Trigonometry
Trigonometry
Trigonometry
1 TRIGONOMETRY
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should
1.0
Introduction
In the first Pure Mathematics book in this series, you will have
encountered many of the elementary results concerning the
trigonometric functions. These will, by and large, be taken as
read in this chapter. However, in the first few sections there is
some degree of overlap between the two books: this will be good
revision for you.
1.1
(1)
Let C = A + B and D = A B,
then C + D = 2 A and C D = 2B. Hence
A=
C+D
2
, B=
CD
2
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
Activity 1
In a similar way to above, derive the formulae for
(a) sin C sin D (b) cos C + cos D (c) cos C cos D
By reversing these formulae, write down further formulae for
(a) 2 sin E cos F
Example
Show that cos 59 +sin 59 = 2 cos14 .
Solution
Firstly,
So
2
2
= 2 cos 45 cos14
=2
2
2
cos14
= 2 cos14
= RHS
Example
Prove that sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x = sin 2x (1 + 2 cos x ).
Solution
LHS = sin 2x + (sin x + sin 3x )
3x + x
3x x
cos
2
2
= sin 2x + 2 sin 2x cos x
= sin 2x + 2 sin
= sin 2x (1 + 2 cos x )
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
Example
Write cos 4x cos x sin 6x sin 3x as a product of terms.
Solution
1
{cos( 4x + x ) + cos( 4x x )}
2
1
1
= cos 5x + cos 3x
2
2
Now
cos 4x cos x =
and
sin 6x sin 3x =
Thus,
LHS =
=
=
1
{cos(6x 3x ) cos(6x + 3x )}
2
1
1
cos 3x cos 9x
2
2
1
1
1
1
cos 5x + cos 3x cos 3x + cos 9x
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
5x + 9x
5x 9x
2 cos
cos
2
2
2
= cos 7x cos 2x
The sum formulae are given by
A + B
A B
cos
2
2
A + B
A B
sin
2
2
A + B
A B
cos
2
2
A + B
A B
sin
2
2
sin A cos B =
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
Exercise 1A
1. Write the following expressions as products:
(e) cos
14
4
8
2
+ cos
+ cos
+ cos
15
15
15
15
(c)
sin75 + sin15
3. Write the following expressions as sums or
differences:
(a) 2 cos 7x cos5x
5x
1
(b) 2 cos x cos
2
2
(e)
sin ( A + B ) + sin ( A B )
= tan A
cos( A + B ) + cos( A B )
cos( + 30 ) + cos( + 60 )
sin ( + 30 ) + sin ( + 60 )
1 tan
1 + tan
(d) 2sin165cos105
Activity 2
Sketch the graph of a function of the form
y = a sin x + b cos x
(where a and b are constants) in the range x .
4
1.2
= cot 2 A
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
From the graph, you must identify the amplitude of the function
and the x-coordinates of
(i)
An example has been done for you; for y = sin x + cos x , you can
see that amplitude R 1. 4
crossing point nearest to the origin O at x = =
4
maximum occurs at x = =
4
Try these for yourself :
(a) y = 3sin x + 4 cos x
-1
In each example above, you should have noticed that the curve is
itself a sine/cosine 'wave'. These can be obtained from the curves
of either y = sin x or y = cos x by means of two simple
transformations (taken in any order).
1. A stretch parallel to the y-axis by a factor of R,
the amplitude, and
2. A translation parallel to the x-axis by either
or (depending on whether you wish to start
with sin x or cos x as the original function).
Consider, for example y = sin x + cos x. This can be written in the
form y = Rsin ( x + ), since
Rsin(x + ) = R{sin x cos + cos x sin }
= R cos sin x + Rsin cos x
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
Thus
tan = 1 =
R2 = 2 R = 2
Thus
Activity 3
Express the function sin x + cos x in the form
sin x + cos x = R cos(x )
Find suitable values for R and using the method shown above.
sin = cos
2
so that
= 2 cos x +
4
2
= 2 cos x
4
= 2 cos x
4
since cos( ) = cos .
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
Example
Write 7sin x 4 cos x in the form Rsin( x )
where R > 0 and 0 < < 2 .
Solution
Assuming the form of the result,
7sin x 4 cos x = Rsin(x )
= Rsin x cos Rcos x sin
R cos = 7
Rsin = 4
Squaring and adding, as before, gives
2
R = 7 + 4 = 65
Thus
7
4
4
, sin =
or tan =
65
65
7
= 0.519 radians, to 3 sig. figs.
cos =
so
Exercise 1B
Write (in each case, R > 0 and 0 < < 2 )
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
1.3
Linear trigonometric
equations
a cos x + b sin x = c
for given constants a, b and c.
Example
Solve 3cos x + sin x = 2 for 0 x 360 .
Solution
Method 1
Note that cos2 x and sin2 x are very simply linked using
Rearranging:
Squaring:
0 = 10 sin 2 x 4 sin x 5
4 216
20
and
giving
Method 2
Write 3cos x + sin x as R cos( x ) (or Rsin( x ) )
R = 32 + 12 = 10
so
1
3cos x + sin x = 10
cos x +
sin x
10
10
10 ( cos x cos + sin x sin )
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
Thus cos =
3
7
1
or tan = => = 18. 43
or sin =
10
10
3
2
10
2
x 18. 43 = cos 1
10
and
x = 50. 77 +18. 43 or 309.23 +18. 43
x = 69.2 or 327. 7 (1 d.p.)
The question now arises as to why one method yields four answers,
the other only two. If you check all four answers you will find that
the two additional solutions in Method 1 do not fit the equation
3cos x + sin x = 2 . They have arisen as extra solutions created by
the squaring process. (Think of the difference between the
equations x = 2 and x 2 = 4 : the second one has two solutions.) If
Method 1 is used, then the final answers always need to be checked
in order to discard the extraneous solutions.
Exercise 1C
1. By writing 7sin x + 6 cos x in the form
Rsin ( x + )( R > 0,0< < 90 ) solve the equation
7sin x + 6 cos x = 9 for values of x between
0 and 360 .
3. Write
for 0 180
for 0 360 .
for 0 x 360
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
1.4
In this section you will need to keep in mind all of the identities
that you have encountered so far including the Addition
Formulae, the Sum and Product Formulae and the Multiple
Angle Identities in order to solve the given equations.
Example
Solve cos 5 + cos = cos 3 for 0 180
Solution
cos A + cos B = 2 cos
Using
A + B
A B
cos
2
2
Thus
cos 3 ( 2 cos 2 1) = 0
Then
(a) cos 3 = 0
or
(b) 2 cos 2 1 = 0
cos 2 =
1
2
2 = 60, 300
Exercise 1D
1. Solve for 0 180 :
(a) cos + cos3 = 0
(c) sin + sin 3 = sin 2 .
10
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
cos =
1 t2
1+ t2
2t
1 3t 2
1 t4
1.5
y
y = sin x
-2
-1
1
y
1
Thus for 1 k 1,
sin x = k x = sin 1 k
x :
2
2
these are the principal values of the inverse-sine function.
will be assigned a unique value of x in the range
Activity 4
By drawing the graphs y = cos x and y = tan x , find the ranges of
principal values of the inverse-cosine and inverse-tangent
functions. (These should include the acute angles of x.)
11
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
(sin x )1 =
1
, etc.
sin x
1.6
General solutions
1
2
or
Find the values of for which sin 2 + sin 2 = 0
with 0 2 .
At the same time, you will have been aware that even the simplest
trig equation can have infinitely many solutions: sin = 0
( radians) is true when = 0, , 2 ,3 , K and also for all
negative multiples of as well.
Overall, one could say that the equation sin = 0 has general
solution = n where n is an integer. Moreover, there are no
values of which satisfy this equation that do not take this form.
Thus, ' = n ' describes all the values of satisfying ' sin = 0 '
as n is allowed to take any integer value. This is what is meant by
a general solution.
P. V.
-720
-1
12
y=k
-360
y = cos x
360
720
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
( 1 k 1)
x = 360n
is then
= cos 1 k
where
x = 2n , n an integer.
Activity 5
Use the graphs of y = tan x and y = sin x to find the general
solutions of the equations (in degrees) of the equations
tan x = k
( < k < )
sin x = k
( 1 k 1) .
and
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
In degrees
= n + ( 1)
n
= 180n + ( 1)n
Example
Find the general solution, in degrees, of the equation
tan 3 = 3
Solution
tan 3 = 3
tan 3 = tan 60
3 = 180n + 60 quoting the above result
= (60n + 20 )
Example
Find the general solution, in radians, of the equation
8sin + 15 cos = 6 .
14
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
Solution
Rewriting the LHS of this equation in the form Rsin( + ) , for
instance, gives R = 82 + 152 = 17 and cos =
8
15
or sin =
17
17
15
so that 1.081 radians. [Check this working
8
through to make sure you can see where it comes from.]
or tan =
sin( + 1.081) =
6
= sin 0.3607
17
6
)
17
Example
Find the values of x for which cos x sin 4x = 0 .
Solution
written as
cos x = cos 4x
2
whence
x = 2n 4x
2
15
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
i.e.
4x or
2
x = 2n +
5x = 2n +
x = 2n
+
5 10
or
x = 2n
+ 4x
2
3x = 2n +
or
x = 2n
+
3 6
sin 4x = sin x
2
n
4x = n + ( 1) x
2
When n is odd
4x = n
+x
2
3x = n
x=n
= ( 2n 1)
3 6
6
(n odd)
16
4x = n +
x
2
5x = n +
x=n
+
= ( 2n + 1)
5 10
10
(n even)
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
Exercise 1E
1. Find the general solutions, in degrees, of the
equations
(e)
6 sin 2 cos = 2
1
(b) tan ( 45) =
3
(d) cot ( 60 2 ) = 3
(h) tan 2 4 x = 3
(b) cos 2 x + = 1
1
(d) sec x + = 2
2
4
1.7
y
2
2
ensures that this can be done.) Then, using the Chain Rule for
differentiation,
sin y = x . (Taking the principal range values
d
dy
d
dy
(sin y ) = (sin y ) = cos y
dx
dx
dy
dx
so that sin y = x differentiates to give
cos y
dy
=1
dx
dy
1
=
dx cos y
17
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
Now, using
cos 2 y = 1 sin 2 y ,
cos 2 y = 1 sin 2 y = 1 x 2
so that
dy
1
=
dx
1 x2
Activity 6
Use the above approach to find
dy
when y = tan 1 x .
dx
The results
d
1
sin 1 x =
dx
1 x2
d
( tan1 x ) = 1 +1x2
dx
and the corresponding integrations
1
dx = sin1 x + C
2
1 x
1 + x dx = tan
1
x+C
18
(C constant)
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
x
= sin 1 + C
a
a x
dx
a +x
dx
1 1 x
tan
+ C for constant C.
a
a
Activity 7
(a) Use the substitution x = a sin to prove the result
x
= sin 1 + C .
a
a x
dx
dx
x
1
= tan 1 + C .
a
+ x2 a
Example
Evaluate
1
4
dx
1 4x 2
Solution
Now
so that
1 4x 2 = 4
1
4
1
1
x2 = 2
x2
4
4
1
dx
=
2
2
1 4x
1
4
dx
1
x2
4
x4
1
= sin 1 1
2
2
0
1
4
0
1
sin 1 2x
2
1 1 1
sin
sin 1 0
2
2
1
0
26
12
19
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
Example
Evaluate
3dx
,
2 + x2
3dx
=3
2 + x2
( 2)
1
dx
2
[so a = 2 here]
+ x2
2
1
x
= 3
tan 1
2 1
2
=
1
3 1
2 tan 1
tan
2
2
3
(0.95532 0.615 48)
2
= 0. 7209
(4 d.p.)
Exercise 1F
Evaluate the following integrals, giving your
answers to four significant figures. [Remember to
work in radians.]
1
8
1.
2.
8+ x
dx
1 8x
1
4
3.
4.
dx
dx
5 + 9x 2
7
7 x2
6.
7.
8.
dx
9.
3
2
6
5
2
5.
20
3
dx
6 + 2x2
*10.
dx
6 + x2
dx
5 2x2
dx
3 x2
2dx
4 3x 2
1 x2
2 dx
1 1 + x
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
1.8
2 tan
1 tan 2
Setting =
tan A + tan B
1 tan A tan B
1
A then yields the result
2
tan A =
2t
1
where t = tan A
1 t2
2
2t
, and the
1 t2
hypotenuse, h, is given by Pythagoras' theorem:
h = 1 t
2
) + (2t )
2t
A
1t2
= 1 2t 2 + t 4 + 4t 2
= 1 + 2t 2 + t 4
= 1 + t2
So h = 1 + t 2 and
sin A =
2t
1 t2
and
cos
A
=
1 + t2
1 + t2
21
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
Example
Use the substitution t = tan
1
x to show that the indefinite
2
1
integral of sec x is ln tan + x .
4 2
Solution
t = tan
1
x
2
dt 1 2 1
= sec x
dx 2
2
1
2dt = sec2 x dx
1
2dt = 1 + tan 2 x dx
2dt
= dx
1 + t2
Also, sec x =
1
1 + t2
, using one of the above results.
=
cos x 1 t 2
Then
sec x dx =
1 + t 2 2dt
.
1 t2 1 + t2
1 t
(1 t )(1 + t ) dt
dt
1
1
=
+
dt by partial fractions
1 + t 1 t
= ln 1 + t ln 1 t
= ln
Now
1+ t
1 t
1
tan + tan x
1
1+ t
2
4
tan
+ x =
=
1
4 2
1 tan tan x 1 t
2
4
so that
sec x dx = ln tan 4 + 2 x
22
(since tan
= 1)
4
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
Activity 8
Use the above identities for cos x and tan x to prove that
1
x
2
sec x + tan x =
1
1 tan x
2
1 + tan
1
The results sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x = ln tan + x are
4 2
given in the AEB's Booklet of Formulae, as is the result
cosec x dx = ln tan 2 x
1
Since this latter result is much easier to establish, it has been set
as an exercise below.
Example
1
Use the substitution t = tan to evaluate exactly
2
d
4 cos + 3sin
Solution
1
1
dt 1
2dt
t = tan
= sec 2
= d
2
2
d 2
1 + t2
Also,
2t
1 t2
and sin =
1 + t2
1 + t2
Changing the limits:
cos =
= 0 t = 0 and =
t = tan = 1
2
4
so
, 0,1
( )
2
Thus
1
2dt
d
2
=
.
23
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
4 4t
2dt
2
+ 6t
dt
2 + 3t 2t 2
2
1
5
=
+ 5 dt
2 t 1 + 2t
1
1
= ln 2 t + ln 1 + t
5
5
0
1
1
1
1
= ln1 + ln 3 ln 2 ln1
5
5
5
5
=
1
ln 6
5
In the following exercise, you may have to use the tan 1 or sin 1
integrals from the previous section.
Exercise 1G
1
1. Use the substitution t = tan x to evaluate
2
dx
, giving your answer to 4 decimal
1 + sin 2 x
places.
2. By writing t = tan
1
x , show that
2
(a)
cosec x dx = ln tan 2 x + C
(b)
(c)
cos 1 x
1
d
3 + 5sin
2t
where
1 t2
1
t = tan A , and setting A = , show that
6
2
tan
=2 3
12
dx
1
= tan x + C
1 + cos x
2
dx
(c)
1
= 2sin 1 tan x + C
2
cos x
d
2 + cos
5. By setting t = tan
sec 2 x
1
1
3. Use the t = tan substitution to evaluate exactly
2
the integrals
(a)
2
3
24
d
5 + 4 cos
(b)
1
tan
2
d
5 + 4 cos
1
x , find the indefinite integral
2
1 cos x dx
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
1.9
Harder integrations
Example
By writing
x 2 + 7x + 2
in terms of partial fractions, show that
1 + x 2 (2 x )
x 2 + 7x + 2
dx = ln 2
2
2
4
1 + x (2 x )
(
0
Solution
x 2 + 7x + 2
Ax + B
C
2 +
2
2x
1 + x (2 x ) 1 + x
x 2 + 7x + 2 ( Ax + B)( 2 x ) + C 1 + x 2
Substituting x = 2 gives
20 = 5C
C=4
Substituting x = 0 gives
2 = 2B + 4
B = 1
Comparing x2 coefficients:
1 = A + 4
x 2 + 7x + 2
3x 1
4
2 +
2
1
+
x
2
x
1 + x (2 x )
Thus
1 3x
1 1
1 1
x2 + 7x + 2
dx =
dx
dx + 4
dx
2
2
2
0 (1 + x )( 2 x )
01 + x
01 + x
02 x
1
Then
A=3
25
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
f ( x )
dx = ln f ( x ) + constant
f ( x)
i.e. when the 'top' is exactly the differential of the 'bottom', the
d
integral is natural log of the 'bottom'. Now
1 + x 2 = 2x and
dx
d
(2 x ) = 1 , so the constants in the numerators need jiggling
dx
but, apart from this, you should see that the three integrals are
log, tan1 and log respectively:
1+ x
2x
3
2
3
ln x 2 + 1
2
dx
[ (
1+ x
1
dx 4
)] [tan x ]
1
1
0
1
dx
0 2x
4[ ln ( 2 x )]0
1
3
( ln 2 ln1) tan 1 1 tan 1 0 4( ln1 ln 2 )
2
3
ln 2 + 4 ln 2
4
2
11
ln 2
4
2
Example
Evaluate
1
3
3x + 1
1 3x 2
significant figures.
Solution
1
3
3x + 1
1 3x
dx =
1
3
3x
1 3x
dx +
1
3
1
1 3x 2
dx
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
You might just recognise where the x in the numerator comes from
if you think about it long enough. To save time: try calling
u = 1 3x 2 = 1 3x 2
1
2;
du 1
= (1 3x2 ) 2 ( 6x ) using the Chain Rule
dx 2
then
3x
So
3x
1 3x
1 3x 2
dx = 1 3x 2
and
1
3
3x + 1
1 3x
dx =
1
3
3x
1
dx +
2
3
1 3x
= 1 3x
1
2 3
0
1
3
dx
1
3
x2
1
3
1 1 x
sin 1
+
3
3 0
2
1 1 1
=
+ 1 +
sin1 0
sin
3
3
3
Example
Integrate exactly the integrals
(a)
dx
3x 6x + 4
(b)
3
2
dx
2 + 5x 2x 2
(a)
[Now x 2 2x + 43 = ( x 1) + 13
by completing the square: the
factor of 3 was taken out first
in order to make this easier to
cope with.]
2
Solution
dx
1
=
3x 6x + 4 3
2
1
=
3
dx
x 2 2x +
4
3
dx
1 + x 1 2
(
)
3
dx
1
2 with a =
+x
3
and 'x' = x 1 , which is allowed
when a single x is involved.]
[This is
27
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
x 1
1 1
= 1 tan 1 1
3 3
3 1
(b)
)]1
3
tan 1 [ x 1] 3
3
3
tan 1 3 tan 1 0
3
3
0
3 3
=
3
2
3
9
dx
1
=
2
2
2 + 5x 2x
3
2
dx
1 + 25 x x 2
5
5
x x 2 = x 2 x + 1 = x
2
2
2
5
25
+ 1
4
16
9
x
16
5
4
This gives
integral =
1
2
3
2
( ) (x )
dx
5 2
4
3 2
4
1 1 ( x
=
sin 3
2
4
5
4
) 2
1 1 ( 4x 5) 2
=
sin
3 1
2
=
1 1 1
1
sin 1
sin
3
3
2
1
1
2 sin 1
3
2
= 2 sin 1
28
1
3
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
Exercise 1H
3x + 10
(2 x ) 4 + x 2
1. By expressing
in terms of partial
6. Show that
3x + 10
(2 x )( 4 + x )dx
(1 + x )(2 + x )dx
2. Show that
2
3
4
3x + 2
dx = ln +
.
18
4 3
9 + 2x2
2x 3
4 x2
3
2
1
2
2x x
2
3
dx
(e)
4 + 3x x 2
dx
2 + x2
C
x2 + 2x 4
2x 2
+
A + B 2
x 2x + 4 x2 2x + 4
x2 2x + 4
f (x).
1 + 2 x 3x
dx
xx
(b)
x
0
dx
x +1
(d) 2 x 2 2 x + 5
(f)
x
0
4x
3
dx = 2 ln .
2
5 + x2
4x + 2
dx ,
5 + x2
giving your answer correct to 3 decimal
places.
3x dx
1 + 6 x 3x 2
3
2
1+ x3
x2 + 2x + 7
dx = 3 1 + ln 2 +
2
1+ x2
dx
(b)
5x + 4
dx
x2 + 4
Show that
(c)
Hence evaluate
x2 + 2x + 7
Bx
C
A+
+
1+ x2
1+ x2 1+ x2
(a)
dx
(a)
dx = C 4 x 2
4 x2
for some constant C. Hence evaluate exactly
2 1
4 3x
dx =
ln13 .
4 + 3x 2
3 3 2
fractions, evaluate
1
[Hint:
x3
1 x2
1 x2
dx =
dx = x 2
1 .
3
1
(8 + 5) .
24
x
1 x2
dx ]
dx
+ 6 x + 10
29
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
12. Express f ( x ) =
3+ x
in partial
1 + x 2 (1 + 2 x )
(AEB)
(AEB)
(AEB)
(b) k = 1 .
(AEB)
(AEB)
9. Show that
sin 2 x + sin 4 x + sin 6 x sin 4 x (1 + 2 cos2 x )
Hence prove the identity
1
.
6+ 2
(AEB)
3 sin 3
giving the general solution in degrees.
11. Given that 1 < x, y < 1 , prove that
x+y
tan 1 x + tan 1 y = tan 1
1 xy
Deduce the value of tan 1 12 + tan 1 15 + tan 1 18
(AEB)
30
1
ln 2 . Hence using
2
1
tan
x dx . (AEB)
16 x
( 2 x )(3 + x2 )
in partial fractions.
16 x
5
3
(2 x )(3 + x ) dx = ln 3 + 6
0
16
(AEB)
sin 3
in terms of cos . Hence show
sin
that if sin 3 = sin 2 , where is a constant,
16. Express
x dx
1+ x
0
1 9
.
+ ln
4 2 2
(AEB)
24
:
3cos x 4sin x + 7
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
A + B
A B
prove that cos A + cos B = 2 cos
.
cos
2
2
Hence find, in terms of , the general solution
of the equation cos5 + cos = cos3 .
6
3
the formulae for sin ( A + B ) and cos( A + B ) to
express f(x) in the form C cos x + D 3 sin x , where
C and D are integers. Hence show that f(x) can
be written in the form 61 cos( x ) giving a
value for in radians to three significant figures.
(Oxford)
20. Prove the identity 1 + sin 2
(1 + tan )2
1 + tan
2
. By
(AEB)
7x x 2
A
Bx + C
+
,
(2 x ) x 2 + 1 2 x x 2 + 1
7x x 2
. Prove that the area
(2 x ) x 2 + 1
7
and the line x = 1 is ln 2 .
(AEB)
4
2
24. Use the substitution x = 1 + 2 tan to evaluate the
x
dx giving your answer
x2 2x + 5
correct to two decimal places.
(AEB)
integral
7
( 2 cos3 + 2 cos2 + 2 cos + 1) sin sin .
2
2
7
.
8cos 3 + 4 cos 2 4 cos 1 sin sin
2
2
(d) By substituting =
2 1
= .
prove that cos cos
5
5 2
2
4
, cos
7
7
6
are the roots of the equation
7
3
2
8x + 4 x 4 x 1 = 0 .
and cos
(AEB)
31
Chapter 1 Trigonometry
.
2
(a) A rectangle OABC is formed from the origin,
the point A( 4 cos , 0 ) , the point B, and the
Rcos( ) where R > 0 and 0 < <
range 0
and state the coordinates of B
2
for which this greatest perimeter occurs.
(b) A curve has the equation
y=
1
0 x . Show that
2
( 4 cos x + 3sin x )2
32