late Triassic
In contrast to the thick siliciclastic sequences of
the Mecsek Unit the VillanyBihor Unit is char-
acterised by a thin, coastalcontinental Upper
Triassic succession akin to the Carpathian Keu-
per facies of the European shelf of the Tethys.
In the Villany Hills, Ladinian dolomite is con-
formably overlain by a formation made up of an
alternation of yellowish-grey dolomitic marl and
Fig. 2.27 Palinspastic reconstruction of the Carpathian-
Pannonian region in the mid-Tertiary and the position of
the so-called Inner Carpathian ysch belts. PF
Podhale Flysch, SZF Szolnok Flysch, MM Maramures
Flysch, TB Transylvanian basin, 1 upthrust zone,
2 transcurrent fault, 3 direction of the microplate-drift,
4 compresional eld, 5 compressional basin (Csontos and
Nagymarosy)
dolomite, brownish- or greenish-grey sandy silt-
stone, and greyish-white quartzarenite (Meszh-
egy Formation; Fig. 2.26). In the upper part of the
1540 m-thick formation the dolomite layers
disappear and greenishreddish variegated silt-
stone becomes predominant. Marine fossils are
completely absent from these layers. In addition
to plant remnants only bones of reptiles have
been found so far, which do not allow an exact
age determination. Above the Middle Triassic
carbonates a few wells also encountered similar
sequences in the basement of the Great Plain.
2.3.6.2 Discontinuous Shallow Marine
Deposition in the Jurassic
The Jurassic sequence of the VillanyBihor Zone
is known mainly from the Villany Hills. As far as
the basement of the Great Plain is concerned
core data is only available for the Malm forma-
tions.
In the Villany Hills, unconformably overlying
the Upper Triassic rocks, the Jurassic series
begins with a quartzarenite bed, grading upward
into shallow marine, sandy, crinoidal limestone
with conglomerate interlayers. In the conglomer-
ate quartzite and dolomite components are recog-
nised, indicating the proximity of a continental
hinterland. The next bed contains large pebbles
and conglomerate and limestone boulders. These
beds are overlain by yellowish-grey limestone
with ammonoids, belemnoids, and brachiopods,
followed by grey, strongly bioturbated, thick-
bedded, cherty, crinoidal limestone (Fig. 2.29).
Based on ammonites the only 68 m-thick lime-
stone formation (Somsichhegy Limestone) can
be assigned to the Pliensbachian (Voros 2009).
The appearance of a condensed marine series
following a long-lasting subaerial hiatus can
be explained by tectonically-controlled trans-
gression which was followed by another gap of
about 20 million years duration.
Above the hiatus a thin, yellow, sandy lime-
stone bed, rich in Bathonian ammonites, occurs.
It is overlain by an extremely condensed lime-
stone layer, very rich in ammonites (Fig. 2.28).
In the 3040 cm-thick layer more than 150 spe-
cies were found (Geczy 1982b). The fossil
assemblage indicates a pelagic environment. It
is assumed that a pelagic plateau came into being
in the Middle Jurassic which was strongly
affected by currents, leading to permanent
removal of the sediments. Thin layers of the
Villany Limestone may have been preserved
due to microbial encrustation. Most of the
ammonites are characteristic of the European
province; a smaller part of the assemblage, how-
ever, is Mediterranean, indicating the incipient
break-off and separation of the Tisza Block
from the European Plate during the Dogger
(Geczy 1973).
The ammonite-bearing limestone is overlain
by 300 m of thick-bedded, grey, brownish- or
yellowish-grey limestone (Szarsomlyo Lime-
stone; Fig. 2.28). It is characterised by a peloidal,
ooliticoncoidal, micritic texture. Megafossils
are very scarce. In the lower part of the formation
pelagic elements prevail in the microfossil
assemblage: protoglobigerinids and Saccocoma
fragments. In the upper part, however, a typical
shallow marine biofacies appears and the pelagic
elements disappear. Based on the microfossils
the age of the formation is OxfordianTithonian
and its upper member may extend into the Ber-
riasian (Bodrogi et al. 1993). In the Jurassic/
Cretaceous boundary interval a signicant part
of the VillanyBihor Unit became subaerially
exposed and the Upper Jurassic carbonates were
affected by karstication.
2.3.6.3 Carbonate Platform Development
in the EarlyMiddle Cretaceous
At the beginning of the Cretaceous bauxite was
accumulated in the karstic depressions of the
Upper Jurassic limestone. Small deposits have
been found in the Villany Hills (Dudich and
Mindszenty 1984); larger deposits of commercial
value are known from the Apuseni Mts. in
Romania. Pyroclastics connected with Early
Cretaceous volcanic activity in the Mecsek
Zone may have been the source for the bauxite.
In the more intensively subsiding parts of the
unit (i.e. the area of the southern tectonic slices in
the Villany Hills) transgression probably began
as early as the Berriasian or Valanginian.
A carbonate platform came into existence which
maintained itself until the Albian. In the slowly
subsiding areas shallow marine carbonate accu-
mulation began later and some areas only
became inundated in the Albian (Fig. 2.30).
On the carbonate platform 400500 m-thick,
light grey, thick-bedded limestone with Urgon
facies characters was formed (Nagyharsany
Limestone). Outside of the outcrops in the Vil-
lany Hills the formation was also encountered in
wells in the DanubeTisza Interuve and Trans-
Tisza regions.
In the Villany Hills, in the lower part of the
sequence intraclastic and stromatolite layers
alternate with thick grey limestone beds
(Csaszar 2002). In the basal layers fresh or
brackish water Chara biofacies are characteris-
tic, whereas normal marine fossil elements pre-
vail gradually upsection. This part of the
formation was deposited in a tidal at and in a
10
m
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
20 40
%
50 %
Lithostratigraphy
Siliciclastic
sand Foraminifera
A
m
m
o
n
o
i
d
e
a
B
e
l
e
m
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o
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a
B
i
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B
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a
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a
Benthic
Planktic
Villny F. (Bath.Callov.)
Szrsomly Formation
(Oxfordian)
Somsichhegy Formation
(Pliensbachian)
Mszhegy Formation
(Carnian?)
limestone
sandstone
conglomerate
variegated clay
ammonitestromatolite
limestone
quaternary cover
Fig. 2.28 Upper Triassic and Jurassic formations on the Templom Hill, Villany, Villany Hills. (After Voros 1990)
Fig. 2.29 Ammonite-bearing bedding plane (hard-
ground) in the BathonianCallovian Villany Formation
(Photo: J. Haas)
shallow lagoon. Metre-scale cyclicity is a result
of short-term sea level oscillation. The next
interval of the succession is characterised by a
prevalence of rudists (Requenia, Toucasia) and
the appearance of Chondrodonta, dasyclada-
cean algae and orbitolinids. Subsequently her-
matypic corals appear in rock-forming quantity.
The former bio-associations may have occupied
the inner part of the carbonate platform,
whereas the corals may have colonised the
outer platform. The uppermost part of the suc-
cession is characterised by massive limestone
with orbitolinids (Orbitolina texana). This
facies represents the upper foreslope of the car-
bonate platform (Csaszar 2002).
In the southern part of the DanubeTisza
Interuve area, in addition to the typical Urgo-
nian biota (i.e. shallow marine fossils) plank-
tonic foraminifera also appear, indicating a
foreslope depositional environment (Berczi-
Makk 1986). In the Trans-Tisza area the Lower
Cretaceous sequence begins with an upward-
ning, clastic, continental-coastal sequence: con-
glomerate, sandstone, and siltstone. It is overlain
by dark grey, oolitic limestone and calcareous
marl (Berczi-Makk 1986).
2.3.6.4 Pelagic Basin Formation at the
End of the Mid-Cretaceous
In the Albian, probably as a result of eustatic
sea level rise and increased inux of ne-
grained terrigenous material, the carbonate
platforms were drowned and new basins
began forming, probably in connection with
the initiation of compressional structural evo-
lution. In the northern part of the Villany Hills,
above the strongly thinned Nagyharsany Lime-
stone, grey marl, containing rich pelagic fora-
minifera and ammonites faunas, has been
encountered (Bisse Marl). The age of the
marl layers is Late Albian (Fulop 1966).
Directly overlying the Malm limestone (Szar-
somlyo Limestone), marl with Rotalipora was
encountered in a cored well in the northern
foreland of the Villany Hills (Csaszar 1998;
Bodrogi 1998).
In the same well section the Bisse Marl is
overlain by a succession made up of an alterna-
tion of conglomerate, sandstone and marl (Boly
Formation) which was assigned to the Lower
Cenomanian (Csaszar 1998). In the conglomer-
ate layers components originating from the crys-
talline basement and the older Mesozoic
N S
BLY SUBUNIT TENKES SUBUNIT NAGYHARSNY SUBUNIT BEREMEND SUBUNIT
Bly Fm.
Nagyharsny Limestone Fm.
Harsnyhegy Bauxite Fm.
Cenomanian
Albian
Barremian
Hauterivian
Valanginian
Berriasian
Aptian
Fig. 2.30 Cretaceous formations of the Villany Hills (After Csaszar 1992)
formations were found. They may have been
transported into the pelagic basin by gravity
mass ow. In the sandstone layers gradation
and slump structures were observed.
Upper AlbianCenomanian sequences con-
sisting of coarse clastics and siltstone and marl
layers were also encountered in the basement of
the Great Plain in the VillanyBihor Zone
(Szederkenyi 1984). The features of the Boly
Formation indicate a basin formed in the foreland
of a thrust zone. It suggests the initiation of
nappe tectonics in the VillanyBihor Zone in
the Cenomanian.
2.3.6.5 Senonian Basin Evolution
In the Apuseni Mts., Romania, i.e. in the eastern
parts of the Tisza Mega-unit, the main phase of
nappe formation occurred in the Coniacian
(Ianovici et al. 1976), and this is probably true
for the entire mega-unit. In the foreland of the
newly-formed thrust belts basins began forming
in the Late SantonianCampanian (Haas and
Pero 2004).
Within the Hungarian part of the Villany
Bihor Zone that is in the basement of the Great
Plain there are signicant differences in the
characteristics of the Senonian sequences. In
the western part of the DanubeTisza Interuve
area light grey, arkosic sandstone, conglomerate
and breccia (Szank Conglomerate) occur at the
base of the Senonian series (Fig. 2.31). The
coarse components originated from granitoids,
micaschists, and Mesozoic basement rocks. No
marine fossils and only a few sporomorphs were
found in the formation which may have been
accumulated in a terrestrial basin during the
early Senonian (Haas 1987; Szentgyorgyi
1983).
Above an uneven erosion surface, but without
any signicant angular unconformity, the Szank
Conglomerate is overlain by dark grey shale
(silty marl Csikeria Marl; Fig. 2.31). The
50120 m-thick shale unit also contains in some
horizons pebbles which are predominantly of
granitoid origin. A large part of the formation is
intensely bioturbated. Fragments of Inoceramus
bivalves are common. The marl layers are rich in
planktonic foraminifera (Globotruncana, Hed-
bergella, Heterohelix), nannoplankton, and spor-
omorphs. The fossil assemblage indicates a
pelagic depositional environment; the coarse ter-
rigenous clastics and the signicant amount of
continental plant remnants, however, suggest
uplifted ranges (fronts of the thrust belts) in
proximity of the basin.
The shale unit passes upward into a
100200 m-thick, lithologically extremely vari-
able, formation (Bacsalmas Formation; Fig. 2.31).
It is made up of clay, ne siliciclastics, and bio-
calcarenite. Although argillaceous, siliciclastic
Jakabhegy Sandstone Formation
Szank Conglomerate Formation
Csikria Marl Formation
m
Bcsalms Formation
L
.

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sandy limestone
sandstone
calcareous marl
conglomerate
marl
graded bedding
slump
550
600
700
650
750
800
Fig. 2.31 Senonian formations in the southern part of the
DanubeTisza Interuve area, core Bacsalmas Ba-1 (After
Haas 1987)
and carbonate layers may occur everywhere in the
sequence, marl is predominant in the lower, lime-
stone in the middle, and siliciclastics in the upper
part of the formation. In the lower part of the
sequence terrigenous conglomerate and intraclas-
tic intercalations, together with slump structures,
are common (Haas 1987). The marl layers are rich
in planktonic calcisphaerulids. The carbonate
layers are characterised by calcarenitic packstone
texture with fragments of molluscs, red algae, and
benthonic foraminifera (Pseudosiderolites).
Based on nannoplankton and foraminifera the
age of the formation is Campanian (Siegl-Farkas
1999).
In the eastern part of the VillanyBihor Unit,
in the basement of the Great Plain, siliciclastics
became predominant in the Senonian sequences
(Koros Formation). Here, above basal breccia,
the successions consist of an alternation of dark
grey sandstone and siltstone layers, locally with
conglomerate interlayers. Lamination and con-
volute bedding are common. In the eastern part
of the Trans-Tisza area the thickness of this
formation may attain 1,000 m, whereas in other
places it is only a few hundred metres thick
(Szentgyorgyi 1983). The thicker sequences
show features similar to that of typical ysch,
whereas the thinner sequences of ner grain size
may have been deposited farther from the thrust
belt in the inner part of the foreland basin.
2.3.7 Be ke sCodru Facies Unit
In the basement of the Bekes Basin Lower to
Middle Jurassic, red limestone was encountered
in a few wells; it was identied as the Moneasa
Limestone of the Finis Nappe, part of the Codru
Nappe System in Romania (Haas and Pero 2004).
It was deposited in a well-oxygenated basin
as well as on slope areas and has yielded a
Germanic-type brachiopod, Gryphaea and
belemnite fauna in the Codru Mts.
A number of wells in the Bekes Basin encoun-
tered Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous forma-
tions. The several hundred m-thick series
consists of grey and red clayey marl, marl, cal-
careous marl and limestone layers with sandstone
intercalations in the upper part of the formation.
The lower part of the series contains poor pelagic
microfauna with radiolarians, Saccocoma frag-
ments, and calpionellids, indicating a Late Juras-
sic and Early Cretaceous age (Berczi-Makk
1986). A non-fossiliferous, dark grey limestone
and marl sequence which was also encountered
in the Bekes Basin was assigned to the Lower
Cretaceous (Grow et al. 1994).
Nappe formation and the most intensive
deformations probably took place in the Late
Cretaceous. Upper Cretaceous and Palaeogene
formations are absent from the Hungarian sector
of the BekesCodru Zone.
2.4 Regional Geological
Cross-sections
Geological setting and relationships of the base-
ment rocks of the Pannonian Basin and basic
characteristics of the Cenozoic basin lling are
displayed on a series of regional cross-sections
(Figs. 2.332.37). The position of the sections is
shown on Fig. 2.32
7
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Pleistocene loess
Neogene sedimentary rocks
Paleogene sedimentary rocks
Tertiary volcanic rocks
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks
Mesozoic magmatic rocks
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks
granite
crystalline shists
cross sections
Fig. 2.32 Simplied geological map of Hungary displaying position of geologic cross-sections Figs. 2.332.37
2.4 Regional Geological Cross-sections 143
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Geology of Hungary

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Geology of Hungary

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Geology and History of Evolution of

the Tisza Mega-Unit

falu Unit, Tazlar

C/km thermal gradients; the second is

rkai 1984; Torok 1989).

C temperature) at 320315 Ma, and

falu Phyllite. These

falu serpentinites are interpreted as parts of

rkai et al. 1996) in the

C/km thermal gradient) was encountered

C/km thermal gradient

falu and Tazlar units.

banya Shale). This approximately 150 m-

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