PRACTICAL :- 1

AIM:- STUDY OF MAINTENANCE KIT

List of various PC repair tools and the importance of each:
1).Standard scredr!"ers #n$t %a&net!c):
High-quality Phillips screwdrivers are indispensable. At the very
least you!ll need small and larger Phillips screwdrivers with
various shaft lengths. A few different si"ed flat-head screwdrivers
are very helpful to have. Do not use magnetic screwdrivers inside
computers.
'). C$rd(ess rec)ar&ea*(e scredr!"er:
#aves time and effort$ especially useful when fi%ing multiple
computers
&
+) Pa,er c(!,s
Almost all tray-load disc drives have an e%ternal release button and a small hole in the door to access the
manual loc' release. (o open a tray-load drive do the following steps.
&. (urn off and then restart the computer.
). *nsert the end of a paper clip into the
release access hole in the cover of the
drive.
+. Press in gently on the paper clip until the
tray is released. ,eleasing the loc' will
allow the tray to only open a small
distance.
-. ,emove and discard the paper clip and
pull out the tray until it stops.
.. ,emove the disc from the tray. Hold the
disc by the edges and avoid touching the
flat surfaces.
-) M.(t!tester
A %.(t!%eter or a %.(t!tester also 'nown as a "$(t/$)% %eter or 0OM is an electronic measuring
instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A
typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to
measure voltage current and resistance. /ultimeters may
use analog or digital circuits0ana($& %.(t!%eters and d!&!ta(
%.(t!%eters1often abbreviated DMM or D0OM.2 Analog instruments
are usually based on a microammeter whose pointer moves over a
scale calibration for all the different measurements that can be made$
digital instruments usually display digits but may display a bar of a
length proportional to the quantity measured.
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding
and field service wor' or a bench which can measure to a very high
degree of accuracy. (hey can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial
and household devices such aselectronic equipment motor controls domestic appliances power
supplies and wiring systems.
)
1). AT2 ,$er s.,,(3 tester
A simple tool that indicates whether the power supply is indeed outputting power and provides convenient
terminals that allow you to easily test the voltage using a voltmeter or
multitester.
32. Cable testers
A ca*(e tester is an electronic device used to verify the electrical
connections in a cable or other wired assembly. 4enerally a cable
tester consists of:
&. A source of electric current
). A volt meter
+. A switching matri% used to connect the current source and the volt meter to all of the contact
points in a cable.
*n addition to these parts a cable tester may also have a microcontroller and a display to automate the
testing process and display the testing results.
A cable tester is used to verify that all of the !ntended c$nnect!$ns e%ist and that there are no
.n!ntended c$nnect!$ns in the cable being tested. 5hen an intended connection is missing it is said to
be 6open6 1as in 7pen circuit2. 5hen an unintended connection e%ists it is said to be a 6short6 1as
in #hort circuit2. *f a connection 6goes to the wrong place6 it is said to be 6miswired6 1the connection
has two faults: it is open to the correct contact and shorted to an incorrect contact2.
4enerally the testing is done in two phases. (he first phase called the $,ens test ma'es sure each of the
intended connections is good. (he second phase called the s)$rts test ma'es sure there are no
unintended connections.
(here are two common ways to test a connection:
&. A c$nt!n.!t3 test. Current is passed down the connection. *f there is current the connection is
assumed to be good. (his type of test can be done with a series combination of a battery 1to provide
the current2 and a light bulb 1that lights when there is a current2.
). A res!stance test. A 'nown current is passed down the connection and the voltage that develops is
measured. 8rom the voltage and current the resistance of the connection can be calculated and
compared to the e%pected value.
(here are two common ways to test for a short:
&. A ($ "$(ta&e test. A low power low voltage source is connected between two conductors that
should not be connected and the amount of current is measured. *f there is no current the conductors
are assumed to be well isolated.
+
). A )!&) "$(ta&e test. Again a voltage source is connected but this the voltage is of several hundred
volts. (he increased voltage will ma'e the test more li'ely to find connections that are nearly shorted
since the higher voltage will cause the insulation of nearly shorted wires to brea' down.
4). P$rt-test!n& s$5tare
9sed to determine whether various ports are wor'ing correctly.
6). 7rea8$.t *$9es
A *rea8$.t *$9 1:7:2 is an electrical device usually housed in a bo% in which a compound electrical
connector is separated or 6bro'en out6 into its component connectors. Compound connectors 1which are
often proprietary2 are used where sufficient space for 1or access to2 connections is unavailable. *f there
are only a few connections then a *rea8$.t ca*(e 1also $ct$,.s ca*(e2 may be used as is common on
smaller noteboo' computers.
:). Ant!-stat!c #ESD) r!st*ands $r an8(e*ands
An ant!stat!c r!st stra, ESD r!st stra, or &r$.nd *race(et is
an antistatic device used to safely ground a person wor'ing on electronic
equipment to prevent the buildup of static electricity on their body
which can result in electrostatic discharge 1;#<2. *t is used in the
electronics industry by wor'ers wor'ing on electronic devices which can
be damaged by ;#< and also sometimes by people wor'ing around
e%plosives to prevent spar's which could set off an e%plosion. *t consists
of a stretchy band of fabric with fine conductive fibers woven into it. (he
fibers are usually made of carbon or carbon-filled rubber and the strap is
bound with a stainless steel clasp or plate. (hey are usually used in
con=unction with an antistatic mat on the wor'bench or a special static-dissipating plastic laminate on the
wor'bench surface.
1;) Ant!-stat!c #ESD) s,ra3
>ery effective in reducing static electricity on fabric and carpet.
11) Ant!-stat!c #ESD) %ats
Provides a static-free surface. Can be used with anti-static wristbands. *ncludes anti-static floor mats.
1') POST card
A card that can be plugged into an e%pansion slot and contains a small display to a show a problem code
P7#( cards are timesavers that provide accurate and specific diagnoses.
1+) D!s8 dr!"e !nsta((at!$n s$5tare
#oftware utilities that are provided by the drive manufacturers and from other sources many of which
are available at no charge. (hese sometimes come with the drives but can also be downloaded.
-
1-) 7IOS 5(as)!n& .t!(!t!es
9se these to flash :*7#s and to perform other rescue operations on :*7#s and C/7# chips with
problems.
11) US7 net$r8 ada,ter
Allows for easy networ' access on a computer that has 9#: ports but no
internal networ' adapter. 9sed for data transfer and *nternet access on networ's
set up for it.
1<) Internet access
Allows access to 5eb-based virus-scanning software and other utilities and easy downloads of device
drivers.
14) Data trans5er ca*(es
Cables of various types such as serial 1null-modem2 parallel and 9#: that allow for different methods
of data transfer. >ery often the best solution for a computer with serious 7# trouble is to format the hard
drives 1which erases all content2 and reinstall the 7# and all software. <ata transfer is often the
most efficient method of saving data that will be erased by formatting the drive. >arious software
utilities some of which are supplied with 5indows allow for data transfer through these cables.
16) CD/D0D scratc) re,a!r 8!ts
(hese can often save damaged software and data discs.
1:) Un!nterr.,t!*(e P$er S.,,(3 #UPS)
An .n!nterr.,t!*(e ,$er s.,,(3 also .n!nterr.,t!*(e ,$er s$.rce UPS or *atter3/5(3)ee(
*ac8., is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a
load when the input power source typically the utility mains fails. A
9P# differs from an au%iliary or emergency power system or standby
generator in that it will provide instantaneous or near-instantaneous
protection from input power interruptions by means of one or more
attached batteries and associated electronic circuitry for low power
users and or by means of diesel generators and flywheels for high power
users. (he on-battery runtime of most uninterruptible power sources is
relatively short0.?&. minutes being typical for smaller units0but
sufficient to allow time to bring an au%iliary power source on line or to
properly shut down the protected equipment.
';) Data-rec$"er3 s$5tare
#oftware that can often recover data from damaged hard drives.
.
'1) In5rared te%,erat.re sens$r
Available from companies such as ,ayte' 1raytek.com2 this uses
a laser to point at an ob=ect such as a CP9 to detect its
temperature. Can be very helpful in detecting bad connections or
heat-related problems.
'') Pr$*(e%-s$("!n& s$5tare
>arious software programs such as @orton 9tilitiesA and /cAfeeB Clinic that solve many different
computer problems and optimi"e performance.
3
Pract!ca( :-'
Aim:-Introduction of Computer Peripherals
In,.t De"!ces
(he foremost tas' of a computer is to accept data. An input device is used to
accomplish this tas'. An input device is used to enter the data and instructions
into the computer. Advancement in the computer technology has resulted in a
variety of input devices being available in the mar'et. Ceyboard and mouse are
the most commonly used input devices.
Ke3*$ard: Ceyboard is the most popular input device that allows users to type
alphabets numbers and operators and also to control the cursor on the screen. A
simple 'eyboard layout is given below:
M$.se: /ouse is a pointing device that allows user to point to a specific position on
the screen. *t has two or three buttons on top for selectingDe%ecuting different
operations. Pressing buttons of mouse is 'nown as clic'ing of mouse. (he mouse is
placed on flat surface and moved around to move its controlling arrow on screen.
(he arrow showing the position of mouse on screen is 'nown as mouse pointer. Left
button of mouse is used e%ecute the operation associated with it. ,ight
buttonD/iddle buttons are associated with special operations in different
situations.
E
#ome of the other *nput <evices are enlisted below:
De"!ce
Ident!5!cat!$n Usa&e
Foy #tic'
*t is a device used to control
cursor on screen. @ormally it
is used in 4ames and
specially designed
simulation software
Light Pen
*t is a device used for
drawing pictures and for
directlycontrolling screen
operations
/icrophone
*t is a device used to accept
audio inputs from the user
#canner
*t is a device used to capture
digital images of printed
documents graphics or other
printed media.
(ouch #creens
*t is a display device which
is touch-sensitive and allows
user to interact with the
computer system by
touching an area on the
screen.
G

:ar Code ,eader
*t is used to accept barcode
inputs.A barcode is a series of
vertical bars representing
numbers and alphabets
printed on product labels. 7ne
must have noticed allstandard
items li'e perfumes greeting
cards boo's cassettes
available in the mar'et have
similar lines as shown in the
figure 'nown as bar codes.
(hese can be read with the
help of bar code
readers.
5eb Camera
*t is an easy to connect low-
resolution digital camera
normally e m p l o y e d f o r
t r a n s f e r o f i m a g e s
o n t h e w e b - b a s e d
conferencing
<igital Camera
*t is a high-resolution camera
which captures images and
stores them in digital format.
*t has provision to connect to
the computer using special
computer communication
cables 1such as 9#: cables2.
O.t,.t De"!ces
*t is a device used to provide the processed data from the computer to the user. /onitor
1><9D#creen2 and printer are the most commonly used output devices. (he usage of
some of the commonly used output devices is below:
M$n!t$r
A /onitor is an output device very similar to the
television screen. *t displays the information as it is
typed and also displays the processed result or the output. *t
is available in many forms cathode ray picture tube
based display liquid crystal based display1LC<2
plasma panel display and touch panel display
H
Pr!nters
*mpact Printers - (hese printers have a mechanism that touches the paper in
order to create an image. (he <ot /atri% Printer is an e%ample of this type.
@on-impact Printers - (hese printers do not touch the paper when creating
an image. (he in'=et and laser printers are e%amples of this type
D$t Matr!9 Pr!nter
Printers in this category print the characters D images using dots through in'ed ribbon.
(hese printers are very economic and require very less maintenance cost. (he print
quality of the dot matri% printer is decided by the quantity of pins it has. (he number of
the pins can vary from nine to twenty four depending
on the 'ind of dot matri% printer. 5hen compared to
the other 'ind of printers li'e the laser printers or the
in' =et printer the dot matri% printer is much more
e%pensive. (he dot matri% printer has a tendency to
ma'e a lot of noise when compared to the other 'inds
of printers. (his is why the dot matri% printer
is not very popular among customers. Iuality of print
in this category is not very high but is highly suitable
for printing situations requiring multiple copies.
(hese printers can print through hammering pattern of
dots on the printing ribbon and can thus print multiple
copies of document if multiple papers separated by carbon papers are inserted in it. @ote
that this feature is not available with any other category of printers.
In8=et/Des8=et/7.**(e=et Pr!nter
Printers in this category are most popular. (hese printers are very
low priced with
high runningDmaintenance cost. (hese printers wor' on liquid in'
technology and print the image using circuit-controlled =et of in'.
An in'=et sprays the in' onto the paper in tiny droplets to form te%t
and graphics. Printing speed of these printers is not very high
compared to Laser Printers. (hese printers are suitable for people having less printing
=obs with a desirable print uality. (hese printers are available in JColouredJ and J:lac' K
5hiteJ options.
<ifferent companies have branded their products using the
same technology with different names e.g.
&L
Hewlett Pac'ard 1hp2 manufactures <es'Fet Printers
;pson manufactures *n'=et Printers
Canon manufactures :ubble Fet Printers
Laser Pr!nter
(hese printers use a technique which is a combination of
laser and Mero% technology. (he technology involves dry
powder based in' which is adhered to a drum through
magnetic force and when a paper is passed through the
drum it releases in' on that paper. (hese are the fastest
available printers in the category and are most suitable for
uses involving high-speed quality prints.
St$ra&e de"!ces
#toring data is an important part of a computer system. (he main concern of all
computer designers is to create fast and efficient storage devices. As is commonly
'nown the primary memory inside the computer 1,andom Access /emory or ,A/2 is
volatile i.e. whatever is stored in ,A/ is lost as soon as the computer is switched off.
#o if there is a need to save data from getting lost it can be put on a storage device
li'e floppy dis' hard dis's and C<-,7/# before switching off the Computer.

F($,,3 D!s8
*t is a smaller capacity removable storage device. *t is made up of thin and fle%ible
plastic material. (his thin plastic film is coated with a magnetic material 'nown as
iron o%ide for recording data and is protected by a hard outer cover. *t is very useful
in transferring data from one computer to another.
Plastic Fac'et
5rite Protect @otch
&&
Although technology has not changed substantially floppy dis's have certainly changed
considerably in order to meet the very demanding needs of the mar'etplace. 8rom an G
inch si"e they have evolved to a much smaller si"e with larger capacities. (odayJs
standard +.. inch dis'ettes hold a formatted capacity of about &.-- megabytes. (he
evolution of the personal computer acted as a catalyst primary for designers to reduce the
si"e and cost of floppies. >ery quic'ly the floppy became the standard method of
e%changing data between personal computers. *t also became the popular method of
storing moderate amounts of information outside of the computerJs hard drive. <is'ettes
are small ine%pensive readily available easy to store and have a good shelf life if stored
properly.
>$r8!n& $5 a F($,,3 D!s8
Conventional floppy drives contain the following basic components:
&. A spindle clamping mechanism to hold the dis'ette in place as it spins
). ;ither one or two magnetic readDwrite heads mounted on a mechanism that
moves the heads across the dis'etteJs surface
+. A sensor that detects the rotational position of the dis'ette via an inde% hole
1or magnetic sensor in +.. inch drives2 on floppy dis's.
(he floppy dis' is divided into trac's and sectors. *n the ad=acent figure the concentric
circles are trac's and the sliced parts of these trac's are called sectors. 5hen the
computer system needs to access data on the dis'ette the readDwrite heads are stepped by
signals generated by the computer systemJs floppy controller. (hese steps are along
invisible concentric cylinders which are usually referred to as 6trac's6. (he turning on
of the computer systemJs power results in the readDwrite heads of the drive being
automatically set to trac' L 1the first trac' and starting position2. *n most drives this
starting position is located by means of a sensor in the drive which has been ad=usted to
tell the floppy controller when the heads have reached the first trac'. *f this sensor is not
in proper ad=ustment then this initial starting calibration is also incorrect and the heads
are not properly positioned over trac' L. *n order to move the heads from this first trac'
to other trac's the head positioner simply moves in or out one trac' for each step pulse
received from the computerJs floppy controller.
?ard D!s8 Dr!"e
*t is a storage device with very large capacity which ranges
from &4: to (erabytes in the modernscenario. *t is placed
in side the cabinet of CP9 1Although e%ternal hard drives
are also available these days2. *t is not a removable drive in
normal circumstances. A hard dis' has a much larger
storage capacity than a floppy dis'. *t is fitted inside the
computer and cannot be seen by us. (here can be one or
&)
more hard dis' in the system unit of a computer. (hey were originally called 6fi%ed
dis's6 or 65inchesters6. (hey later became 'nown as 6hard dis's6 to distinguish them
from 6floppy dis's.6 Hard dis's have a hard platter that holds the magnetic medium as
opposed to the fle%ible plastic film found in tapes and floppies. At the simplest level a
hard dis' uses magnetic recording techniques =ust li'e the floppy dis'. /a=or benefits of
magnetic storage - the magnetic medium can be easily erased and rewritten and it will
6remember6 the magnetic flu% patterns stored onto the medium for many years. (he
wor'ing of a hard dis' is similar to that of a floppy dis'. *n order to increase the amount
of information the drive can store most hard dis'shave multiple platters.
CD-ROM #C$%,act D!s8 Read On(3 Me%$r3)
*t is a storage device with medium capacity i.e. to hold 3.L /:DELL /: 13LDGL
/in.AudioD>ideo2. Computer has special drive 'nown as C<-<rive to provide support
for placing and running C<s. *t can store data audio and video. *t is made up of plastic
with special surface having optical sensitivity. C<-<rive has a laser light source that
reads data from the C<-,7/. (he C<-,7/ surface is a mirror covered with billions of
tiny bumps that are arranged in a long tightly wound spiral trac' of data circling from
the inside of the disc to the outside. (he C<-<rive reads the bumps with a precise laser
and interprets the information as bits of data. C<-,7/s are economical and easily
available storage media. C<s are available in variations such as C<-, 1Compact <is'
,ecordable2 and C<-,51Compact <is' ,ewritable2. (he data on C<-, media can only
be written once whereas C<-,5 media allows multiple writeDover-write operations on it.
(here are two types of C< <rives one 'nown as C<-, <rive that performs only read
operation and the other 'nown as C<-,5 <rive 1or C<-:urner2 that performs read as
well write operations.
>$r8!n& $5 a CD-ROM Dr!"e
5hen you play a C< the laser beam passes through the C<Js polycarbonate layerreflects
off the aluminum layer and hits an optoelectronic device that detects changes in light. (he
bumps reflect light differently than the flat parts of the aluminum layer which are called
lands. (he optoelectronic sensor detects these changes in reflectivity and the electronics
in the C<-player drive interpret the changes as data bits
&+
D0D #D!&!ta( 0ersat!(e D!sc)
Computer has special drive 'nown as <><-<rive to provide support for placing and
running <><s. A <>< is very similar to a C< but it has a much larger data storage
capacity. A standard <>< media holds about seven times more data than a C< media.
(his huge capacity means that a <>< has enough room to store a full-length /P;4-)-
encoded movie as well as other information. A <>< can store data audio and video. *t is
made up of plastic with special surface having optical sensitivity denser as compared to
C<s. A <>< drive is capable of running a C< media also. (he <>< media can store up
to -.E 4: of data as compared to 3.L-ELL /: storage capacity of C<-,7/s. <><s are
of the same diameter and thic'ness as C<s and they are made using some of the same
materials and manufacturing methods. Li'e a C< the data on a <>< is encoded in the
form of small pits and bumps in the trac' of the disc
Pen Dr!"e
(his is a type of flash memory storage device of the si"e of a thumb and can plug into the
9#: port of the computer. 9#: flash drives are more
compact generally faster hold more data and are more
reliable 1due to their lac' of moving parts2 than dis'
storage. /ost flash drives use a standard 9#:
connector which is connected directly to the 9#: port
on a personal computer 8lash drive is nearly free from
scratch and dust problems that e%ist in the other storage
media such as floppy dis's and compact discs. (his ma'es it ideal for transporting data
or wor' files from one location to another such as from home to school or office or wor'
places. *t also allows one to perform multiple read-write operations. 8lash drives are also
a relatively dense form of storage where even the cheapest will store do"ens of floppy
dis's worth of data. #ome can hold more data than a C< 1ELL /:2. (op of the line flash
drives can store more data than a <><. 8lash drives often last for .LLLLL or more
eraseDwrite cycles. 7ptical storage devices are also slower than their flash-based
counterparts.
&-
PRACTICAL @ +
Aim : <isassembling computer system.
*t you are a beginner and actually want to learn something then document well and learn
or re-atlim your 'nowledge about every thing you see inside given a screwdriver a &L
year old could probably have the computer apart in a halt hour or so. *f you are using this
section as a laber learning assignment and you have your computer apart in the same time
as a &L ? year old than that!s the lerel you!ll be at but it you ta'e a slow rela%ed approach
discuss question and research each component as its removed you!ll learn a lot read the
section on what!s *nside and what you see fall bac' on your own 'nowledge use the
internet your boo's and resource material *t!s impossible to retain all the information so
one of the most important computer s'ills you can learn it how to research and use your
resource to find what you need. Here!s an e% at some questions to thin' about or discuss
as you proceed.
- should * document everything * do or everything * removeN
- Am * thin'ing the best ;#< precautions available to me right now.
- 5hen you remove an e%pansion card what 'ind of card is it what 'ind of
e%pansion slot did it come fromN How many bits wide is that slotN 5hat is the bus
speedN 5hat does the card doN *f there!s any wires attached to card what!s the
other end attached to and what are tie wires or cables for what 'ind of part is on
the end of the cardN
- 5hen removing a drive what ' to and what are tie wires or cables for what 'ind
of part is on the end of the cardN
- 5hen removing a drive what 'ind of drive is itN *s there information documental
right on the drive itselfN 5hat 'ind of power connector does it useN Are there
=umper settings on the driveN 5hat forN Are any drives connected together or do
they all have their own cable it matter which cable * loo' up when * reassembleN
5hat are some of the things * 'now about this particular type of driveN
- 5hen removing wires or cables what are the cables forN 5hich connector are
actually being used and what could the other ones be forN Are they following the
P/-& ruleN Cable is attached toN *t is designated in more then one wayN
- Am * still ta'ing prepare ;#< precautions and is my antistatic strap still hoo'ed
upN
- Loo' at the motherboard again when there!s not to so much in the way can you
point out the cpuN How about the :*7# chip the battery cache ,A/ 'eyboard
connectorN *s it an A( :aby A( or A(M formatN *s the system for supplied on
#*//# or moduleN How many memory slots are the for each ban' of system
memoryN *s the CP9 installed in a *f soc'et or a friction soc'etN Are there any
=umpers on the motherboardN
- (his is =ust an e% of the questions you should be using your self tray to come up
with lots more even it you are not prepared to actually ta'e your computer apart
of this time =ust ta'e the over off and as' yourself these question as you visuali"e
&.
the various can be answered by a single resource loo' in your notes chec' out
your manuals and resource material as' question.
AESD :
,ead the section on electrostalie discharge and always ta'e ;#< precautions
remember it your can tell a statil shoc' its probably close to +LLL relts some its can
be attched by as little as +L rolts.
- always use an antistatic wrist strap.
- Ceep a supply of antistatic bars to place components in as they are removed.
- Hearing the computer plugged in is a reclaimed procedure however ma'e sure its
switched off and remembers that the cable going to the remote switch on the front
of the case carries AC current at house voltage Also A(M motherboards have
power o them all the time.
7e5$re 7e&!nn!n& :
Oou want to ma'e sure you have what you need your wrist strap is attached to the
computer you don!t want to have to run to the other side of the room or to another
room to get something forget about the strap and your computer may follow you.
Have a pen and paper ready documentation is read important after you have changed
a few =umper removed or replaced a few cables and cards you probably will have to
pay some bac' the way they where it you have documentation putting things bac'
together can be a simple reverse process this is true of slow troubleshooting as well.
- ma'e sure you have the resource materials drivers or software that you may need.
- *t possible enter the comes setup and record the information available at least
record the happy and hard drive configuration and any setting that may be
different from the default you want to be careful not to remove the battery
happens.
- <isassembly is ma=or surgery do a full bac'up at the system programs that you
have the original dis's for an always be replaced but any upgrades for those
programs and any programs that have been downloaded from the internet may or
may not still be suitable boo'mar's phone and fa% members and networ'ing
protocols can be a real pain to replace.
- Close all programs shut down windows and turn of your computer then remove
the cable from the bac' of the case.
- 7ne other thing you have to use a little common sense don!t necessarily follow
this information to the letter its only meant to be a guide if you thin' it could be
easier to remove some e%pansion but then do it.
Re%$"!n& t)e C$"er :
&3
(he standard way of removing tower cases used to undo --3 sarews on the bac'
of the case slide the cover bac' about an inch and life it off manufacturers are
beginning to come up with tric'ier and more intricate method of assembling there
cases all the time it there is no manual then a little time ta'en for careful
inspection may be in order there are some things to remember.
- <on!t force anything it has to be forced it will probably brea' it there are no
screws on the bac' of the case for the cover chec' the plastic face plate on the
front some pry off to saved screws or release layers.
- *f you notice a separation between the sides and the top than they must come off
separately only favorite A(M was allows you to remove two screws from the bac'
then slide the side panel to the rear inch and remove it.
- /a'e sure any screws removed are for the cover you don!t want to unscrew the
power supply by accident and have it fall inside your computer.
- After the case is removed place it in a safe place where it want get 'noc'ed of a
table 'ic'ed or stepped on and bent.
Re%$"!n& Ada,ter Cards :
Again documentation is very important yes that &3-bit is a card will probably card
in any &3-bit is a slot but there may be a reason its in particular one.
- chec' the card for any cables or wires that might be attached and decide if it
would be easier to remove then before or after you remove the card.
- 9ndo the screw that holds the card in place.
- (he card by its edges front and bac' and gently roc' it lengthwise to release it to
not it side as you can brea' the card the stop or the solder sometimes it haps to
group the inside corner of the card with one hand and place a figure from the
other hand under the associated port out the bac' of the computer to pry up to the
one end of the card.
- 7nce the card is removed you may want to record any =umper setting you see =ust
in case one is dislodged.
Re%$"e Dr!"er :
,emoving drivers is not that difficult they usually have a power connector and a
data cables attached from the device to a controller on the motherboard C<
,7/s may have an analog cable connected to the sound card.
- (he power will be attached using one of two connector or a large /ole%
connector or a smaller berg connector may need to the /ole% connector may need
to be wiggled slightly from side to side while applying gentle pressure out wor's.
(he data cable needs to be dominated remember the pin are one rule 'now where each
one gees before you pull it out and record its orientation pull data cables gently and
carefully.
&E
Re%$"!n& t)e %e%$r3 %$d.(es :
- /emory module is one of the chips that can be damaged careful at ;#7 and
handle them only by edges #*//# and <*//# are removed differently.
- #*// : gently push bac' the tabs holding the #*// away from the tabs to about
a -.P angle .*t should now lift out put each #*// in its own protecting.
- <*// : (here are plastic tabs on the end of the <*// soc'et push the tabs down
and away from the soc'et .(he <*// should lift slightly.
Re%$"!n& t)e ,$er s.,,(3 :
- /a'e sure it!s unplugged.
- All power connector should be removed including the connection to the
motherboard and any au%iliary fans watch the little plastic tabs on the
motherboard and any au%iliary fans.
- ,emove the connection to the remote power switch at the front the case
orientation of the colored wires at this switch is critical .*f you remove them ma'e
sure you document cell and during re-assembly plug the computer into a fused
surge protector before turning it on.
- ,emove the four screws at the bac' of the case and gently the power supply out
of the case while removing the screws you don!t want it falling into the case.
Re%$"!n& t)e %$t)er*$ard :
- <ocument and remove all wire attached to the motherboard.
- /ost case has a removable panel that the motherboard is attached to by removing
a couple of screws the panel can be ta'en off and you can gain much better access
to motherboard.
- (here is usually )or + screws holding down newer down motherboards ma'e sure
you have get the right ones and remove them.
- Place the motherboard in antistatic bag.


&G
PRACTICAL :--
A!%:- Reasse%*(!n& c$%,.ter s3ste%
5hen it comes time to put a computer bac' together it!s usually =ust a matter of reversing
the order in which you too' it apart. Again you are going to rituali"e each step because
there may be an easier way. *( is easier to install the motherboard of the power supply
firstN Are the ,A/ <*/F#1or #*//#2 easier to access before or after the power supply
out the bac' on a tray then install the CP9 and the ,A/ before replacing the tray.
(77L#:-
5hen putting the computer bac' together there are some basic tools that you will
find handy of course you will need your ;#< protection equipment and a Phillips
screwdriver A small flashlight and a magnifying glass may come in handy as well as
needle nose pliers. A useful device for any 'ind of computer wor' is a small screwdriver
with Phillips head on one and a flat head on the other .once again you are not in a race
and cuts once. 5hen wor'ing on computers you want to double chec' everything you
install or connect.
(he pourer supply:-
A fairly basic installation =ust lineup the holes and screw it on. <on!t plug it in yet.
,emember the cable going to the remote switch on the front of the case carries &&L volts
off the switch ma'e sure you connect them =ust as they were before. A wrong connection
here can burn up your pc. After power supply is installed do not plug it in.
(he ,A/:-
<(P memory modules are the hardest to install. Luc'ily it!s not done much anymore
#*//# are inserted at about a -. degree angle then stoned up until they don!t clip into
place. *8 they don!t clip improperly maybe you have them in bac'wards. (hey will
usually have them a 'ey cut into one side <*//# are 'eyed on the edge connector side
they can only be inserted one way. 7nce they are lined up push them down until the
loc'ing tabs on the side come up. C7A#( modules are also 'eyed on the bottom and
insert much li'e an adapter card.
(he CP9:-
Luc'ily CP9 soc'ets aren!t traction fit anymore. *f you have a P4A central
processor it will fit into a Q*88 soc'et. Pin R& on the chip has to be lined up with pin R&
on the soc'et. (his can be indicated on the soc'et with an arrow a R& sil' screened on the
board or a flatted corner. 9sually the CP9 will indicate pin R& with a flatted corner.
9nclip and lift the handle insert the chip lower the handle and clip it in. *f it!s a Pentium
) or a Pentium + it will fit into a slot & soc'et.
(he /otherboard:-
/ost PC cases will allow you to re more the metal tray that the motherboard
attached to by re moving ) or more screws. *f you didn!t do that during dismally them
you should familiari"e yourself with it now. (he plastic standouts on the motherboard are
to 'eep the solder side of the board from touching the metal case and shorting out.
9sually it!s better to install the possibility of fle%ing the board and crac'ing solder
&H
connections or traces. 7rient the motherboard properly and either clip in or slide in the
standouts until the mounting screws that hold the board in place.
At this point you can install the video card. <o a final chec' on everything
installed. ,; chec' all installations and connections attach and plug in the monitor. (urn
the computer on. 5atch for lights on the front panel. How far does the :*7# P7#(
routing getN Are there any error messageN *s this e%pectedN
7ne thing that * don!t li'e to do is to completely re-assemble a computer and then
=ust turn it on. *f it doesn!t wor' at that point then you have to tear it all apart again to
find the problem. 7nce you are installed the power supply motherboard. CP9 and ,A/
install the video card hoo' up the 'eyboard and cables and start your computer of course
there!s no drivers installed and some e%pansion cards are missing so you!re going to get
errors. :ut if it recogni"es your video card count the memory and allows access to you
C/7# setup program then you 'now everything installed to that point is wor'ing. *f you
get an une%pected error then it should be due to the last device you installed.
)L
PRACTICAL :-1
A!%: Tr$.*(es)$$t!n& and Re,a!r!n& $5 %$t)er*$ard and C$%,$nents
$n M$t)er*$ard
*f you open your computer you!ll see a large board on the bottom or side of the case into
which other boards are plugged. (hat large board is called the motherboard and is the
focus for the processor memory and buses. /any of the motherboard characteristics you
need to consider are prominently featured in computer system advertisements including
processor type cloc' speed and bus. An equal number of 'ey characteristics are often
omitted such as onboard peripheral support the range of processor speeds supported the
ma%imum amount of memory and the number of memory slots. (hese latter
characteristics strongly affect your ability to upgrade the machine in the future. 8igure is
a typical e%ample showing the *ntel <GE.P:Q motherboard annotated to identify the
ma=or components. (he features and layout of your motherboard will vary somewhat but
the ideas are similar and the parts tend to loo' much the same.
Pr$cess$r s$c8et
(his motherboard accepts *ntel Pentium - processors. (he Q*8 1Qero-*nsertion 8orce2
soc'et lets you easily insert and remove the chip. :e careful to seat the processor in the
soc'et Srmly before closing the clamp. *f you don!t some of the pins may not ma'e
)&
contact properly and the machine won!t boot. (he heat sin' retention brac'et surrounds
the soc'et.
DIMM %e%$r3 s$c8ets B (his motherboard uses PC)ELL or PC+)LL #<,A/
memory on dual inline memory module 1<*//2 strips depending on the speed of the
processor!s front side bus 1.++ and GLL /H" respectively2. (he faster memory wor's
with the slower bus although the system won!t be any faster letting you prepare for
future processor upgrades
AT2 ,$er c$nnect$r B (he A(M power supply output wires terminate in a single
relatively large connector plus a smaller connector for added &) > power.
F($,,3 c$nnect$r B (he Toppy dis' controller is on the motherboard. Oou run a
standard cable from the Toppy dis' drive in the case to this connector.
D!s8 dr!"e c$nnect$rs B *f you use an *<; 1parallel A(A2 dis' or C<-,7/ you!ll
plug those devices into the *<; connectors. 9se the #erial A(A connectors for newer dis'
drives.
N$rt)*r!d&e c)!, B Although
small the support chip comprises the
bul' of the electronics surrounding
the processor including support
for the A4P and PC* buses the dis'
controller and other functions.
PCI c$nnect$rs B 9p to Sve PC*
adapter cards plug in here and are
secured to the bac' of the case with a
screw.
ACP c$nnect$r B An A4P video
card plugs in here.
Et)ernet c$nnect$r B Plug the PC
into your local area networ'
1LA@2 using this onboard ,F--.
connector.
Para((e( ,$rt c$nnect$r B Oou!ll
plug an older printer into this con-
nector. @ewer printers use 9#: or
;thernet.
US7 c$nnect$rs B Ceyboards mice spea'ers cameras scanners and other devices
plug into the 9#: ports. 9nli'e the P#D) mouse 'eyboard and parallel ports you don!t
have to turn off the computer to attach and detach 9#: devices.
Ser!a( ,$rt c$nnect$r B #erial ports let you plug in modems and other e%ternal devices.
PS/' %$.se and 8e3*$ard c$nnect$r B (hese are standard mini <*@ connectors that
match the one at the end of your mouse or 'eyboard cable. Loo' for drawings near the
connectors to determine which is for the mouse and which for the 'eyboard.
AT2 c$nnect$r ,ane( B All the e%ternal *D7 connections from the motherboard
including sound game serial parallel 9#: ;thernet mouse and 'eyboard ports are
directly attached to the motherboard and mounted on the A(M connector panel.
))
Tr$.*(es)$$t!n& a 7ad M$t)er*$ard
(here are many bad motherboard signs. *t is necessary that you identify the correct cause
of your bad motherboard to repair it. (he most common causes of a bad motherboard are
always related to cabling and connections. Let us discuss the various causes of a bad
motherboard one by one. (he first thing to chec' is whether the screen is live or dead. *f
the screen is dead follow the steps given below:
&. 8oremost chec' whether the fans and lights on the motherboard are in a wor'ing
condition. Also chec' whether the system is turning 7@ or not. *f all these signs
are encountered it indicates that you have to troubleshoot power supply of your
des'top computer. 9sually it is observed that the connections and wiring from the
power supply to the computer system are not properly done.
). *f the power supply is wor'ing fine the ne%t step is to troubleshoot the video. A
video failure may lead to a dead screen which may be mista'en as failure in the
power supply.
+. (he ne%t step after a negative result of video failure troubleshoots is to chec'
whether the ,A/ is inserted in the given slot properly. *mproper insertion of the
,A/ modules must be chec'ed. *f the ,A/ is positioned properly and even then
your computer is not wor'ing change the ,A/.
-. (he ne%t step to be followed if the ,A/ is positioned and wor'ing properly is to
chec' that the CP9 is inserted in its soc'et perfectly or not. *t is possible that one
of the CP9 leads is not inserted in the soc'et properly. (his case is possible when
you have upgraded your CP9 or installed a new one. (he heat sin' module inside
the cabinet is mounted upon the CP9 so it is quite possible that one of the leads
of the CP9 are bent due to the weight of the heat sin'. Chec' whether the CP9
leads are properly inserted in their respective soc'ets. *f you cannot insert the
leads properly in the soc'et it is li'ely that the soc'et is faulty or the CP9 that
you have is not the correct one for your computer motherboard.
.. *f you find no fault in the CP9 connection follow this step. Chec' whether the
fan and the heat sin' is wor'ing properly. (he fan must be powered by connecting
the correct power point on the motherboard to connect the :*7# to the computer
monitor. 5henever the :*7# is turned 7@ the heat sin' and the fan must turn
7@. ;nsure that the fan on the heat sin' is wor'ing properly and replace the fan if
it is not wor'ing properly.
3. (he ne%t step after you find that the fan and heat sin' are properly wor'ing is to
find whether you hear any beeps from the computer. (he ,A/ of your computer
must be replaced if you hear a string of beeps. (he ne%t step is followed if beeps
are not heard.
E. ,estore the motherboard settings to default. Lastly if any of these steps are not
the reason for your motherboard failure replace the CP9.
(he ne%t steps are to be followed in case you do not witness a dead screen.
)+
&. 5hen the computer turns 7@ properly and the screen free"es on the :*7# screen
the computer must be disassembled and assembled again with only a few parts.
(hese parts are: power supply motherboard ,A/ video adapter and CP9.
). *f your computer system still free"es chec' whether the ,A/ is connected
properly.
+. 8inally set the C/7# setting to the default ones. 5hen you over cloc' the
system the computer system may heat up and loc' the system. After this you
may have to replace your heat sin' and restore your default C/7# settings.
)-
PRACTICAL:-<
Aim:- Troubleshooting and Repairing of Keyboard and
Scanner
Keyboard
(here are many types of 'eyboards usually differentiated by the switch technology
employed in their operation. #ince there are so many switches needed 1usually about GL-
&&L2 and because they have to be highly reliable this usually defines the 'eyboard. (he
choice of switch technology affects 'ey response 1the positive feedbac' that a 'ey has
been pressed2 and travel 1the distance needed to push the 'ey to enter a character
reliably2. @ewer models use hybrids of various technologies to achieve greater cost
savings.
I5;,(O Ceyboard

A standard computer 'eyboard is called a I5;,(O 'eyboard because of the layout of its
typing area. (his 'eyboard is named after the first si% leftmost letters on the top
alphabetic line of the 'eyboard. A I5;,(O 'eyboard might limit your typing speed.
T3,es:-
Me%*rane 8e3*$ard
/ain article: /embrane 'eyboard
/embrane 'eyboards are usually flat. (hey are most often found on appliances li'e
microwave ovens or photocopiers. A common design consists of three layers. (he top
layer 1and the one the user touches2 has the labels printed on its front and conductive
stripes printed on the bac'. 9nder this it has a spacer layer which holds the front and
).
bac' layer apart so that they do not normally ma'e electrical contact. (he bac' layer has
conductive stripes printed perpendicularly to those of the front layer. 5hen placed
together the stripes form a grid. 5hen the user pushes down at a particular position his
finger pushes the front layer down through the spacer layer to close a circuit at one of the
intersections of the grid. (his indicates to the computer or 'eyboard control processor
that a particular button has been pressed.
4enerally membrane 'eyboards do not have much of a 6feel6 so many machines which
use them issue a beep or flash a light when the 'ey is pressed. (hey are often used in
harsh environments where water or lea' proofing is desirable. Although used in the early
days of the personal computer 1on the QMGL QMG& and Atari -LL2 they have been
supplanted by the more tactile dome and mechanical switch 'eyboards. However
membrane 'eyboards with interchangeable 'ey layouts such as the *nterla'e!s and
<iscover: board are still commonly used by people with physical visual or cognitive
disabilities as well as people who require assistive technology to access a computer.
D$%e-s!tc) 8e3*$ard
<ome-switch 'eyboards are 'ind of a hybrid of membrane and mechanical 'eyboards.
(hey bring two circuit board traces together under a rubber 6dome6 or bubble. (he inside
of the top of the bubble is coated in graphite. 5hen a 'ey is pressed it collapses the
dome which connects the two circuit traces and completes the connection to enter the
character. (he pattern on the PC board is often gold-plated.
(his is a common switch technology used in mass mar'et 'eyboards today. *t is
considered very quiet but purists tend to find it 6mushy6 because the collapsing dome
does not provide as much positive response as a hard closing switch. (hese are also a
good choice for office or consumer environments because they are generally fairly quiet.
(his switch technology also happens to be most commonly used in handheld controllers
such as those used with home video game consoles. <ome-switch 'eyboards are also
called direct-switch 'eyboards.
Ca,ac!t!"e 8e3*$ard
*n this type of 'eyboard pressing the 'ey changes the capacitance of a pattern of
capacitor pads. 9nli'e 6dome switch6 'eyboards the pattern consists of two <-shaped
capacitor pads for each switch printed on a printed circuit board 1PC board2 and covered
by a thin insulating film of solder mas' which plays the role of a dielectric. (he
mechanism of capacitive switches is very simple compared to mechanical ones. *ts
movable part is ended with a flat foam element 1of dimensions near to a tablet of Aspirin2
finished with aluminum foil below. (he opposite side of the switch is a PC board with the
capacitor pads.
5hen a 'ey is pressed the foil tightly clings to the surface of the PC board forming a
daisy chain of two capacitors between contact pads and itself separated with thin solder
mas' and thus 6shorting6 the contact pads with an easily detectable drop of capacitive
)3
reactance between them. 9sually this permits a pulse or pulse train to be sensed. (he 'eys
do not need to be fully pressed to be fired on which enables some typists to wor' faster.
As of )LLG they are a rare find in generic PC 'eyboards

7nly vintage PCs are equipped
with this type of 'eyboard. (here are also industrial ma'es of capacitive 'eyboards that
are ine%pensive and they resist wear water foreign ob=ects and dirt.
Mec)an!ca(-s!tc) 8e3*$ard
/echanical-switch 'eyboards use real switches one under each 'ey. <epending on the
construction of the switch these 'eyboards have varying responses and travel times.
@otable 'eyboards utili"ing this technology are the Apple ;%tended ** and its modern
imitator the /atias (actile Pro. (hese two 'eyboards use ALP# switches. 7n PCs the
7mni Cey series from @orthgate Computers was popular and the line is now carried by
Creative >ision (echnologies under the Advant brand. Cherry Corporation of 4ermany
also ma'es mechanical switches used in special purpose and high end 'eyboards. *n
*ndia the (># 4old mechanical 'eyboard is very popular despite costing about five
times as much as a membrane 'eyboard.
?a((-e55ect 8e3*$ard
Hall effect 'eyboards use magnets and Hall effect sensors instead of an actual switch.
5hen a 'ey is depressed it moves a magnet which is detected by the solid-state sensor.
(hese 'eyboards are e%tremely reliable and are able to accept millions of 'eystro'es
before failing. (hey are used for ultra-high reliability applications in locations li'e
nuclear power plants or aircraft coc'pits. (hey are also sometimes used in industrial
environments. (hese 'eyboards can be easily made totally waterproof. (hey also resist
large amounts of dust and contaminants. :ecause a magnet and sensor is required for
each 'ey as well as custom control electronics they are very e%pensive.
Laser 8e3*$ard
A laser pro=ection device appro%imately the si"e of a computer mouse pro=ects the outline
of 'eyboard 'eys onto a flat surface such as a table or des'. (his type of 'eyboard is
portable enough to be easily used with P<As and cell phones and many models have
retractable cords and wireless capabilities. However sudden or accidental disruption of
the laser will register unwanted 'eystro'es. Also if the laser malfunctions the whole unit
becomes useless unli'e conventional 'eyboards which can be used even if a variety of
parts 1such as the 'eycaps2 are removed. (his type of 'eyboard can be frustrating to use
since it is susceptible to errors even in the course of normal typing and its complete lac'
of tactile feedbac' ma'es it even less user-friendly than the cheapest membrane
'eyboards.
De*.n8!n&
5hen pressing a 'eyboard 'ey the 'ey 6bounces6 li'e a ball against its contacts several
times before it settles into firm contact. 5hen released it bounces some more until it
)E
reverts to the uncontested state. *f the computer was watching for each pulse it would see
many 'eystro'es for what the user thought was =ust one.
(o resolve this problem the processor in a 'eyboard 1or computer2 6debouches6 the
'eystro'es by aggregating them across time to produce one 6confirmed6 'eystro'e that
1usually2 corresponds to what is typically a solid contact. *t could be argued that the dome
switch technology outlined above owes its popularity to the ability of the processor to
accurately debounce the 'eystro'es. ;arly membrane 'eyboards limited typing speed
because they had to do significant debouncing. (his was a noticeable problem on the
QMG&.
Ot)er ,arts $5 t)e PC 8e3*$ard
(he modern PC 'eyboard also includes a control processor and indicator lights to provide
feedbac' to the user about what state the 'eyboard is in. <epending on the sophistication
of the controllerJs programming the 'eyboard may also offer other special features. (he
processor is usually a single chip GL-G microcontroller variant. (he 'eyboard switch
matri% is wired to its inputs and it processes the incoming 'eystro'es and sends the
results down a serial cable 1the 'eyboard cord2 to a receiver in the main computer bo%. *t
also controls the illumination of the 6caps loc'6 6num loc'6 and 6scroll loc'6 lights.
A common test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the 6caps loc'6 'ey. (he
'eyboard sends the 'ey code to the 'eyboard driver running in the main computer$ if the
main computer is operating it commands the light to turn on. All the other indicator
lights wor' in a similar way. (he 'eyboard driver also trac's the shift alt and control
state of the 'eyboard.
Tr$.*(es)$$t!n& Ke3*$ard:
/a'e sure the 'eyboard is plugged in. *f it is plugged into the bac' of the
computer the cord may have gotten =ammed or 'noc'ed out accidentally. 5iggle
the cord around and reinsert bac' into the slot to see if the 'eyboard wor's.
#ave any wor' in progress and restart the computer. #ometimes the computer may
get so overloaded that the 'eyboard =ust shuts down and is unable to function
without a reboot. (he same thing can happen for a mouse too but this only
usually happens on older computers that connect via a P#D) connection rather than
a 9#:.
#witch the 9#: port where the 'eyboard is located. #ometimes 9#: ports fail to
load or read things components li'e 'eyboards so the 'eyboard must be moved to
another port in order to get read. 7nce it is plugged in give it a few seconds and
try it out.
Press the 6Caps Loc'6 'ey to see if the light appears on the 'eyboard. *f the light
does not light up then your 'eyboard currently has no power and is not
functioning. *f the 6Caps Loc'6 'ey does light up then your 'eyboard is wor'ing
normally and the program you are trying to use it in is malfunctioning.
)G
Chec' to see if anything has =ammed in between or underneath the 'eys. A
'eyboard may wor' fine but a few buttons may not wor' properly. 8ood dust
and other particles could have damaged the 'eys. 9nplug the 'eyboard from the
computer and use a butter 'nife to gently remove the 'ey and clean out anything
underneath it.
Purchase a can of compressed air. #praying the compressed air into your 'eyboard
will ensure that it stays clean and dust-free preventing most of the problems from
causing. (he only thing it cannot remove are stic'y stains that may occur from
beverages or candy.
Re,a!r!n& Ke3*$ard
7rgani"e your tools and plug in the soldering iron. <etach any cables connected
to the 'eyboard.
5hile the soldering iron is warming up turn the 'eyboard over and remove the .
phillips-head screws holding the bottom of the 'eyboard case on. ,emove the
bottom casing and set it aside then lift out the 'eyboard assembly. #et the top
casing aside with the bottom casing.
9sing a flat-blade screwdriver pry up the 'ey cap from the bro'en 'ey and any
surrounding 'ey caps that might get in your way.
(urning the 'eyboard over locate the ) pins coming out of the bro'en switch. 1*
typically circle them with a pencil after * find them =ust so * don!t have to search
for them several times.2 9nsolder these connections being careful not to overheat
the connection and lift the foil up off of the board.
9sing a pair of needle-nose pliers gently move the unsoldered pins to be certain
that they are completely free from the sides of the hole.
(urn the 'eyboard bac' over so that the 'ey caps are on top. ,eferring to 8igure
) press in on the ) tabs at the top and the bottom of the switch. 5hile you are
pressing these tabs inwards lift out the switch. Please resist the temptation to use
pliers on the stem of the switch - you could brea' or damage the stem beyond
repair. Having a second person comes in handy hereU
@ow that you have the switch out you can begin the repair. *f the problem is a
VfloatingW 'eyswitch then =ust glue the top and bottom halves of the switch
together 1ma'ing sure that all of the pieces are inside of course2 and s'ip the
ne%t step. *f the problem is the more common Vdead switchW type then do the
following:
9sing a pair of small screwdrivers 1M-Acto R) 'nife blades also wor' well2 and
loo'ing at 8igure + insert the blade of the screwdrivers between the gray tabs and
the blac' upper body. Press the blade all the way down to the bottom of the case
on both sides and the two halves will pop apart. Pull the case halves apart being
careful not to lose the small spring.
#tac' ) or three layers of self-adhesive paper labels together 1* use a spare dis'
label2 and cut it to about +DGW square - a little smaller than the bac' of the contact
)H
assembly. (hen referring to figure - stic' this paper VshimW to the bac' of the
contact assembly. 5hen a 'eyswitch dies it!s usually because the contact
assembly has nothing to press on behind it. (he labels provide the necessary
bac'ing.
Carefully re-assemble the switch. :ecause of the labels it may ta'e a little
pressure to get the top and bottom casings bac' together. <on!t forget to install
the springU
@ow it!s time to test your wor'. 9sing the ) pieces of wire solder one end of each
to each of the pins on the bac' of the switch. #older the end of one wire to one of
the pads on the 'eyboard where the switch was soldered and solder the other wire
to the other pad. @ow plug in your 'eyboard turn on your /acintosh and test out
a few 'eys including the one you =ust modified. *f the modified 'ey fails then
ta'e it apart and chec' your wor'. ,e-assemble it again and try again.
9nsolder the wires from the 'eyboard and 'eyswitches. (hen chec' that the pins
are stic'ing straight out from the bac' of the switch and straighten them if
necessary. @e%t put the switch bac' into the hole in the 'eyboard where you
removed it. /a'e sure that the pins in the switch enter the holes in the circuit
board and press the 'ey in until the gray tabs snap into place.
,e-solder the switch into place and 1optionally2 spray a little flu% remover on the
connection =ust to clean things up. *f you use cleaner be careful not to get any
inside the switchU
,e-assemble the 'eyboard and you!re doneU
#canners
#canners do a speciSc direct thing 0 they convert a printed image into an image in your
+L
computer. (he image comes in as a bitmap 0 a rectangular array of pi%els 0 from the
scanner itself so it doesn!t matter if you!re scanning pictures te%t or a combination of
the two.

Mec)an!s%s
/ost digital still cameras use a rectangular sensor array so that they can capture the
entire picture at one time. #canners are different 0 they use a line sensor in
con=unction with a mechanism that sequentially moves the sensor relative to the paper
to capture the entire image. #canners used to use a variety of mechanisms to move the
sensor but essentially all of them now hold the paper stationary on the scanner and
move the sensor 1inside the scanner2 past the paper which is what!s called a Tatbed
scanner. As long as the sensor mount and drive mechanism are designed well this
approach results in precise accurate scans. (he ability to close a door over the
document retains a closed light environment during the scan allowing the device to
control e%posure to what the sensor needs.
*f you!re feeding stac's of paper into the scanner to scan successive pages you!ll want
to consider a document feeder. (hese are most often accessories for Tatbed scanners
usually holding &L to .L pages and supporting automatic scanning once you start the
operation
N.%*er and acc.rac3 $5 c$($rs
#canners report intensity for each of the red green and blue color channels. ;ven
ine%pensive low-end scanners now use &3 bits per pi%el per color so a color scanner
reports -G bits per pi%el 1&3 bits per color for each of three colors2. (hat means the
color scanner can resolve to one of over )GL trillion colors. A color scanner can give
you better scans of blac'-and-white copy too because it can be used to drop out
colors. #uppose for e%ample that you have copy that!s become discolored. *f you can
+&
set up your scanner to scan with only one color then choosing a color that drops out
the discoloration helps to clean up the image even before you attac' it with image
processing software
However the number of colors a scanner resolves is independent of its color accuracy.
/atching colors from scanner to screen to printer is notoriously difScult. (he Srst
time you scan a color image you!re li'ely to be in for a nasty shoc' 0 the piece of
paper in your hand isn!t li'ely to loo' at all li'e what you get onscreen and neither
one is li'ely to loo' li'e what comes out of your color printer. About that time you!re
going to understand e%actly what that odd phrase Vcolor matchingW is all about.
8rom a hardware perspective it!s not at all surprising that you get differing results in
fact it!s nothing short of a miracle if you get matching colors without doing anything
to ma'e that happen. All your devices have independent calibrations use different
color technologies and in some cases even represent colors using systems different
from the red-green-blue system /ost products don!t include options supporting color
matching largely because there!s been no industry standard for how to do this.
5indows H. introduced *mage Color /atching 1*C/2 but even now there!s been little
improvement in coordination among products.
Res$(.t!$n
5e sometimes thin' that scanners are a lot li'e used cars because there!s a very
peculiar sort of speciScation that!s become common for them and you have to be
careful that you 'now what you!re getting. #peciScally scanner manufacturers report
one or both of two different resolutions:
RaD $r $,t!ca(D res$(.t!$n B (his is the actual resolution produced by the
scanner sensor in dots per inch. As with monitors and printers scanners have
both vertical and hori"ontal resolution and the two numbers don!t have to be
the same.
Inter,$(ated res$(.t!$n B (his is the speciScation that may or may not give
you what you paid for. /any scanners process the scanned image doing the
wor' either in the scanner or in your computer to compute more pi%els than
you actually read off the scanner. (hey do it by assuming that the change
between one pi%el and the ne%t is linear.
8igures A and : show the problem interpolation can cause. *n 8igure A the actual
image changes smoothly and so calculating the interpolated pi%els based on the linear
assumption wor's well 0 the added pi%els correspond well to what!s in the image.
+)
*n 8igure : however the assumption is a poor one because the real image has sharp
edges the interpolator doesn!t 'now about. :ecause the interpolator!s assumption is
bad the Vincreased resolutionW from the scanner does you no good because the
calculated data is bogus. Oour scanned image doesn!t faithfully reproduce the actual
image at the enhanced resolution. At the minimum you!ll want to be sure to Snd out
the raw resolution of the scanners you!re loo'ing at. *f you can!t Snd out Snd another
scanner.
Inter5ace B #canners come with a variety of electronic interfaces ranging from serial
and parallel ports to 9#:. (he interface you use determines how fast the image can get
into your computer and whether or not you have a suitable port on your computer.
S$5tare B /ore so than many other devices scanners require application software to
really be useful to let you acquire edit crop publish and convert images to te%t.
++
PRACTICAL:-4
Aim: - Troubleshooting and Repairing of Printer
Computer printers for personal computers started out as adapted typewriters.
*nstead of being driven by a 'eyboard 1although some had them2 they received
instructions from the computer. 7peration notwithstanding they remained typewriters
inside. (he point of a printer isn!t to be a typewriter of course$ it!s to get in' on paper in
=ust the right amount and in =ust the right place. (he same technology that created the
microprocessors that drive your computer created smaller microprocessors that could be
built into printers. 5hen that happened designers discovered that they could abandon the
typewriter-based approach and build printers based on the =ob that needed to be done.
5hen they started loo'ing at how to do high-quality graphics along with te%t they
noticed that copiers and monitors 1that is raster-based devices2 were a better starting
point. (he result was the laser and in' =et printers you have today.

In8 =et ,r!nters
*n' =et printers are really high-tech versions of the older dot-matri% printers which used
small pins to impact a ribbon and ma'e character images from a rectangular matri% of
dots. An in' =et printer cartridge squirts a matri% of dots a row at a time using an in'
reservoir some circuitry and tiny no""les down at the bottom of the cartridge
In8 reser"$!r B (he reservoir has to
ensure a continuous uninterrupted
supply of in' to the drivers and
no""les. *t has to prevent sloshing and
foaming as the head moves. (he in'
composition is very important 0 it has
to flow smoothly out of the reservoir
not clog the tiny holes in the impulse
drivers and no""les have enough
surface tension to avoid smearing as it
is e=ected from the no""le dry soon
enough to maintain the image and
avoid wic'ing out on the paper fibers
1which would ma'e the image fu""y2.
Inter5ace c!rc.!t and !%,.(se dr!"ers
B (he printer electronics command the driver behind each no""le independently
+-
so in a highresolution printer you Snd a lot of separate circuits. ;ach is
terminated at a connecting point on the side of the cartridge that lines up with a
corresponding pin on the print head. (he interface circuit 1a Te%ible printed
circuit2 routes these signals down to the impulse drivers and no""les at the bottom
of the cartridge.
5hen activated the impulse drivers force a small drop of in'
through the no""le 1one below each driver2 and onto the paper that!s in contact
with the head. *mpulse drivers wor' in two ways. #ome companies use a small
pie"oelectric crystal 1one that e%pands when hit with an electrical impulse2$ others
use a small ball of vapor produced by heating a poc'et of in'. 8igure shows the
effect of the driver 0 forcing a small precisely measured drop of in' down
through the no""le and onto the paper. (he operation of the drivers and no""les is
shown by comparing the leftmost no""le in 8igure with the one ne%t to it. *n the
leftmost no""le the driver isn!t activated so the surface tension of the in' 'eeps
it conSned to the no""le. *n the ne%t no""le the driver has activated e=ecting the
in' out of the no""le and onto the paper.
N$EE(es B (he no""les establish the precise position of the dots relative to one
another and form the physical interface between the print cartridge and the
paper.
(he print head positions the cartridge laterally along the paper. (he no""le spacing
positions the dots the printer puts on the paper perpendicularly to the head movement
while the printer electronics time the signals sent to the cartridge with the head motion
to position the dots laterally. (he net result is that in' =et printers 0 the modern
version of the old dot matri% technology 0 can today achieve a resolution of
)-LLX&)LL dots per inch a resolution competitive with laser printers
+.
Laser ,r!nters
Laser printers use Sne dry in' particles 1called toner2 to create an image on paper.
(his is the same process used in copiers. (he 'ey laser printer components are shown
in 8igure. (he process starts at the point between the charging roller and the
photoconductor drum. (he charging roller imposes an electrical charge on the drum
which causes it to repel the toner particles. (he drum rotates under the laser 1which
sweeps bac' and forth in lines2 and everywhere the laser illuminates the drum the
charge dissipates. (hose points attract toner from the toner roller 0 the laser
effectively draws blac' and gray areas on the drum. (he drum continues to turn
bringing the patterned toner image into contact with the paper. (he transfer roller
attracts the toner to the paper where it stic's. (he combination of the fuser roller and
the bac'up roller heat the toner bonding it to the paper and ma'ing a permanent
image.
+3
(he laser writes onto the photoconductor drum where the image should be dar' allowing
the drum to pic' up blac' toner particles.
(he laser is under the control of the
raster processor in the printer
which has the responsibility of
turning the codes sent from your
computer into a bitmap of the
image to appear on the page.
(he same arithmetic 0 counting
pi%els 0 that causes your video
card to need a lot of memory
causes your printer to need
memory as well. (he raster
processor generally can!t 'eep up
with the photoconductor drum as it
rotates and the drum can!t stop in
the middle of a page 1because the
image would end up distorted2. (hat means that the entire image has to be in memory
when the drum starts to rotate to print the page. *f we assume quarter-inch margins and
multiply out the number of pi%els on a page at 3LL dots per inch 1a typical laser printer
resolution2 we Snd that we have nearly +) million dots on an G..-&&-inch page. *f each
pi%el ta'es one bit in memory we need nearly -/: to hold the entire page 1more if we!re
storing fonts as well2.
Printers that enhance the apparent resolution of the image by controlling the dar'ness of
each dot may require even more memory 0 if the printer can store four levels of
intensity per dot it needs nearly G/:. /any printers are starting to compress the raster
image in memory decompressing it on the Ty as the laser scans the page. 9sing lossless
compression this technique can reduce memory requirements by a factor of &.. or ) to &
or more.
Oou can get laser toner in different colors besides blac' 1even for a blac'-and- white
printer2. Color laser printers use four sets of toner to create the image typically ma'ing
four passes around the photoconductor drum 1one for each color2 before imprinting the
image on the paper. :ecause the image has to be rasteri"ed separately for each color the
printer!s memory requirements go up drastically. *t!s not unusual to require +)/: in a
color laser printer 1which along with the more comple% mechanism and lower sales
volume is why they!re e%pensive2.
+E
Tr$.*(es)$$t!n&:-
Pr!nter d$es n$t )a"e ,$er !nd!cat$r
8irst ma'e sure that the printer is on. 5hen a printer is on it should have some
light 1usually green2 indicating itJs receiving power and is on.
*f you do not have any indicator light ma'e sure the printer is connected to a
wor'ing power outlet by verifying each end of the power cable. @e%t press the
printer power button.
Ca*(es n$t c$nnected ,r$,er(3
Oour printer should have two cables connected to it. (he power cable and the data
cable the power cable should have already been verified as being connected if your
printer has a power indicator light as mentioned above. /a'e sure the data cable
1parallel cable or 9#: cable2 is also connected from the printer to the computer.
Pr!nter err$r #$ran&e $r *(!n8!n& (!&)t)
After your printer has completed its initial startup you should have a solid green
light. *f the light indicator is blin'ing or orange often this is an indication of a
printer error. 8or e%ample this could indicate a paper =am issue with the in' or
toner cartridge or other serious error.
:ecause there is no standard to what a blin'ing light or orange light means if youJre
getting either of these we suggest referring to the printer documentation for
troubleshooting steps or methods of determining what the status indicator is
reporting.
N$ ,a,er $r ,a,er =a%
5ithout paper your printer will not be able to print. /a'e sure you have paper in
the paper loaded into the printer paper cartridge or tray. @e%t verify that no printer
paper is =ammed or partially fed into the printer. *f you have one or more pieces of
paper stuc' in the printer these will need to be manually removed before the printer
will print again.
In8=et ,r!nter !n8 re(ated !ss.es
7ften when youJre encountering an in' related issue youJre printer status indicator
light 1mentioned above2 should be flashing. *f this is not occurring you may want
to simply s'ip to the ne%t section. However if youJve recently inserted a new in'
cartridge you may want to try the below suggestions.
+G
&. 8irst verify the tab protecting the in' from dispersing is not still on the cartridge.
). >erify the the in' cartridges have been inserted properly.
+. *f a lever has been changed from its original position allowing the in' cartridges
to be added D removed ensure it is bac' into its original position.
-. Perform a head cleaning on printer if available.
.. >erify no software errors are occurring abd print a test page.
3. *f you are installing non manufacturer authori"ed in' attempt to use the
manufacturerJs in' instead.
E. *f any indication lights are flashing or are different refer to your printer
documentation or printer manufacturerJs web page for additional information on
what the lights are indicating.
Pr!nter se(5 tests
/ost printers have a way of printing a test page. (his page allows you to determine
if the printer is physically wor'ing or not. (his test is usually accomplished by
holding down a series of 'eys..
*n addition to testing the printer using the printer self-test /icrosoft 5indows users
can also perform a software self-test to determine if their computer is able to see
the printer and itJs able to print. 8ollow the below steps to perform this test.
M!cr$s$5t >!nd$s :6D ';;;D MED 2PD ';;+D and 0!sta .sers
&. Clic' #tart #ettings and open Control Panel.
). <ouble-clic' the Printers or Printers and 8a% icon.
+. ,ight-clic' on the Printer you wish to test and clic' Properties. *f you do not
see your printer listed your printer is not installed.
-. *n the Printers Properties window clic' the Print (est Page button.
.. *f the printer is able to print a test page youJre printer is installed and setup
properly. However if youJre unable to print in other programs itJs possible
that the program youJre attempting to print from has issues.
O(der "ers!$ns $5 >!nd$s !t) $(der ,r!nters
*f you are running an older printer and /#-<7# 5indows +.% 5indows H.
5indows HG or 5indows @( you can also attempt the below software test.
Cet t$ a MS-DOS ,r$%,t - Additional information about getting an /#-<7#
prompt can be found on document CH<7#.
+H
Cet t$ t)e r$$t d!rect$r3 - (ype cdY
Rer$.te d!r t$ ,r!nter - (ype dir > lpt1
(he above should ta'e the directory listing and print to the printer. *f this does not
print refer to your operating system troubleshooting section. ;%tra @ote: (his will
not paper feed therefore press your 88 or PP or manually e=ect the paper.
Pr!nter dr!"ers
*f your printer does not have any flashing lights and is connected properly itJs
possible you may be encountering a driver related issue. 5e suggest visiting our
printer driver listing which lin's to all ma=or printer manufacturer driver pages and
downloading the latest printer drivers for your printer.
Para((e( #LPT) ,r!nters
*f the printer youJre connecting to the computer is an LP( 1parallel port2 printer we
also suggest verifying the below suggestions if your printer is not wor'ing.
Para((e( ,$rt !n CMOS
&. ;nter the computers C/7# setup.
). 7nce in C/7# verify that your parallel port is ena*(ed or !nsta((ed.
+. @e%t verify the printer or parallel port mode. (his option will often have
several different modes. *f your parallel port is set to ;CP mode we suggest
trying a different mode.
Ot)er ,ara((e( de"!ce
*f you have a parallel printer with other parallel devices such as a parallel scanner
or "ip drive temporarily disconnect these devices to verify they are not causing
your issue.

-L
PRACTICAL:-
Aim: - Troubleshooting and Repairing of !ard "is#
"ri$e
/any technologies go into building the high-performance dis' drives we use. (hey
include the magnetic effects that pac' data onto the platters the design and construction
of the heads themselves the precision with which the platters themselves are built and
the electronics that turn small signals off the dis' heads into data for your computer.
As interesting as they are however these don!t matter from the standpoint of choosing
the dis' products you!ll put in your computer. 5hat you really care about are capacity
performance reliability and price. (he large volume of dis's manufactured and sold to
the personal computer mar'et ensures that you can base your buying decisions on actual
field e%perience not pro=ections so the underlying technology is less important than
what!s being delivered in users! machines.
<is's all use a common geometrical layout as in 8igure A (hey record data on
magneti"ed platters at precisely defined head positions. At each position each head traces
out a track as the dis' rotates. (rac's are divided into units of data called sectors that
can be individually read and written. All the trac's at a single head position collectively
form a cylinder.
Capacity is reasonably straightforward: *t!s how many gigabytes the dis' holds. Oou
have to be careful to loo' at the capacity of the drive after it!s been formatted 1which
is what most drive manufacturers specify2. (he formatting operation eats up space for
sector addresses space between sectors and the li'e and that!s space you can!t get at
or
use.
-&
<is' manufacturers most commonly specify capacity as the formatted capacity of the
drive but divide by &LLLLLLLLL to convert to gigabytes not &LE+E-&G)-
1&L)- &L)- &L)-2 as do 5indows and 9@*M. A )LL4: drive sold by the
manufacturer will report as &G3.)34: when you loo' at it through the operating
system.
<is' <rive Performance
(he most important factor in dis' drive performance is throughput on and off the dis'
as measured in your PC. (hat!s not possible for manufacturers to measure so they
specify a number of parameters you can use to estimate the performance you!ll see:
S.sta!ned t)r$.&),.t B 8or reasonably large transfers such as loading
programs from dis' or readingDwriting the swap Sle dis' performance is limited
by the sustained throughput onto or off the dis' itself. (he rotation rate of the dis'
times the number of sectors per trac' determines the sustained throughput
.
See8 and r$tat!$na( (atenc3 B 8or short transfers of data not in the dis' cache
the performance you get is determined by the time it ta'es to move the head to the
right cylinder and for the right sector to rotate under the heads. A faster rotation
rate reduces the rotational
latency.
Cac)e *.55er s!Ee B (he
cache buffer on the drive
can strongly affect the
performance you get.
Predicting the effect of
different cache si"es is
hard but you can assume
in general that a bigger
cache is better as long as
you remember this is not
always true.
(he sustained throughput in bytes per second is the number of bytes in a sector times
the number of sectors per trac' times the trac' rotations per second. (he data sheet for
the )LL4: #eagate :arracuda 1which spins at E)LL ,P/2 e%plicitly speciSes the
average sustained transfer rate listing it as greater than .G megabytes per second. (hat
-)
number is ama"ing when you consider that only a few years ago you had to e%ercise
care to get a dis' fast enough for video recording at - to G megabytes per second.
<is' manufacturers sometimes don!t specify the sustained throughput of the dis'
e%plicitly but if some other speciScations are available you can calculate it. (he
average sustained transfer rate equals the rotation rate times average sectors per trac'
times .&) bytes per sector. <is' manufacturers put more sectors on the outer trac's of
the platter 1because they!re larger and have more space2 so there!s no one number for
sectors per trac'. Oou can use the minimum number the ma%imum or the average. As
long as you compare rates you compute consistently it doesn!t matter.
8or small transfers the time to get the heads positioned over the right sector is much
larger than the time to actually transfer the data. (he drawing in 8igure : shows the
timeline for a dis' access and by the length of the segment indicates that the
positioning time can be enormously longer than the actual transfer time. (he average
see' time is commonly speciSed by the dis' manufacturer and depends on the
physical design of the heads and the actuator mechanism that mounts and moves the
heads. (he lighter 1and by implication smaller2 the heads and mechanism the faster
they can start and stop moving and the smaller the see' time will be.
(he rotational latency isn!t always speciSed but if you 'now the rotation rate you can
calculate the delay. 7n average the dis' is positioned one half of a revolution away
from the data you want in which case the average rotational latency is one half of the
rotation time. 8or a typical E)LL ,P/ drive the rotation time is about G.+ ms
1calculated as the reciprocal of the rotation rate2 so the average rotational latency is
-+
half the rotation time or about -.) ms in our e%ample. *f the average see' time is H ms
the total average access time 0 the time it ta'es from when the drive gets the
command to read to when it starts delivering data 0 is the sum of the two or &+.) ms.
Pract!ca(:- ;:
A!%: - Tr$.*(es)$$t!n& and Re,a!r!n& $5 CD-ROM dr!"e CD >r!ter/C$%*$
Dr!"e/D0D r!ter
--
(he most basic and potentially most disastrous problem that can occur with a C< or <><
drive is a stuc' tray. 5ill the tray e=ect when you press the e=ect buttonN Press it once li'e a
doorbell and then move your finger away or you may be sending it repeated open and close
commands. (he drive wonJt pop right open if it is actively playing a disc and the operating
system may be able to override the stop and open command. *f youJre trying to e=ect a music
C< or <>< using /edia Player software 1clic'ing on a software e=ect button on the screen2
-.
and it doesnJt wor' try the manual button on the drive. *f this is a newly installed drive ma'e
sure you used the short screws shipped with the drive and not longer screws which can =am the
mechanism. *f thereJs a disc in the drive that can no longer be read ma'e sure the power supply
lead is still seated in the soc'et on the bac' of the drive.
&. #hut down restart and try again. *f the tray still doesnJt e=ect reboot again and note
whether the :*7# registers the drive. #ome brand name PCs donJt report installed
hardware on a boot screen so youJll have to access C/7# #etup to chec'. *f the :*7#
doesnJt registered the drive it may have dropped dead. Proceed to A(A <rive 8ailure if
the :*7# no longer registers the drive.
). :efore you start tearing apart the machine ma'e sure that the tray isnJt loc'ed by
software. (he easiest way to chec' is to reboot the PC and hit the e=ect button before
the operating system loads but you can also chec' the properties under the drive icon
in 5indows 6/y Computer.6 *f the drive L;< shows that itJs trying to read a disc and
the e=ect button doesnJt interrupt the tas' it wonJt be able to e=ect either. #ome player
software may loc' the e=ect button in hardware but you can e=ect using the software
e=ect button on the player.
+. Assuming the drive is still registered by the :*7# and operating system you really do
have a stuc' disc. (he ne%t step is to loo' for a pinhole on the front of the C< or <><
drive. Power down the system and unplug the power cord then straighten out a couple
inches worth of paper clip the heaviest gauge that will fit in the hole. 4ently push the
paper clip straight into the hole until you feel it depress the release mechanism. (his
will sometime cause the tray to pop out a fraction of an inch other times you will have
to pry it a little to get it started. 7nce you have enough tray stic'ing out to grab it with
your fingers you should be able to pull it out. *f the faceplate seems to be bulging as
you pull the disc is hung up on it and the best thing to do is remove the drive from the
PC and then remove the faceplate. .
-. <oes the drive cause the whole PC to tremble when it spins upN *s it noisyN /a'e sure
that the drive if internal is mounted with four screws and level. High speed drives will
vibrate li'e cra"y if a disc is off balance usually because the disc itself has some
weighting problem. Aside from obvious physical flaws 1li'e the dog or the 'id too' a
bite out of the edge of the disc2 a miss-applied label can create an unbalanced disc. (ry
e=ecting and reinserting the disc. * wouldnJt 'eep running a drive that vibrates badly. *t
could end up damaging the discs 1discs have been 'nown to shatter at high speeds2 and
it doesnJt do the other components in your system any good to be vibrated which can
lead to connections wor'ing apart or worse. *f the problem only occurs with some
discs you can blame the discs. 7therwise *Jd loo' into a new drive.
.. Can you listen to music C<s through your spea'ersN (he following assumes that you
can get operating system sounds to play from your spea'ers. *f not proceed to #ound
8ailure. 8irst ma'e sure that the C< isnJt muted in the software mi%er panel. @e%t if
the drive is equipped with an audio =ac' on the front stic' in a cheap headphone 1if you
have one2 and see if the C< is playing. *n any case if the C< is spinning and the time is
advancing in whatever version of /edia Player you have installed the drive is actually
-3
playing the C<. @ewer drives support <A; 1<igital Audio ;%traction2 and some #A(A
drives donJt support the old analog audio output at all. *f you have a newer drive chec'
the <A; settings in the drive properties.
7lder drives both #A(A and PA(A required an analog patch cord inside the case. (he
audio patch cord from the drive to the sound card or the sound port on the motherboard
may not be connected or the device volume could be turned down in a software mi%er
panel. (he easy chec' for incorrect audio patch cable 1+ or - wires2 connection without
opening the PC is to try a multimedia disc such as a game. @ote also that in two drive
systems the builder may only have patched the audio output of one of the drives through to
the sound card.
3. *f you canJt play movies in your <>< that you can play on a television <>< player the
problem is usually with the software C7<;C 1CoderD<;Coder2. (est the movie on a
(> first to ma'e sure the disc is good. (he media player you are using may display a
specific error message li'e telling you the screen properties must be set to a certain
resolution and number of colors for a movie to play. 7r the player may report that it
canJt find a decoder 1C7<;C2 to play the particular disc. ;ven if the movie wor'ed last
night your media player may have received an automated update the ne%t time you
went online that rendered the installed C7<;C obsolete. *f you search the *nternet
youJll find plenty of people trying to sell you C7<;Cs but if you use 4oogle and stay
away from the advertisements you should be able to get the updated version for free.
Oou may also encounter new copy protection schemes that render some discs
unplayable on your PC even though you arenJt trying to copy them. (he only solution
for this again lays in software and *nternet research for the specific failure. *t may turn
out that the only way to render your <>< player compatible with a new type of copy
protection is to update the <>< drive firmware. *f an update isnJt available for your
particular model you can end up out of luc' when it comes to playing certain discs
from certain studios after a particular date.
E. <oes your problem involve recording C<s or <><sN *f so proceed to C<D<><
,ecording Problems. 8or a problem booting a factory C< in a recorder stay here. *tJs
become increasingly difficult to tell factory pressed C<s from recorded C<s due to the
highly polished labels that can be easily printed for recorded C<s and <><s. 8actory
produced discs are usually silver on the read surface while recorded discs are often
gold or green.
G. <oes the drive read discsN 5hen you mount a disc be it software or music does the
drive ac'nowledge that a disc is present and let you view the contentsN *t doesnJt matter
1at this point2 whether or not you can get through installing the software on the disc or
read all of the information. (he question is simply can the drive see anything at all on
the discN
H. <oes your system refuse to boot 'nown good boot C<s li'e operating systems from
5indows HG on upN (ry setting the boot sequence in C/7# #etup to boot to the C< or
<>< first. (his shouldnJt really be necessary if the hard drive is uninitiated but *Jve
seen it fi% the problem. *Jve also seen some high speed drives which ta'e too long to
-E
spin up and report to the :*7# that thereJs a bootable disc present. #ometimes you can
get around this by opening and closing the tray which should cause the drive to spin
up and hitting reset right after youJve done so. 5ith any luc' youJll get the timing right
so that the :*7# chec's for a bootable C< while the drive is still active.
&L. <o you have C< and <>< drives installedN *tJs easy enough to mi% up drives on a PC
and a C< drive isnJt going to going to have much luc' reading a <><. A C< recorder
along with a <>< player was a common two drive combination years ago but the
<>< may not be able to read C<s recorded =ust two inches away. #ee ,ecording
Problems if youJre having trouble reading a recorded disc. #ome older systems have
both a C< ,7/ 1reader2 and a C<, 1recorder2.
&&. Are you reading the right driveN *f you have two physical drives ma'e sure the
operating system is actually loo'ing at the drive the C< or <>< has been placed in.
(rust me *Jve been fooled myself into opening up a machine by blind belief in the
wrong drive letter. /ost drives have an activity L;< that tells you when the drive is
active. /a'e sure the activity L;< is lighting up on the drive you put the disc in when
you try to read it. #ee the new illustrated guide for how to install a C< drive.
&). <oes the drive read other discsN (ry another disc a factory C< in C< ,7/s or C<,s
or a factory <>< in <>< ,7/s or <><,s. *f it wor's the problem is with the media
and not the drive. /a'e sure the disc you canJt read is the right type for the drive your
are trying it in ie C< <>< C<, <><, noting that many of the recordable discs
wonJt be readable in other players. Clean the disc with a soft bit of flannel. (he discs
are plastics so donJt use solvents. #cratches can render a disc unreadable including
scratches on the surface 1label2 which cause distortions in the layer that is actually
being read from the bottom. (ry the disc in another reader before chuc'ing it out it
could =ust have trouble with the device you were trying it in.
&+. <oes the drive show up in the operating system on your des'top or in <evice /anager
in 5indows operating systemsN *f not the first step is to reinstall the driver. 4et the
latest driver from the manufacturerJs website and install it. *f you can boot an 7# C< in
the drive but the drive has disappeared from <evice /anager try reinstalling the 7#.
Chec' if thereJs a firmware update for the drive itself though flashing a drive =ust li'e
flashing a motherboard :*7# should be a last resort. ;ven though the :*7# registers
the driveJs presence you can still try swapping the ribbon cable. (he laser lens in the
drive could be incredibly dirty so if you can find an ine%pensive cleaning 'it itJs worth
a try.
&-. *f youJre using a newer #A(A <>< recorderDplayer there arenJt any =umpers to set or
cable sharing issues. *f itJs a new build ma'e sure that you donJt have the data cable
attached to a dedicated #A(A ,A*< controller. :ut the safest way to determine if
thereJs a problem with your #A(A cable or a compatibility issue with the :*7# is to
-G
try the drive in another PC or mount it in an e%ternal 9#: shell and connect it
e%ternally.
&.. Oou could have a simple cabling problem or /asterD#lave conflict. *f the drive is the
#lave on primary *<; controller with the hard drive move it to the secondary *<;
controller as the /aster 1requires another *<; ribbon cable2. *f you already have
another device installed as the secondary /aster try the drive as the secondary #lave or
temporarily replace the /aster for the sa'e of seeing if it wor's.
-H
Pract!ca(:-1;
Aim : - Troubleshooting and Repairing of Pen dri$e
A US7 5(as) dr!"e consists of a flash memory data storage device integrated with
a9#: 19niversal #erial :us2 interface. 9#: flash drives are typically removable and
rewritable and physically much smaller than a floppy dis'.
8lash memory combines a number of older technologies with lower cost lower power
consumption and small si"e made possible by advances in microprocessor technology.
(he memory storage was based on earlier ;P,7/ and ;;P,7/ technologies.
(hese had very limited capacity were very slow for both reading and
writing required comple% high-voltage drive circuitry and could
only be re-written after erasing the entire contents of the chip.

Design and implementation
7ne end of the device is fitted with a single male type-A 9#: connector. *nside the
plastic casing is a small printed circuit board. /ounted on this board is some power
circuitry and a small number of surface-mounted integrated circuits 1*Cs2. (ypically one
of these *Cs provides an interface to the 9#: port another drives the onboard memory
and the other is the flash memory.
<rives typically use the 9#: mass storage device class to communicate with the host.
Essent!a( c$%,$nents
(here are typically four parts to a flash drive:
/ale type-A 9#: connector ? provides a physical interface to the host computer.
9#: mass storage controller ? implements the 9#: host controller. (he controller
contains a small microcontroller with a small amount of on-chip ,7/ and ,A/.
@A@< flash memory chip ? stores data. @A@< flash is typically also used
in digital cameras.
Crystal oscillator ? produces the deviceJs main &) /H" cloc' signal and controls
the deviceJs data output through a phase-loc'ed loop.
.L
Add!t!$na( c$%,$nents
(he typical device may also include:
Fumpers and test pins ? for testing
during the flash driveJs manufacturing
or loading code into the
microprocessor.
L;<s ? indicate data transfers or data
reads and writes.
5rite-protect switches ? ;nable or
disable writing of data into memory.
9npopulated space ? provides space to
include a second memory chip. Having
this second space allows the manufacturer to use a single printed circuit board for
more than one storage si"e device.
9#: connector cover or cap ? reduces the ris' of damage prevents the ingress of
fluff or other contaminants and improves overall device appearance. #ome flash
drives use retractable 9#: connectors instead. 7thers have a swivel arrangement
so that the connector can be protected without removing anything.
(ransport aid ? the cap or the body often contains a hole suitable for connection to
a 'ey chain or lanyard. Connecting the cap rather than the body can allow the
drive itself to be lost.
#ome drives offer e%pandable storage via an internal memory card slot much li'e
a memory card reader
1 9#: connector
' 9#: mass storage controller device
+ (est points
- 8lash memory chip
1 Crystal oscillator
< L;<
.&
4 5rite-protect switch 17ptional2
6 #pace for second flash memory chip
File system
/ost flash drives ship preformatted with the 8A( or 8A( +) file system. (he ubiquity of
this file system allows the drive to be accessed on virtually any host device with 9#:
support. Also standard 8A( maintenance utilities 1e.g. #candis'2 can be used to repair or
retrieve corrupted. However because a flash drive appears as a 9#:-connected hard
drive to the host system the drive can be reformatted to any file system supported by the
host operating system.
Defragmenting: 8lash drives can be defragmented but this brings little advantage as
there is no mechanical head that moves from fragment to fragment. 8lash drives often
have a large internal sector si"e so defragmenting means accessing fewer sectors.
<efragmenting shortens the life of the drive by ma'ing many unnecessary writes.
Z&G[
Even Distribution: #ome file systems are designed to distribute usage over an entire
memory device without concentrating usage on any part 1e.g. for a directory2$ this even
distribution prolongs the life of simple flash memory devices. #ome 9#: flash drives
have this functionalitybuilt into the software controller to prolong device life while
others do not$ therefore the end user should chec' the specifications of his device prior to
changing the file system for this reason.
Hard Drive: #ectors are .&) bytes long for compatibility with hard drives and the first
sector can contain a /aster :oot ,ecord and a partition table. (herefore 9#: flash units
can be partitioned as hard drives.
Troubleshooting and Repairing: -
.)
1. Computer Does Not Detect Pen Drive:
This kind of problem is faced due to some bad registry settings. After you fix up the registry,
the USB drive will work fine. To fix this issue
Method 1:
This could be due to no free drive letter has been assigned to your pen drive.
Still, if you dont see your pen drive under device manager or if you see some !uestion mark
suddenly on your drive in device manager then there could be problem with your registry
also,
Read method 2 given below
Method 2:
"f none of your USB devices detect ,this could be due to wrong registry entries. i.e you need to
deleteUpperFilters and the owerFilters registry values.
#ollow the procedure listed below to correct your registry$
%. &pen !tart "" Run, and type 'regedit' (without double !uotes), and click #$.
*. +ocate UpperFilters registry value. it resides in the following registry subkey$
%$&'(#C)(M)C%*N&+!'!,&M+CurrentControl!et+Control+Class+
-.D/0&1234&/25411C&46FC14323326&13/127
,. -lick on &dit menu, and select Delete and click #$.
Note: "f you receive an error when you try to delete the registry subkey, you may not have
correct permissions to edit the subkey.
.. +ocate owerFilters registry value. "t resides in the following registry subkey$
%$&'(#C)(M)C%*N&+!'!,&M+CurrentControl!et+Control+Class+
-.D/0&1084&/25411C&46FC14323326&13/127
/. -lick on &dit menu, and select Delete and click #$.
0. 1xit 2egistry 1ditor and restart your system.
Pen Drive or U!6 Mass storage device disabled at o99ice or college or
school:
At many offices and colleges, the "T people disable or block the use of pen drives.
To enable the USB drive when it is blocked
.+
3e have observed this problem at may places
that you need some data on your pen drive
but the USB drive or pen drive does not work.
3indows gives a notification
3indows will now show a 4ew 5ardware 3i6ard to install the drivers. +ets see in
details how we can fix this problem.
Fi::
There are more than one ways in which the USB drives are disabled by
Administrators at offices or colleges or schools. These methods are$
%. By 7isabling USB 8orts from 7evice 9anager.
*. By Tweaking 2egistry values for USB 9ass Storage 7evices.
,. By Un:installing the USB 9ass Storage 7rivers.

3e will see how to fix all these
situations one by one. But
before you begin, you must
have administrator rights on
that computer to fix the issue.
UNLOCK USB PORTS
FROM DEVICE
MANAGER:
i) ;o to Start < 2un, in run
prompt type =devmgmt.msc>
and press enter. This will
open device manager.
.-
ii) ;o to Universal Serial bus -ontroller. See if there are any red colored cross? "f
yes, right click and enable those USB 8orts.
4ow try and use the pendrive. "f it works fine, then great, else read the next two
steps also.
CORRECT REGISTRY VALUE FOR USB MASS STORAGE
DEVICE
i) ;o to Start < 2un , type =regedit; and press enter, this will open registry
editor.
ii) 4avigate to the key
%$&'(#C)(M)C%*N&+!'!,&M+CurrentControl!et+!ervices+U!
6!,#R
iii) 7ouble:click on the <!tart; key to modify
its value, change the value to , and press &@.
4ow remove and connect the pen drive
again, it should work fine, if it does not, then
it means the drivers are missing. #ollow the
steps below to solve the issue.
INSTALL USB MASS STORAGE
DEVICE DRIVERS
"n case the USB 9ass Storage drivers are not installed, windows will prompt you
to install the driver. "n such a case, windows will launch 5ardware Update
3i6ard. "f you have USB 9ass storage drivers, you can install it and restart the
computer, it should work. "f not, you can download the USB 9ass Storage drivers
here. 7ownload and u6nip the driver files on your desktop.
i) "n hardware update
wi6ard, select the option to
install the driver from a
specific location and click
next.
..
ii) 4ow on this screen, click browse and select the path on which you have un:
6ipped the drivers and press ok.
Pract!ca(:-11
Aim: - Troubleshooting and Repairing of Spea#er and
%eb camera&
Spea#er
Computer speakers, or multimedia
speakers, are speakers external to a
computer, that disable the lower fidelity
built-in speaker. They often have a low-
power internal amplifier. The standard
audio connection is a 3.5 mm
(approximately 1! inch" stereo #ack
plu$ often colour-coded lime $reen
(followin$ the %& ''standard" for
computer sound cards. ( plu$ and socket for a two-wire (si$nal and $round"
coaxial cable that is widely used to connect analo$ audio and video components.
(lso called a )phono connector,) rows of *&( sockets are found on the backs of
stereo amplifier and numerous (+ products. The pron$ is 1!) thick by 51,)
lon$. ( few use an *&( connector for input. There are also -./ speakers which
are powered from the 5 volts at 500 milliamps provided by the -./ port, allowin$
about 1.5 watts of output power.
&omputer speakers ran$e widely in 2uality and in price. The computer speakers
typically packa$ed with computer systems are small, plastic, and have mediocre
sound 2uality. .ome computer speakers have e2uali3ation features such as bass
and treble controls.
The internal amplifiers re2uire an external power source, usually an (& adapter.
4ore sophisticated computer speakers can have a 5subwoofer5 unit, to enhance
bass output, and these units usually include the power amplifiers both for the
bass speaker, and the small 5satellite5 speakers.
.3
.ome computer displays have rather basic speakers built-in. 6aptops come with
inte$rated speakers. *estricted space available in laptops means these speakers
usually produce low-2uality sound.
7or some users, a lead connectin$ computer sound output to an existin$ stereo
system is practical. This normally yields much better results than small low-cost
computer speakers. &omputer speakers can also serve as an economy amplifier
for 4%3 player use for those who wish to not use headphones althou$h some
models of computer speakers have headphone #acks of their own.
Troubleshooting and Repairing of Spea#er
Make sure your speakers are plugged in, turned on, and properly
connected to the computer.
Plug the speakers in to another computer, if possible. 8f the speakers
work with the other computer, proceed to the next step. 8f they don5t,
you5ve probably $ot a problem within the speakers themselves.
Check your sound drivers.
o 9pen your start menu (ri$ht-click on the ).tart) button and choose
):xplore)", and find the )4y &omputer) icon. *i$ht-click on it and
choose )%roperties) from the submenu. &lick on the );ardware) tab
and then the )<evice 4ana$er) button.
.E
o :xpand the ).ounds, video, and $ame controllers) headin$ to find
your sound card. The name will depend on what sound card is
installed on your %&. 8t will most likely have a name containin$
)audio.) 8t should look somethin$ similar to the example above.
=ou5ll know immediately if there is a ma#or driver error because an
exclamation point (>" will show over the card5s icon.
o <ouble-click on the name of the sound card to open a new window.
8n the new properties window click on the )<rivers) tab. 8f there is
no )<rivers) tab then you chose the wron$ sound device. ?o back
and try a$ain. 9n the )<rivers) tab, click the )<river -pdate) button.
7ollow the @i3ard5s onscreen instructions to update your driver. =ou
can also contact the manufacturer of your %& for the most recent
audio drivers. They can usually be found online.
o 8f you already have the most recent driver, click the )-ninstall
<river) button. Then restart your computer. @hen you restart your
computer, the driver should reinstall automatically. 8f it does not,
install it manually with software (or a download" from the
manufacturer.
Check the sound card itself. %roperly shut down your %&
and then disconnect all cables on the back of your %&, includin$ the power
cable. 9pen up the &%-, makin$ sure to touch a $rounded metal ob#ect (a
doorknob or metal desk will work, for example" before openin$ up the case.
This will dischar$e any static electricity you have built up, which could
dama$e your computer.
.G
o 6ocate the audio plu$ on the back of your %&. The sound card
should be in the correspondin$ location on the inside of the %&.
*emove the sound card and put it back in. The 4icrosoft site has
detailed directions for installin$ a sound cardA to remove one, simply do
the reverse. 9nce you have the sound card back in, reattach the
cables you unplu$$ed earlier and boot your %&.
%eb camera
( webcam is a video camera which feeds its
ima$es in real time to a computer or computer
network, often via -./, ethernet or @i-7i.
Their most popular use is the establishment of video
links, permittin$ computers to act
asvideophones or videoconference stations. This
common use as a video camera for the @orld @ide
@eb $ave the webcam its name. 9ther popular
uses include security surveillance andcomputer vision.
@ebcams are known for their low manufacturin$ cost and flexibility,makin$ them
the lowest cost form of videotelephony. They have also become a source of
security and privacy issues, as some built-in webcams can be remotely activated
via spyware.
Technology
@ebcams typically include a lens, an ima$e sensor, and some support
electronics. +arious lenses are available, the most common in consumer-$rade
webcams bein$ a plastic lens that can be screwed in and out to set the camera5s
focus. 7ixed focus lenses, which have no provision for ad#ustment, are also
available. (s a camera system5s depth of field is $reater for small ima$er formats
and is $reater for lenses with a lar$e f-number (small aperture", the systems
used in webcams have sufficiently lar$e depth of field that the use of a fixed
focus lens does not impact ima$e sharpness much. 8ma$e sensors can
be &49. or &&<, the former bein$ dominant for low-cost cameras, but &&<
cameras do not necessarily outperform &49.-based cameras in the low cost
.H
price ran$e. 4ost consumer webcams are capable of providin$ +?(-resolution
video at aframe rate of 30 frames per second. 4any newer devices can produce
video in multi-me$apixelresolutions, and a few can run at hi$h frame rates such
as the %lay.tation :ye, which can produce 310B1C0 video at 110 frames per
second.
.upport electronics are present to read the ima$e from the sensor and transmit it
to the host computer. The camera pictured to the ri$ht, for example, uses a .onix
.D'&101 to transmit its ima$e over -./. .ome cameras, such as mobile phone
cameras, use a &49. sensor with supportin$ electronics )on die), i.e. the
sensor and the support electronics are built on a sin$lesilicon chip to save space
and manufacturin$ costs. 4ost webcams feature built-in microphonesto
make video callin$ and videoconferencin$ more convenient.
The -./ video device class (-+&" specification allows for interconnectivity of
webcams to computers even without proprietary drivers installed.
4icrosoft @indows E% .%1, 6inux
F10G
and4ac 9. E (since 9ctober 1005" have
-+& drivers built in and do not re2uire extra drivers, althou$h they are often
installed in order to add additional features.
Tr$.*(es)$$t!n& and Re,a!r!n& $5 >e* ca%era
/a'e sure your webcam is firmly plugged into a free and wor'ing 9#: port on
your computer. *f your computer isnJt recogni"ing your webcam try plugging it
into a different 9#: port or a different computer altogether. *f it wor's in a
different port or on a different computer the 9#: port you were trying to use is
not functioning.
:nsure that you have installed any necessary software. 9ften webcams
will come packa$ed alon$ with a &<-*94 filled with necessary software
like drivers. This software is re2uired for your webcam to work with
@indows E%. 8nstall any software that may be re2uired and restart your
computer.
3L
&onfirm that the pro$ram you are attemptin$ to use your webcam with
supports it and is confi$ured properly. -sin$ a webcam with a pro$ram like
=ahoo> 4essen$er doesn5t #ust automatically work. ?o into the settin$s of
the pro$ram and make sure it is confi$ured properly to work in con#unction
with a webcam.
4ake sure @indows E% is updated with the newest software and drivers.
&lick on the ).tart) menu and then the )@indows -pdate) icon to
download and install the newest possible updates for @indows. @ithout
these updates certain external devices, like webcams, may not work


3&