Mechanically Operated Switches

Mechanical switches can be divided into two basic types. The first, commercial and
appliance switches, are used in fairly clean environments such as offices or homes. They are
not sealed and are generally used for light, low-current applications.
The second type, industrial switches, actuates magnetic contactors and remote-operated
controllers. These switches must be ruggedly constructed because they are frequently exposed
to oil, solvents, chemicals, and dust. And their contacts must handle the high inrush current
drawn by electromagnets in the controllers. Industrial switches are available in five basic types:
standard duty, heavy duty, heavy-duty oiltight, miniature oiltight, and multilight-control oiltight.







Industrial Switch Commercial switch

Limit Switches
In electrical engineering a limit switch is a switch operated by the motion of a machine
part or presence of an object.
They are used for control of a machine, as safety interlocks, or to count objects passing a
point. A limit switch is an electromechanical device that consists of an actuator mechanically
linked to a set of contacts. When an object comes into contact with the actuator, the device
operates the contacts to make or break an electrical connection.
Limit switches are used in a variety of applications and environments because of their
ruggedness, ease of installation, and reliability of operation. They can determine the presence
or absence, passing, positioning, and end of travel of an object. They were first used to define
the limit of travel of an object; hence the name "Limit Switch".


A limit switch with a roller-lever operator; this is installed on a gate on acanal lock, and indicates the position of a gate
to a control system.
Standardized limit switches are industrial control components manufactured with a variety of
operator types, including lever, roller plunger, and whisker type. Limit switches may be directly
mechanically operated by the motion of the operating lever. A reed switch may be used to
indicate proximity of a magnet mounted on some moving part. Proximity switches operate by the
disturbance of an electromagnetic field, by capacitance, or by sensing a magnetic field.
Rarely, a final operating device such as a lamp or solenoid valve will be directly controlled by
the contacts of an industrial limit switch, but more typically the limit switch will be wired through
a control relay, a motor contactor control circuit, or as an input to a programmable logic
controller.
Miniature snap-action switch may be used for example as components of such devices
as photocopiers, computer printers, convertible tops or microwave ovens to ensure internal
components are in the correct position for operation and to prevent operation when access
doors are opened. A set of adjustable limit switches are installed on a garage door opener to
shut off the motor when the door has reached the fully raised or fully lowered position.
A numerical control machine such as a lathe will have limit switches to identify maximum limits
for machine parts or to provide a known reference point for incremental motions.

Temperature Controlled Switches (Temperature Controllers)
As the name implies, temperature controller is an instrument used to control
temperature. The temperature controller takes an input from a temperature sensor and has an
output that is connected to a control element such as a heater or fan.

To accurately control process temperature without extensive operator involvement, a
temperature control system relies upon a controller, which accepts a temperature sensor such
as a thermocouple or RTD as input. It compares the actual temperature to the desired control
temperature, or setpoint, and provides an output to a control element. The controller is one part
of the entire control system, and the whole system should be analyzed in selecting the proper
controller. The following items should be considered when selecting a controller:
Type of input sensor (thermocouple, RTD) and temperature range
Type of output required (electromechanical relay, SSR, analog output)
Control algorithm needed (on/off, proportional, PID)
Number and type of outputs (heat, cool, alarm, limit)

What Are the Different Types of Controllers, and How Do They Work?
There are three basic types of controllers: on-off, proportional and PID. Depending upon
the system to be controlled, the operator will be able to use one type or another to control the
process.

What Are the Different Types of Controllers, and How Do They Work?
There are three basic types of controllers: on-off, proportional and PID. Depending upon
the system to be controlled, the operator will be able to use one type or another to control the
process.

On/Off Control
An on-off controller is the simplest form of temperature control device. The output from
the device is either on or off, with no middle state. An on-off controller will switch the output only
when the temperature crosses the setpoint. For heating control, the output is on when the
temperature is below the setpoint, and off above setpoint. Since the temperature crosses the
setpoint to change the output state, the process temperature will be cycling continually, going
from below setpoint to above, and back below. In cases where this cycling occurs rapidly, and to
prevent damage to contactors and valves, an on-off differential, or "hysteresis," is added to the
controller operations. This differential requires that the temperature exceed setpoint by a certain
amount before the output will turn off or on again. On-off differential prevents the output from
"chattering" or making fast, continual switches if the cycling above and below the setpoint
occurs very rapidly. On-off control is usually used where a precise control is not necessary, in
systems which cannot handle having the energy turned on and off frequently, where the mass of
the system is so great that temperatures change extremely slowly, or for a temperature alarm.
One special type of on-off control used for alarm is a limit controller. This controller uses a
latching relay, which must be manually reset, and is used to shut down a process when a
certain temperature is reached.

Proportional Control
Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the cycling associated with on-off control.
A proportional controller decreases the average power supplied to the heater as the
temperature approaches setpoint. This has the effect of slowing down the heater so that it will
not overshoot the setpoint, but will approach the setpoint and maintain a stable temperature.
This proportioning action can be accomplished by turning the output on and off for short time
intervals. This "time proportioning" varies the ratio of "on" time to "off" time to control the
temperature. The proportioning action occurs within a "proportional band" around the setpoint
temperature. Outside this band, the controller functions as an on-off unit, with the output either
fully on (below the band) or fully off (above the band). However, within the band, the output is
turned on and off in the ratio of the measurement difference from the setpoint. At the setpoint
(the midpoint of the proportional band), the output on:off ratio is 1:1; that is, the on-time and off-
time are equal. if the temperature is further from the setpoint, the on- and off-times vary in
proportion to the temperature difference. If the temperature is below setpoint, the output will be
on longer; if the temperature is too high, the output will be off longer.

PID Control
The third controller type provides proportional with integral and derivative control, or PID.
This controller combines proportional control with two additional adjustments, which helps the
unit automatically compensate for changes in the system. These adjustments, integral and
derivative, are expressed in time-based units; they are also referred to by their reciprocals,
RESET and RATE, respectively. The proportional, integral and derivative terms must be
individually adjusted or "tuned" to a particular system using trial and error. It provides the most
accurate and stable control of the three controller types, and is best used in systems which have
a relatively small mass, those which react quickly to changes in the energy added to the
process. It is recommended in systems where the load changes often and the controller is
expected to compensate automatically due to frequent changes in setpoint, the amount of
energy available, or the mass to be controlled.



Pressure Switches
A pressure switch is a form of switch that closes an electrical contact when a certain set
pressure has been reached on its input. The switch may be designed to make contact either on
pressure rise or on pressure fall.
Another type of pressure switch detects mechanical force; for example, a pressure-
sensitive mat is used to automatically open doors on commercial buildings.
A pressure switch can either be a pneumatic or a hydraulic pressure switch.

Uses of pneumatic pressure switches include:
Switch a household well water pump automatically when water is drawn from the pressure
tank.
Switching off an electrically driven gas compressor when a set pressure is achieved in
the reservoir
Switching off a gas compressor, whenever there is no feed in the suction stage.
in-cell charge control in a battery
Switching on/off an alarm light in the cockpit of an aircraft if cabin pressure (based on
altitude) is critically low.
Air filled hoses that activate switches when vehicles drive over them. Common for counting
traffic and at gas stations.
Hydraulic pressure switches have various uses in automobiles, for example:
To switch on a warning light if engine oil pressure falls below a safe level
In dust control systems (bag filter), a pressure switch is mounted on the header which will
raise an alarm when air pressure in the header is less than necessary to gain or decline
energy beyond the set value
To control automatic transmission torque converter lock-up
Pilot and Flow Switches
Pilot light (Pilot Switch)
These are switches that have a lamp that indicates the function of the switch. In
natural gas furnaces, water heaters, and room heating systems, a safety cut-off
switch is usually included so that the gas supply to the pilot and heating system is
shut off by an electrically operated valve if the pilot light goes out. This cut-off switch
usually detects the pilot light in one of three ways:
1. A sensor filled with mercury is used to detect the heat of the pilot light.
Contraction of the mercury results in sufficient pressure to operate an
electrical switch that interrupts the flow of electricity and shuts off the gas
valve when the pilot light goes out.
2. A photoresistor is used to detect the light from the pilot lamp. When the pilot
light goes out, electrical circuitryconnected to the photoresistor shuts off the
gas valve.
3. Use of a pilot generator or a thermocouple in the flame provides heating
appliance safety as it generates enough electrical current from the burning
flame to hold the gas valve open. If the pilot light goes out, the pilot
generator cools off and the current stops, closing the gas valve.
The above methods are examples of the use of "fail-safe" safety protection.
Flow Switch
A flow sensor is a device for sensing the rate of fluid flow. Typically a flow sensor is
the sensing element used in a flow meter, or flow logger, to record the flow of fluids. As
is true for all sensors, absolute accuracy of a measurement requires a functionality
for calibration.
There are various kinds of flow sensors and flow meters, including some that have a
vane that is pushed by the fluid, and can drive a rotary potentiometer, or similar devices.
Other flow sensors are based on sensors which measure the transfer of heat caused by
the moving medium. This principle is common for microsensors to measure flow.
Flow meters are related to devices called velocimeters that measure velocity of fluids
flowing through them. Laser-based interferometry is often used for air flow
measurement, but for liquids, it is often easier to measure the flow. Another approach
is Doppler-based methods for flow measurement. Hall effect sensors may also be used,
on a flapper valve, or vane, to sense the position of the vane, as displaced by fluid flow.

References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_sensor
http://www.techitoutuk.com/knowledge/electronics/components/switches/switches.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_switch
http://www.omega.com/prodinfo/temperaturecontrollers.html
http://machinedesign.com/basics-design/mechanical-switches