Introduction To Mass Communication

INTRODUCTION TO MASS
COMMUNICATION
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Contents
UNIT 1-MASS COMMUNICATION
Objectives, Introduction, Meaning of Mass Communication, 3-25
Elements of Mass Communication, Different types of Media of
Mass Communication, Importance & Need of Mass Communication,
Summary, Exercises and Questions, Further Reading
UNIT 2-MODELS OF MASS COMMUNICATION 26-39

Objectives, Introduction, Models of Mass Communication,
Lazarfield Two Step flow, Dependency model, Agenda Setting &
Effect Model, Model of Gate Keeping, Summary, Exercises and Questions,
Further Reading
UNIT 3-THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION 39-47

Objectives, Introduction, Theories of Mass Communication, Authoritarian
Theory, Libertarian theory, Social Responsibility, Soviet Media,
Development Communication, Democratization Theory, Summary,
Exercises and Questions, Further Reading
UNIT 4-COMMUNICATION V/S

MASS COMMUNICATION 48-67
Unit Objectives, Meaning & Importance of Communication and
Mass Communication, Functions of Communication and Mass
Communication, Elements & Kinds, Summary, Exercises and Questions
Further Reading
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UNIT 1-MASS COMMUNICATION
Structure
1.0 Unit Objectives

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of Mass Communication
1.3 Elements of Mass Communication
1.4 Different types of Media of Mass Communication
1.4.1 Newspaper1.4.2 Magazine1.4.3 Books1.4.4 Radio1.4.5
Television 1.4 .6 Films 1.4.7 Computer
1.5 Importance & Need of Mass Communication
1.5.1 Functions of Mass Communication 1.5.2 Importance of Mass Communication
1.6 Summary
1.7 Exercises and Questions
1.8 Further Reading
1.0 UNIT OBJECTIVES
• To understand the meaning of Mass Communication

• To discuss the elements involved in Mass Communication
• To study the importance of Mass Communication
• To study the features of different media of Mass Communication
• To know the need for Mass communication
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Mass Communication involves communication with the mass audiences and hence
the name Mass Communication. When we are thinking, it is intra-personal
communication, when there is face-to-face conversation between two people it is
interpersonal communication, college lecture or speech would be an example of
group communication, but there is another level of communication when we read
newspapers, magazines, listen to Radio or watch TV. This would be called ‘Mass
communication’ as the message is reached to the masses through different media.
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1.2 MEANING OF MASS COMMUNICATION
Mass Communication is defined as ‘ any mechanical device that multiples

messages and takes it to a large number of people simultaneously’. Face to face
conversation is called interpersonal communication, a college lecture or a public
speech will be examples of group communication, when we are involved in
thinking process, it is intra-personal communication. In addition to all these types
of communication we also indulge in yet another level of communication when we
read newspapers, magazines or books, listen to radio or watch TV. As the message
is communicated to a very large number of people or to a mass of people, it is
called Mass communication.
Mass communication is unique and different from interpersonal communication as

it is a special kind of communication in which the nature of the audience and the
feedback is different from that of interpersonal communication.
Mass communication is the term used to describe the academic study of

various means by which individuals and entities relay information to large
segments of the population all at once through mass media.
Both mass communication and mass media are generally considered synonymous
for the sake of convenience. The media through which messages are being
transmitted include radio, TV, newspapers, magazines, films, records, tape
recorders, video cassette recorders, internet, etc. and require large organizations
and electronic devices to put across the message. Mass communication is a special
kind of communication in which the nature of the audience and the feedback is
different from that of interpersonal communication.
Mass communication can also be defined as ‘a process whereby mass produced

messages are transmitted to large, anonymous and heterogeneous masses of
receivers’. By ‘mass produced’ we mean putting the content or message of mass
communication in a form suitable to be distributed to large masses of people.
‘Heterogeneous’ means that the individual members of the mass are from a wide
variety of classes of the society. ‘Anonymous ’ means the individuals in the mass
do not know each other. The source or sender of message in mass communication
does not know the individual members of the mass. Also the receivers in mass
communication are physically separated from each other and share no physical
proximity. Finally, the individual members forming a mass are not united. They
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have no social organization and no customs and traditions, no established sets of
rules, no structure or status role and no established leadership.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.Define ‘Mass Communication’?
Q2.Can you call a lecture delivered in your classroom to be communicated through
mass communication? Give reason.
1.3 ELEMENTS OF MASS COMMUNICATION
We require a sender, a message, a channel and a receiver for communication to

occur. Further there is feedback, which is the response or reaction of the receiver,
which comes back to the sender through the same or some other channel. Another
element, which plays an important role in communication, is noise or the
disturbances. It is observed that the term mass communication must have at least
five aspects:
• Large audience
• Fairly undifferentiated audience composition
• Some form of message reproduction
• Rapid distribution and delivery
• Low cost to the consumers
Source – Source or sender of the message may become same or different. Source
mostly represents the institution or organization where the idea has been started. In
case of source and the sender being different, the sender belongs to media
institution or is a professional in media communication. Thus, a scientist or a
technologist may use the mass communication media himself for propagating his
idea. Or else, they can send the script of the message to the media for delivering
the message by an announcer or a reporter.
Message- A message needs reproduction for making it communicable through the

media. The message is processed and put to various forms like talk, discussion
interview, documentary, play, etc. in case of radio and TV. In case of newspapers,
the message is processed by means of article, feature, news story, etc.
Channel- The term channel and media are used interchangeably in mass
communication. Modern mass media like radio, television; newspapers spread the
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message with enormous speed far and wide. The ability of mass communication to
encompass vast boundaries of space is expressed by Mc Luhan’s term ‘ global
village’. The term expresses that the world is smaller that before due to advances
in mass communication. More information is coming faster, at cheaper rates per
unit, from farther away and from more sources through more channels including
multimedia channels with more varied subject matter. Channels of mass
communication can be classified into two broad categories:
1. Print-newspapers, books, magazines, pamphlets, etc.

2. Electronic-radio, television, cinema.
There is also a third category which include all traditional media like folk dance,
drama, folk songs and so on. The mass media may also be categorized according to
their ability to provide sensory inputs. Thus, visual media are newspapers,
magazines, books, still photographs, paintings, etc. The audio medium is radio and
audio-visual media are television, motion pictures, drama, etc. Audio-visual media
are more efficient than either audio or visual.
Receiver –Mass communication means communication to the mass, so there

remains mass of individuals at the receiver end of the communication. This mass
of receivers, are often called as mass audience. Mass audience can be defined as
‘individuals united by a common focus of interest (to be informed, educated or
entertained) engaging in identical behavior towards common ends (listening,
viewing or reading)’. Yet the individuals involved are unknown to one other
(anonymous) . The most outstanding characteristic of the mass communication is
that it has a widespread audience separated from the source by a considerable
distance. Mass communication has an enormous ability to multiply a message and
make it available in many places. The greatest advantage of this mode of
communication is the rapid spread of message to a sizeable audience remaining
scattered far and wide and thus cost of exposure per individual is lowest.
Feedback- Mass communication will have indirect feedback. A source having

communicated a message regarding family planning through radio, television or
print either has to depend on indirect means like survey of audience reaction,
letters and telephone calls from audience members, review of the programme by
columnists to know the reaction of audience to the message. Direct feedback which
is possible in interpersonal and to a limited extent in group communication, is
almost absent in the mass communication.
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Gate keeping-This is again a characteristic unique to mass communication. The
enormous scope of mass communication demands some control over the selection
and editing of the messages that are constantly transmitted to the mass audience.
Both individuals and organizations do gate keeping. Whether done by individuals
or organizations, gate keeping involves setting certain standards and limitations
that serve as guidelines for both content development and delivery of a mass
communication message.
Noise- Noise in mass communication is of two types-channel noise and semantic

noise. Channel noise is any disturbance within transmission aspects of media. In
print media, channel noise will be misspellings, scrambled words, omitted lines or
misprinting. Any type of mechanical failure stops the message from reaching the
audience in its original form. Semantic noise will include language barriers,
difference in education level, socio-economic status, occupation, age, experience
and interests between the source and the audience members. One way of solving
the problem of semantic noise is to use simplicity and commonality.
Characteristics of Mass communication:
1. Directs messages toward relatively large, heterogeneous and anonymous

audience.
2. Messages are transmitted publicly (no privacy).
3. Short duration message for immediate consumption
4. Feedback is indirect, non-existent or delayed
5. Cost per exposure per individual is minimum
6. Source belongs to organization or institutions
7. Mostly one way
8. Involves good deal of selection that is, medium chooses its audience
(newspaper for literates) and audience choose media (poor, illiterates select
radio)
9. There is need for fewer media to reach vast and widespread audience
because of wide reach of each
10.Communication is done by social institutions which are responsive to the
environment in which they operate
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1. Watch for different communications going around you and identify the
elements of communications in those processes.
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1.4 DIFFERENT MEDIA OF MASS COMMUNICATION
There are different media involved in the process of mass communication. They
reach every corner of the world and are very powerful. They invade even the
privacy of our bedrooms. They inform, educate, entertain and persuade. They also
help in the transmission of culture and perform the job of surveillance of the
society. They are the mass media. The prominent ones, which have become
household names are newspapers, magazines, books, radio, film, television, and
more recently, satellite TV and cable TV. Mass media is broadly divided into print
media and electronic media. While the print media are the oldest, having a history
of about five hundred years, the electronic media are products of the 20th century
technological revolution.
1.4.1 The Newspaper

‘Those who do not read the newspaper are uninformed and those who do read
the newspaper are misinformed’--Mark Twain.
It is the printed means of conveying current information. The modern newspaper is

a combination of elements from many societies and many periods of time. Even
before the birth of Christ the Romans posted newssheets called ‘acta diurna’ in
public places. The Chinese and Koreans were using wood-carved type and paper
for printing several centuries before these appeared in Europe. In the sixteenth
century, well after printing had come to Europe, the Venetian government printed a
small newssheet, which could be purchased for a gazeta (a small coin). The use of
the word ‘gazette’ to refer to newspapers has survived to this day. Scholars of the
history of journalism suggest that many features of the modern newspaper such as
the editorial, sport articles, illustrations, political columns, and even comics, were
used in one place or another long before the true mass press came into being.
History of Newspaper
Although printing was introduced to England in the late 1400, it was not until
1621, nearly a century and a half later that early forerunners of the newspaper
began to appear. These were called ‘corantos’. Their content focused on foreign
intelligence, and they were not published regularly. From the beginning the
publication of corantos was strongly regulated by the government. One of the
interesting patterns discernible in the history of press was that the greater the extent
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to which a form of government is actually dependent upon favorable public
opinion, the more likely it is to support a free press. When the common people play
significant roles in the determination of their own political destiny, the distribution
of news and political opinions is an important process.
The American and the French revolutions began germinating and the whole fabric
of western society was changing. Old pattern was slowly being replaced by a new
social structure within which a strong middle class would be prominent. This
commercialism was dependent upon improvement in the availability of various
kinds of communication media. England had many skilled writers and journalists
like Addison, Steele, and Daniel Defoe. The colonial press was edited and
published by people who were not great literary figures. They were still using the
same printing technology used by Guttenberg, the first person to discover printing
procedure three centuries ago. Before a true mass press could develop, a series of
sweeping social changes was necessary in the society. A number of printers and
publishers had experimented with the idea of a cheap newspaper that could be sold
to urban population.
Various approaches to this problem were tried both in England and in the United
States, but without success. It remained for an obscure New York printer,
Benjamin H.Day, to find a successful formula. His little paper, the New York Sun,
began modestly enough on September 3, 1833; with the motto ‘ It shines for
ALL’. As subsequent events proved, it did indeed shine for all. Benjamin H.Day
had begun a new era in journalism that within a few years would revolutionize
newspaper publishing. The Sun attracted its impressive circulation primarily by
appealing to new readers who had not previously been reached by a newspaper.
The newspaper had redefinition of ‘news’ to fit the tastes, interests, and reading
skills of the less-educated level of society.
Up to that time, ‘news’ generally meant reports on social, commercial, or political

events of genuine importance, but Benjamin Day, however, filled the paper with
news of another sort-news the people in the street found exciting, catastrophe,
disaster, crime, amusement, etc. the paper was vulgar, cheap, and sensational and
aimed at new literate masses. By 1837 the Sun was distributing 30,000 copies
daily, more than the combined total of all New York daily papers. Imitators of Day
had started rival papers almost immediately. This penny press was successful
because it had great appeal for advertisers.
More and more newspapers began to seek out the news. The role of reporter grew
more complex and specialized as papers added foreign correspondents and special
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news gatherers of various kinds. Reporters were sent to the scene of battles. The
‘surveillance’ function of the press became well established. The rising demand
for fresh news was met by newly formed cooperative news gathering agencies,
which made use of the telegraph wires. Printing technology was making rapid
strides, moving toward ever-increasing automation. Revolving presses, with print
cast in a solid metal stereotype, became capable of rolling out 10,000 and even
20,000 sheets and hour.
Papers continued to gain in popularity. In 1850 there were about two copies of a
daily newspaper purchased in the United States for every ten families. This rapid
growth actually continued until about the time of World War I. The last decade of
the 19th century is one of special significance in the growth of the press because it
was the beginning of new kind of journalism. ‘Yellow journalism’ was one of the
most dramatic episodes in the development of press.
Within this competitive context, brutal struggles for additional readers developed
between the leaders of giant rival papers. They would fight by any means available
to expand their circulation figures, which were, of course the key to increased
advertising revenue and profits. Various features, devices, gimmicks, styles, and
experiments were tried by each side to make its paper more appealing to the mass
of readers.
Newspapers today contain many of the devices that were actually products of the
rivalries of the 1890s (one of these was color comics, an early comic character was
called the ‘Yellow Kidd’ from which ‘Yellow journalism’ is said to derive its
name.) Yellow journalism is a pejorative reference to journalism that features
scandal-mongering, sensationalism, jingoism or other unethical or unprofessional
practices by news media organizations or individual journalists.
Intellectuals in general were deeply wounded by yellow journalism. According to

them the great new means of communication, which held forth the tantalizing
potential of mass cultural and moral upliftment, was turning to be societal
degeneration.
Leaders in religion, education, law and government increasingly voiced strong

protests. The press lords were faced with the threat of losing public confidence.
These considerations led a number of major publishers to begin to put their own
houses in order. Resolution of the conflicts brought new social arrangements.
Gradually, the press became less sensational and more responsible. A set of codes
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and norms defining its limits and responsibilities gradually became increasingly
clear.
While the mass press today varies in its degree of such strict codes, the excesses of
the yellow journalism is a thing of the past. Today, the newspaper is regularly
published printed unbounded newsprint in broadsheet or tabloid size and serves
general interests of specific communities with news, comments, features,
photographs and advertisements.
Future of Newspaper
Newspaper will undoubtedly survive with some further reduction of market share.
Few changes in literacy or other factors related to potential increases in readership
are probably in the immediate future. Newspaper publication houses today have
features all modern features like Internet; four color offset printing, electronic
newsrooms and many such gadgets.
The future newspaper could be a tablet newspaper having liquid crystal (LCD)
screen in which the contents could be collected through telephone lines or cables.
Everything could be displayed on the screen at the click of a button. Another major
development could be that newspaper could be customized, and people will get to
read only the things, which interests them. This way the readers will exercise a lot
of control on the contents of the newspaper. But only few people will get access to
such electronic newspaper.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.Who discovered printing?
Q2.List some important functions of the Newspaper?
Q3.What is ‘yellow journalism’? How did this term originate?
1.4.2 The Magazine
Magazine means a ‘store house’ and thus has a variety of contents in it. Magazines
have specific well-defined readers and thus advertiser can reach specific target
people through it more effectively. The magazines are dependent on advertising
and try to reach particular segments of men, women, film lovers, young generation,
etc through it. We also have trade and business magazines for people in such
professions.
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Newspapers, private publishing houses, societies, educational institutions or some
religious organizations may publish magazines. Even some government
department and political parties publish their regular magazines. Magazines are
published weekly, fortnightly, monthly, half yearly and even yearly. One of the
earliest magazines known was the Journal des Scavans founded in Paris in 1665
and initially it carried abstracts of books.
The golden age for magazines in America came in the late half of the 19 th century
during which channels of distribution were created as transmission network
developed. Paper pulp was now cheaper; the printing processes were improved and
invention of linotype facilitated automatic typesetting. Yet another advancement
was better photographic reproduction.
Today, we have magazines for every topic under the sun like, beauty and fashion,
business and commerce, art and craft, education and career, health and grooming,
photography, automobiles, electronics, science and technology, etc. magazines do
play an important role in information, education, and offer variety of subjects for
entertainment of its specific target readership.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.Name the earliest magazine and what did it publish in it?
1.4.3 The Books
Unlike newspapers and television, the audience size of books is very limited. But
still books are considered to be credible mass medium because of their association
with education system. Books rate as an important mass medium because of the
credibility factor. Books are credible because of their association with formal
education and because they are durable and long lasting. Some books, which were
printed several hundred years age, are still in existence.
History of Books- History of books dates back to the time when there was no
paper and no printing press. Books in those early days were mostly made of thin
sheets of barks from trees or palm leaf, etc. Around 2500 BC, the Egyptians
discovered a method of making paper from Papyrus. This made writing much
easier with the help of brush and ink. The next big step came in the middle part of
the 15th century. In 1450, Johann Guttenberg invented the printing press and was
the first person to print a book using mechanical printing process. This book was
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the 42 -line Mazarin Bible and was published in 1456. This marked the beginning
of the era of Mass communication.
Growth and development in book publishing some what stagnated in the first half
of the 20th century. The reasons being the two World Wars and the stock market
crash. The period immediately after World War II saw the emergence of many
publication houses bringing out pocket books. These included Penguin Books,
Avon Books, etc.
Books sold to general consumers through bookshops are called trade books.
Paperbacks are sold through both bookstores and newsstands. Textbooks are for
the elementary, high school and college students. Professional or scholarly books
are meant for university students and experts. Books enjoy ‘freedom of content’
and cover all the topics and subjects and thus are striving well in present times.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.Which book did Johann Guttenberg print and in which year?
1.4.4 The Radio
Guglielmo Marconi of Italy invented a way to transmit sound without using wires.
By 1901, Marconi succeeded in creating a wireless communication link between
Europe and North America. In 1906, Lee Forest with John Fleming perfected the
‘audion’ or the vacuum tube, which made clear transmission of voice and music
possible. These developments paved the way for the first ever broadcast that took
place on Christmas Eve, in 1906 in USA. Later it took ten years of hard work to
perfect the radio.
Radio established its place very fast in the minds of listeners. Heavy doses of
infotainment including music, drama, talk shows, etc supplemented with news
made radio popular overnight. Soon radio industry developed wide spreading
networks and by the 1930’s radio became prime mass medium. Radio broadcasting
was introduced in India by amateur radio clubs in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and
Lahore, though even before the clubs launched their ventures, several experimental
broadcasts were conducted in Bombay.
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Radio programmes may be classified into two broad groups:
1. Spoken word programmes, which include news bulletins, talks, discussions,

interviews, educational programmes for schools and colleges, specific
audience programmes directed at women, children, rural and urban listeners,
drama, radio features and documentaries.
2. Music programmes, which include disc jockey programmes, musical
performances of all types and variety programmes.
Strength of the Radio
1. Radio reaches messages to illiterates, neo-literates and highly educated

receivers simultaneously.
2. It is a fairly affordable to be owed by everyone.
3. The want of visual effect is compensated by sound effects, both natural and
mechanical and so live effect is moderately high. The quality of voice and
sound makes the communication fairly enjoyable.
4. Musical sound effect enlivens the communication and often breaks
monotony.
5. It has the capacity to deliver instantaneous messages.
6. Radio does not require captivity. Listeners can receive messages even when
they are working. Farmer may listen to farm programmes while working in
fields, a busy executive may listen to news bulletin even while driving or a
housewife may listen to her favorite programme even while working in the
kitchen.
7. Radio does not require power line for operation and so people in remote
villages devoid of power lines can also receive messages from this medium.
8. Once a transistor radio is purchased, messages flow constantly and no cost is
involved for reception of messages.
Weakness of the Radio
1. Communication through radio lacks visual component and so does not

demonstrate but suggests.
2. Spoken messages are subject to interpretation of listeners according to their
imagination, experience and predisposition; hence possibility of
misinterpretation is very high.
3. Listeners need lot of imagination and therefore understanding of message
depends largely on the characteristics of the receivers.
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4. Communication is time limited and presents tiny fragments of topics in a
haphazard mosaic. The medium has also limitations because of its audio
nature.
5. Receivers cannot put off listening parts of message for subsequent listening
at their convenience.
Future of Radio
Radio’s future is a mystery. It is not easy to predict the future of radio. The future
of radio would depend on changing regulatory scenarios, technological
developments and change of listener’s appeal. Radio’s current localization and
specialized programming will continue. Technologically, radio transmission will
improve greatly. FM will continue to grow faster and bigger.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.Give two strength and two weaknesses of the radio?
1.4.5 Television
Unlike other forms of mass media, television has become one of the most powerful
media of Mass communication. With a modest beginning in the 1930s, it has
grown into a massive network of mass information and mass entertainment in
today’s world. The attraction of the ‘ visual ness’ of the medium makes people
remain glued to the TV set for hours. Television captures our imagination and is
the most complete and dramatic of all mass media. In addition to providing news
and events, television also packages fiction, drama, culture, economy and many
other things. Thus, this idiot box (because it provides everything on a platter and
we need not do any thinking) has been increasing its hold on us.
History of Television
The inventions and discoveries in the late 1990s and early twentieth century, which
gave us radio, films and the telephone, also lead to the invention of the television.
Vladimir Zworykin, an American scientist, who developed an all-electronic
television system in 1923 and perfected it by 1928, took the first big step in the
development of TV. However, only experimental TV broadcasts were conducted in
the early days. In 1938, TV sets became widely available and since then there is no
looking back. In India, television arrived with small scale experimental telecasting
from Delhi in 1959. Slowly the half hour programme experiment grew. While
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Doordarshan was the only channel available through 1980, the TV in India has
completely changed with the arrival of private TV channels.
Strength and weakness of Television
It has all the strength of radio except that it needs captive audience, has not
attained portability and miniaturization and needs power line for inexpensive
working. TV viewing is essentially a family affair and so helps family unity. It is
far from slow and availability is constant. Repetition of message does not incur
expense except nominal fees for cable connections. Television like radio, is in all
sense a ‘now’ medium.
Television gives cursory overview of the events and is never capable of providing
in-depth analysis and reporting. It is severely time limited and presents tiny
fragments of topics. Television programmes skip and jumps demands constant
change of mental gears from programmes to commercial, from documentary to
cartoon and news. Also contents are high in entertainment and low in information.
Power line is needed for its inexpensive operation and battery operated television
sets are most expensive.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.Which American scientist developed the first ever television?
1.4.6 Films
Films refer to all documentary, educational, feature, informational and

advertisement cinemas. A film is considered a mass medium because it reaches to
a very large audience. It is not as immediate as newspaper, television or radio, but
reach a large number of people over a long period of time. Film does not have a
well-defined audience like other major mass media. It also lacks the overwhelming
presence as enjoyed by radio, TV and newspapers, etc. but still it has one very big
advantage that is it commands attention. Once inside the darkened theatres,
audience members forget the outside world and become captive to the charm of the
film. The larger than life format of film (from 16mm, 35mm, 70mm, cinema scope
to the most recent I-max format) provides the film producer absolute control over
emphasis, order of presentation, continuity, dramatic effect and timing. Thus film
has become a superb medium of entertainment, instruction and persuasion.
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History of Films
When individual photographs or visuals are shown one after the other at a very fast
rate, then we get an illusion of motion or movement. Cinema works on the
principles of ‘persistence of vision’, which means that the eye retains an image for
fleeting seconds after it is gone. Efforts had started very early to create illusion of
motion. Many devices were invented for this purpose. Long back Leonardo da
Vinci developed the camera obscura. In 1671, Kircher developed the ‘magic
lanterns’.
Photography and projection were united when Stanford developed the

‘Zoopraxinoscope’. Soon Thomas Alva Edison invented the electric bulb and many
other such developments took place. Then came the Lumiere brothers who
produced and started having commercial shows of short shoot and show films.
Soon others followed and by the beginning of the 20th century, film became the
second mass medium after newspapers. Very soon films became a form of family
entertainment. Movie theaters opened everywhere and people wanted to see more
interesting contents. So feature films came into existence. The combination of all
these factors made cinema a booming industry.
Film has had an enormous impact on the audiences. One reason is it is not
imposed. It does not come to us and instead we go to theatres to watch films.
Usually the films deal with universal themes so language barrier is minimal and we
can thoroughly enjoy film of another language if we like the theme.
Strength and weakness
Cinemas are replica of dramas in natural settings and so influence audience. Even
myths are depicted as if they are real. Cinema is an audio -visual medium and is
rich in live effect and demonstrates as well as suggests. Details are extensive
through sound, music, visual effects, and skillful production, editing and role-
playing. Dramatization of the presentation sets tempo and mood of the audience.
And most significant attribute of film is that it reaches messages to illiterates, neo
literates, and moderately educated and highly educated people having basic visual
literacy.
Selection of sets and props in films sometimes confuse the audience, makes the
communication abstract and creates misunderstanding. Crime and obscene
adversely affect the society and so realistic censorship is required for the welfare of
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the society. Cost of exposure is moderately high especially in case of commercial
cinema.
Future of films
In its century old existence cinema has faced few shakes ups. First it was
television. Skeptics thought no one would watch films in theatres, as so much was
available on television with in the comforts of one’s home. But soon it was found
that TV depends too heavily on films and films form a considerable part of TV
programming.
Then came videocassettes. Now it is videodiscs. These eliminate the necessity of

“going out” to the theatres to be entertained. But the fact that cinema is thriving
proves that mass media share a symbiotic relationship and are not mutually
destructive. Of course, cinema is not sitting idle. It is facing the threat posed by
other media head-on.
Highly decorated theatre halls complete with shopping complexes, are now
attracting more audience. Multiplexes, like PVR Delhi are another way of film
fighting back. Then there are 70 mm and cinemascope. Faster frame rate is another
novelty. Hollywood has started delivering films to theatre halls over satellite.
Another recent innovation is the I-max screens, which are ten times larger than the
traditional 35 mm screen. Dolby stereo system, 16-track recording, etc. also have
added more allure to films. Interactive films, where audience member can have a
say about how a film should end, is another novel way of attracting more audience.
So it can be safely concluded that film, as a medium of entertainment and

communication and as an industry, would continue to grow and hold an important
part in our social system.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.List the strengths and weaknesses of the films as a medium of mass
communication.
1.4.7 Computers
There is a rising use of personal computers by individuals at home and in offices.

Today, average person has the skill to use basic computer in daily life. As the
essence of mass communication is that professional communicators operate the
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media to a large and heterogeneous audience, a computer network in which people
send messages to each other will be a different kind of process altogether.
However, where records of memos, messages, and transactions are done, this
medium would be considered to be a medium of mass communication. A more
likely prospect is that new mass media will develop by coupling computers to
modern variants of cable television. In fact, experimental media using this
technology have already come into use.
1.5 NEED & IMPORTANCE OF MASS COMMUNICATION
1.5.1 Major functions of Mass Communication
The content of mass communication seem diverse in nature to audience as they

expose themselves to thousands of media stimuli throughout the day and round the
clock. News, reviews, commentaries, advertisements, etc can saturate the audience.
Thus, the audience members select the messages according to their needs. The
major functions of mass communication are that it informs, enriches, educates and
entertains.
Surveillance of environment: It is one of the most important major functions of

mass communication conceptualized by Laswell. Schramm observed that in this
function media took on watchman’s role. Surveillance is the process of monitoring
the behavior of people, objects or processes within systems for conformity to
expected or desired norms in trusted systems for security or social control.
Although the word surveillance literally means "watching over" the term is often
used for all forms of observation or monitoring, not just visual observation.
Surveillance of environment involves seeking out and then transmitting

information about the society and all other relevant elements. Mass communication
keeps watch on socio-political-economic events of the close and faraway localities
and reaches the accounts to the audience through creative reporting. The effect of
surveillance of environment function can be counted on individuals and society.
Effects of news on individuals are:
1) Increase personal esteem: Personal esteem is built through the

prestige that comes from knowing the news. There is social gain from
being
19
20
the first with the news. Quite many individuals are aware of this gain
and so collect news from various media sources.
2) Provide social base for personal interchange: Individuals remain aware
in advance about what will be the subject of interaction with their
friends, how and what parts of the mass media content will be highly
desirable during conversation with others and so on.
3) Gains in and feeling for knowledge: individuals remain knowledgeable
about the information on the environment and that encourage them to
seek more knowledge and satisfy their curiosity.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.What do we mean by ‘Surveillance’?
Information: The quality of our life would be poorer without the bit of
information we get from mass media. In the western countries, information is now
regarded as power. The more informed you are, the more powerful you become.
Those who have access to information can take advantage of it in their own
interest. Mass communication provides us enormous information about the
environment in which we live. Information such as news of war, danger, crisis,
earthquake, famine, etc. is important for that helps us in taking appropriate steps to
safeguard our interests.
Entertainment: We all need entertainment to break the monotony of our hectic

stressful life and divert our attention from the troubles and tensions. Such diversion
will have a positive impact on our lives. Mass media provides a variety of
entertainment to audiences through films, TV shows, drama, dance, music, art,
comedy, games, animation, etc.
Persuasion: Persuasion is an alternative term used to denote an act of influencing

others. One of the most important functions of mass communication is to persuade
the other person. It is only through persuasion that one can control and govern
others. But it is also possible that one may resort to persuasion with a bad motive.
The receiver must be careful about the source of such persuasion. The persuasive
potential of mass communication is used heavily in both developing and developed
countries. Media are extensively used for socio-economic progress and for sales
promotion of the consumer goods.
Instruction: Mass communication helps to instruct, educate and socialize the

members of the society. Mass communication provides a fund of knowledge,
expertise and skills that enable people to operate as effective members of society.
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It also creates awareness; give direction and opportunity to audience through
positive impact of mass media.
Correlation: This term was used by Lasswell and is an important function of mass
communication. The role of mass media in correlation function was termed as
‘Forum’ by Schramm. The mass communication in the role of forum is for the
exchange of comments and criticism. The said function of mass communication
arouses interests through lead articles, editorials, special articles in case of
newspapers and magazines and news commentary, current affairs in case of radio
and television. The purpose is to improve the quality of usefulness of the
information for the citizen. Forum implies a platform where exchange of views
takes place. This function of media thus enables the audience/readers to widen
their understanding about the environment and events happening all around them.
Debate and discussion: It is through debate and discussion in media that the
public can clarify different viewpoints on issues of public interests and arrive at a
general agreement on matters that concern us all. Also the audience gets a chance
to present their views through debate and discussions in talk shows through
different mass media.
Cultural Promotion: Media educate the people toward better living and
preserving the traditions of the society. Mass media provide an opportunity for
culture to be preserved and promoted. It presents different cultures, beliefs and
customs from different countries and helps us promote ours to all part of the world.
Thus, individuals come to know one another, understand and appreciate other’s
ways of life and thereby develop tolerance towards one another.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.What are the main functions of Mass communication media?
1.5.2 Importance of Mass media
-Pervasiveness of Mass Media

-Mass Communication Informs
-Mass Media Entertains
-Mass Communication Persuades
-Mass Communication Binds
The mass media have an important role in modern democratic society as the main
channel of communication. The population relies on the news media as the main
22
source of information and the basis on which they form their opinions and voting
decisions. Any selection of messages in the mass media will thus have a profound
effect on the entire society.
Competition has become increasingly keen in the area of the mass media as they
keep fighting for the attention of the readers, listeners, and TV-viewers. The life
and death of each newspaper and TV station is at stake here when the income from
advertising and sponsoring is proportional to the number of readers or viewers. The
printed media have problems competing with the electronic media as sources of
news. In order to survive, they are increasingly turning to other strategies such as
entertainment, titillation, scandal mongering, and spreading fear and spending
fewer resources on serious researching of news. This is not only about the survival
of the fittest of the news media; it is also about cultural selection and political
selection.
The news media are the most important channels for the propagation of culture,
ideas, and opinions. Most opinion formation takes place when people sit and watch
news and debates on television. Analyzing the cultural selection in the electronic
information society, we find that an important part of the selection lies in the
choice between TV channels. Millions of lazy viewers sit in their comfortable
armchairs with remote controls in their hands zapping between action films,
revivalist preachers, and commercials for a new fragrance, hardly realizing that by
choosing which cultural and political influences they expose themselves to, they
also chose the cultural and political evolution of their country.
It is very important to analyze which selection criteria are in effect here. The
electronic media are first and foremost pacifying. It is a relaxation machine, and
the viewer wants to be entertained. The faces on the screen are not chosen for their
opinions but for their entertainment value. TV stations do not compete on
ideologies but on sense impressions. An extreme example is music videos, satiated
with fast changing sense impressions in sound as well as in pictures.
Media scientists have often discussed how much influence the media have on
people's opinions. People tend to selectively read what they already agree with and
to rationalize their preformed opinions in the face of contrary arguments.
Experimental evidence seems to indicate that the mass media have little power to
change people's opinions on issues for which they already have formed a strong
opinion, but they have a profound influence when it comes to setting the agenda
and priming people on new issues.
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We live in the age where mass communication performs certain functions that are
useful to us. It is through mass communication that millions of audience is exposed
to a variety of messages each day. While many consumers of media are satisfied
with any single channel of mass communication, there are others who seek
exposure to more that one channel. There is increasing anxiety about the adverse
effect of mass communication on society in general and individuals in particular.
In spite of limited reach, mass communication is so central to society that life

seems inconceivable without mass media. They inform and shape our social life.
Their influence is positive if they are able to fulfill the information and
entertainment needs of the people in accordance with the existing norms, values
and culture in society. Usually, the mass communication messages are positive like
conveying messages for communal harmony, peace, anti-terrorism, anti-social
evils, anti-drugs, etc.
The newspaper can influence the people to a large extent creating awareness and
political development. Broadcasting under government control can be use for the
purpose of education, social change and development of the society. Films can
bring forward unhealthy social issues of our society and promote peace and
harmony within communities. Thus, these mass media can contribute immensely
towards nation development and social awareness.
Media like television and cable television can sometimes have bad effect in our
society. The audience of these media are watching everything being telecasted in
hope of entertaining themselves, be it violence, vulgarity, etc. besides this,
advertising also leaves images and impact on young minds. They give children a
materialistic world, which desires unaffordable things. Also too much of television
watching is creating health problems of obesity and diversion from studies, sleep
and eating proper diet.
Mass communication does influence (and even reflect) social values and practices,
but this influence is always in combination with a whole lot of other socio-cultural
and economic and political factors. By themselves, the media have little power to
influence, change and develop. For example, Hindi films may start fashions for
men and women in the areas of clothes, hairstyles, manner of speech, manner of
greeting, or ways of socializing. We may even go to the extreme of acting out what
we see or hear in the mass media, say a violent gesture or protest, but it takes much
more than film or TV to change our social and cultural values.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1.How is mass communication helpful in the development of our society?
1.6 SUMMARY
Mass communication is defined as ‘a process whereby mass produced messages

are transmitted to large, anonymous and heterogeneous masses of receivers’.
We require a sender, a message, a channel and a receiver for communication to

occur. Further there is feedback, which is the response or reaction of the receiver,
which comes back to the sender through the same or some other channel.
There are different media involved in the process of mass communication. They
reach every corner of the world and are very powerful. They invade even the
privacy of our bedrooms. They inform, educate, entertain and persuade. They also
help in the transmission of culture and perform the job of surveillance of the
society. They are the mass media.
The major functions of mass communication are that it informs, enriches, educates
and entertains.
The news media are the most important channels for the propagation of culture,
ideas, and opinions.
1.7 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
Q1.Discuss how Mass communication is a powerful form of

communication. Q2.What are the main functions of mass media?
Q3.What are the elements of Mass communication?
Q4.Briefly describe the importance and history of Newspaper as a mass
communication medium?
Q5.What do we mean by ‘mass media’? List some important mass media and
discuss their importance in today’s world.
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1.8 FURTHER READING
1. Mass Communication & Development Dr. Baldev Raj Gupta

2. Mass Communication in India Keval J Kumar
3. Mass Communication Journalism in India D S Mehta
4. Mass Communication Theory Denis Mc Quail
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UNIT 2-MODELS OF MASS COMMUNICATION
Structure
2.0 Unit Objectives

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Models of Mass Communication
2.2.1Lazarfield Two Step flow 2.2.2 Dependency model 2.2.3 Agenda Setting & Effect
Model 2.2.4 Model of Gate Keeping
2.3 Summary
2.5 Further Reading
2.0 UNIT OBJECTIVES
• To explain the meaning of ‘Model’

• To discuss the various models of Mass Communication
• To study the importance of Mass Communication models
• To study the features of different models of Mass Communication
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Models provide theorists with a structure for assembling their findings, which may
subsequently be tested in the ‘real world’. So models of mass communication are
graphical representations that explain through diagrams, figures and by all other
such means so as to clear the concepts. In fact, a model can be called as an
approximate way of explaining a theory. Generally, a model means something,
which is ideal to be followed and imitated. In a theory we use words to explain a
phenomenon, a model explains the process with the help of tables, photographs,
charts, drawings, etc. such drawings will explain the implications, impacts and the
interactive connections between various elements involved in the concept being
explained.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1.What do you mean by a model of mass communication?
2.2 MODELS OF MASS COMMUNICATION
2.2.1 Lazarfield Two Step Flow
History and Orientation
Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet in The People’s Choice, a
1944 study focused on the process of decision-making during a Presidential
election campaign, first introduced the two-step flow of communication
hypothesis. These researchers expected to find empirical support for the direct
influence of media messages on voting intentions. They were surprised to discover,
however, that informal, personal contacts were mentioned far more frequently than
exposure to radio or newspaper as sources of influence on voting behavior. Armed
with this data, Katz and Lazarsfeld developed the two-step flow theory of mass
communication.
Core Assumptions and Statements
This theory asserts that information from the media moves in two distinct stages.
First, individuals (opinion leaders) who pay close attention to the mass media and
its messages receive the information. Opinion leaders pass on their own
interpretations in addition to the actual media content. The term ‘personal
influence’ was coined to refer to the process intervening between the media’s
direct message and the audience’s ultimate reaction to that message. Opinion
leaders are quite influential in getting people to change their attitudes and
behaviors and are quite similar to those they influence.
The two-step flow theory has improved our understanding of how the mass media
influence decision- making. The theory refined the ability to predict the influence
of media messages on audience behavior, and it helped explain why certain media
campaigns may have failed to alter audience attitudes on behavior. The two-step
flow theory gave way to the multi-step flow theory of mass communication or
diffusion of innovation theory.
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Conceptual Model
Source: Katz & Lazarsfeld (1955)
Development of the Two-step Flow of Communication theory
As with most theories now applied to Advertising, the Two-step flow of Mass
communication was first identified in a field somewhat removed from
communications-sociology. In 1948, Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel
Gaudet published The People's Choice, a paper analyzing the voters decision-
making processes during a 1940 presidential election campaign. The study
revealed evidence suggesting that the flow of mass communication is less direct
than previously supposed. Although the ability of mass media to reach a large
audience, and in this case persuade individuals in one direction or another, had
been a topic of much research since the 1920's, it was not until the People's Choice
was published that society really began to understand the dynamics of the media-
audience relationship. The study suggested that communication from the mass
media first reaches "opinion leaders" who filter the information they gather to their
associates, with whom they are influential.
Previous theories assumed that media directly reached the target of the
information. For the theorists, the opinion leader theory proved an interesting
29
discovery considering the relationship between media and its target was not the
focus of the research, but instead a small aspect of the study.
Lazarsfeld suggested "ideas often flow from radio and print to the opinion leaders
and from them to the less active sections of the population." People tend to be
much more affected in their decision making process by face -to-face encounters
with influential peers than by the mass media. The studies by Lazarsfeld and his
associates sparked interest in the exact qualities and characteristics that define the
opinion leader. Is an opinion leader influential in all cases, on all topics? Or is the
influence of an opinion leader constrained to certain topics? How does an opinion
leader come to be influential?
The Opinion Leaders

Who are they? How have they come to be defined?
A study by Robert Merton revealed that opinion leadership is not a general

characteristic of a person, but rather limited to specific issues. Individuals, who act
as opinion leaders on one issue, may not be considered influential in regard to
other issues. A later study directed by Lazarsfeld and Katz further investigated the
characteristics of opinion leaders. This study confirmed the earlier assertions that
personal influence seems more important in decision making than media. Again,
influential individuals seem constrained in their opinion leading to particular
topics, non -overlapping among the individuals. The opinion leaders seem evenly
distributed between the social, economical, and educational levels within their
community, but very similar in these areas to those with whom they had influence.
Lazarsfeld did not identify any particular traits amongst opinion leaders that stand
out. The traits that characterize each of the opinion leaders in their niche did have
things in common, though. For one thing, the opinion leaders were identified as
having the strongest interest in their particular niche. They hold positions within
their community affording them special competence in their particular niches.
Finally, they had/have contact with relevant information supplied from outside
their immediate circle. Interestingly enough, Katz and Lazarsfeld observed that the
opinion leaders receive a disproportionate amount of their external information
from media appropriate to their niche.
Other Studies determined that opinion leaders act "as a source of social pressure
toward a particular choice and as a source of social support to reinforce that choice
once it has been made. The opinion leaders often develop leadership positions in
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their social circles. They achieve these positions based on their knowledge of
situations outside their circles.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1.Who gave the Two-step flow model?
Q2.Who are the ‘Opinion leaders’?
2.2.2 Dependency Model
Dependency model was originally proposed by Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin

DeFleur (1976). The model of this theory merged out of the communication
discipline.
Dependency theory integrates several perspectives: first, it combines perspectives

from psychology; second, it integrates systems perspectives with elements from
more causal approaches. Third, it combines elements of uses and gratifications
research with those of media effects. Traditions. Its primary focus is less on effects
and more on why media effects typically are limited. Finally, a conceptualist
philosophy is incorporated into the theory, which also features traditional concerns
with the content of media messages and their effects on audiences.
Dependency theory proposes an integral relationship among audiences, media and

the larger social system. This theory predicts that you depend on media
information to meet certain needs and achieve certain goals, like uses-and-
gratifications theory. But you do not depend on all media equally. Two factors
influence the degree of media dependence. First, you will become more dependent
on media that meet a number of your needs than on media that provide just a few.
The second source of dependency is social stability. When social change and
conflict are high, established institutions, beliefs, and practices are challenged,
forcing you to reevaluate and make new choices. At such times your reliance on
the media for information will increase. At other, more stable times your
dependency on media may go way down.
One’s needs are not always strictly personal but may be shaped by the culture or by
various social conditions. In other words, individuals’ needs, motives, and uses of
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media are contingent on outside factors that may not be in the individuals’ control.
These outside factors act as constraints on what and how media can be used and on
the availability of other non-media alternatives. Furthermore, the more alternatives
and individual had for gratifying needs, the less dependent he or she will become
on any single medium. The number of functional alternatives, however, is not just
a matter of individual choice or even of psychological traits but is limited also by
factors such as availability of certain media.
Conceptual Model
Social system Media system
Audiences
Effects
This model is the general idea of the dependency theory.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.What does Dependency theory predicts?
Q2.Who proposed the Dependency model?
Explanation
This theory states that the more dependent an individual is on the media for having
his or her needs fulfilled, the more important the media will be to that person.
Critique:
Media Dependency Theory predicts a correlation between media dependence and

importance and influence of the media, but each person uses the media in different
ways. Also, the media affects each person in different ways. It has explanatory
power, but more of predictive power because it predicts how dependency on the
32
media correlates with importance of the media to a certain person. So we can say
that media dependency model is:
• Relatively simple to understand.

• It can be proven false. If a person is not dependent on the media, media will
not be of great importance to that individual.
• It is internally consistent, with meta-theoretical assumptions on the same
side.
• It is a springboard to further research, especially so, since it came from other
theories.
• It helps to organize and relate other media effect theories.
2.2.3 Agenda Setting & Effect Model

"Here may lie the most important effect of mass communication, its ability to
mentally order and organize our world for us. In short, the mass media may not be
successful in telling us what to think, but they are stunningly successful in telling
us what to think about."
—Shaw & McCombs, 1977
Agenda setting is a type of public opinion research focused, not on persuasion and
attitude change, but on the salience (or prominence) of issues on the agendas of
media, public or policy- makers. McCombs & Shaw's agenda-setting hypothesis
(1972) contends that the mass media's pervasiveness, along with the passivity of
audiences, lends it a tremendous power to shape opinion; also, that the media's
agenda is disproportionate to objective measures, or real-world indicators, of
various social problems.
Agenda setting describes a very powerful influence of the media – the ability to tell
us what issues are important. As far back as 1922, the newspaper columnist Walter
Lippman was concerned that the media had the power to present images to the
public. McCombs and Shaw investigated presidential campaigns in 1968, 1972 and
1976. In the research done in they focused on two elements: awareness and
information. Investigating the agenda-setting function of the mass media, they
attempted to assess the relationship between what voters in one community said
were important issues and the actual content of the media messages used during the
campaign. McCombs and Shaw concluded that the mass media exerted a
33
significant influence on what voters considered to be the major issues of the
campaign.
Agenda setting is the creation of public awareness and concern of salient issues by
the news media. Two basis assumptions underlie most research on agenda-setting:
(1) the press and the media do not reflect reality; they filter and shape it; (2) media
concentration on a few issues and subjects leads the public to perceive those issues
as more important than other issues.
One of the most critical aspects in the concept of an agenda-setting role of mass
communication is the time frame for this phenomenon. In addition, different media
have different agenda-setting potential. Agenda-setting theory seems quite
appropriate to help us understand the pervasive role of the media (for example on
political communication systems).
Bernard Cohen (1963) stated: “The press may not be successful much of the time
in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers
what to think about.”
Conceptual Model
According to the agenda-setting theory, mass media set the agenda for public
opinion by highlighting certain issues. Studying the way political campaigns were
covered in the media, Shaw and McCombs found the main effect of news media to
be agenda-setting, telling people not what to think, but what to think about.
Agenda setting is usually referred to as a function of mass media and not a
34
theory.The theory explains the correspondence between the rate at which media
cover a story and the extent that people think that this story is important. This
correspondence has repeateadly been shown to occur.
Agenda-setting is believed to occur because the press must be selective in
reporting the news. News outlets act as gatekeepers of information and make
choices about what to report and what not. What the public know and care at any
given time is mostly a product of media-gatekeeping.
The agenda-setting function is a 3 part-process:
1. Media Agenda - issues discussed in the media

2. Public Agenda - issues discussed and personally relevant to the public
3. Policy Agenda - issues that policy makers consider important
The agenda-setting model validated the normative findings of many researchers

concerning mass media's effects on society. Developed within mass
communications research, the field has evolved into a robust field of inquiry for
communication scholars and those in many different disciplines, as well. (The term
"agenda-setting" has even infiltrated popular culture.) Agenda-setting research has
grown more sophisticated. Policy and inter-media agenda setting have become
popular research areas.
The basic ideas of the Agenda & Effect theory can be traced back to the work of
Walter Lippmann, a prominent American journalist. Lippmann (1922) proposed
that people did not respond directly to events in the real world but lived in a
pseudo-environment composed of "the pictures in our heads". The media would
play an important part in the furnishing of these pictures and shaping of the
pseudo-environment.
Agenda-setting theory has a long and storied history that stems from two different
disciplines, culminating with McCombs and Shaw's 1972 work "The agenda-
setting function of mass media." McCombs and Shaw fused both mass
communication theory and public opinion theory about agenda formation into their
self-titled agenda-setting hypothesis. Before their 1972 article both mass
communication and public opinion theorists had independently dealt with how and
what effects issues have when they become important to the media and the public
respectively. McCombs and Shaw suggested that a mass mediated agenda affects
the public through a "simple" increase in reporting on an issue and at the same time
the public interest increases due to salience and ubiquity of that issue to the public
at large.
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Mass Communication Agenda Theory through Powerful Effects Models
Early mass media research about the setting of a mediated agenda focused on
where the agenda was coming from and how it was formed. Concurrently,
Lazarsfeld and Merton (1948) suggested the media was controlled by big business
and powerful organizations, with the implication that these businesses and
organizations actually set the agenda for the media. The Hutchins Report coupled
with Lazarsfeld and Merton seem to suggest that early mass media agenda research
centered around who has the power to set the agenda and what does that power
mean.
The attempts to find answers to these questions formulated the "middle" of mass
communication agenda theory formation. Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955) introduced
the two-step flow model of communication during this period of time. They
postulated that issues were first brought up by the mass media and then opinion
leaders in society took in these messages and disseminated the information directly
to the publics. Katz and Lazarsfeld, and several other theorists, believed that the
media held a great deal of power over the public and that by the mass media
creating an agenda the public would follow it without question. This seemed to be
a starting point for the vague beginning of questions concerning mass media and
the public. However, Katz and Lazarsfeld seem focused on a theory of media
dominance over the public.
The period of the strong effects models of mass mediated agendas was short lived.
Klapper (1960) succinctly analyzed that in several studies by Lazarsfeld and
Stanton a strong media effects model did not work because the public was not as
simpleminded as they first theorized. In these studies it was found that
interpersonal relationships, personal experience, and other issues mediated the
reception of the mass media agenda.
2.2.4 Model of Gate Keeping

This model was designed by Bruce Westley and Malcolm MacLean and is an
extension of Newcombe’s Model. This model is quite frequently used in mass
media. It is based on the assumption that messages in mass communication pass
through different checkpoints called ‘gatekeeper’ before they are actually received
by audience. The ‘gatekeeper’ concept is essentially a term applied to in mass
media and is often associated with the news. Gate keeping means that the
information has to flow along certain channels, which contain gatekeepers who
will permit the information to flow or stop.
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The process of decision-making depends upon the policies, likes, and dislikes of
the organization. It decides whether the information will be allowed to enter and
continue in the channel. The audience, therefore, receives the reporter’s and
editor’s version of the day’s event and not necessarily what may be the reality.
Thus, interposed between the sender and the audience are the editors whether in
print journalism, TV or radio who as gatekeepers, determine what the public reads,
listens to or watches. Therefore, the audience’s exposure to an event’s reality is in
the gatekeeper’s hands.
This model is quite realistic in the modern media scenario, particularly the news
media. The only drawback being that it applies only on the mass media and fails to
take account of the relationship between the mass media and the other systems
through which we fit into society like family, work, friendships, school, church,
trade unions and all other formal and informal networks of relationship. Normally,
one is not as dependent upon the media as this model implies.
X1
X1
X2 X2
A C B
X3
X 3m X 3c
X3 X4
Gate keeping Model
A here, is sender who receives messages from many sources X1, X2, X3, X4,…X
and according to his perception of event writes a report and sends it to gatekeeper C
who performs the editorial-communicating function; that is the process of deciding
what and how to communicate. C, therefore, keeping the specific audience in mind,
may emphasize or deemphasize a certain point in the message to strike a balance and
then sends it to the audience B.
37
Kurt Lewin was apparently the first one to use the term "gatekeeping," which he
used to describe a wife or mother as the person who decides which foods end up on
the family's dinner table. The gatekeeper is the person who decides what shall pass
through each gate section, of which, in any process, there are several. Although he
applied it originally to the food chain, he then added that the gating process could
include a news item winding through communication channels in a group. This is
the point from which most gatekeeper studies in communication are launched.
White (1961) was the person who seized upon Lewin's comments and turned it
solidly toward journalism in 1950.
In the 1970s McCombs and Shaw took a different direction when they looked at
the effects of gatekeepers' decisions. They found the audience learns how much
importance to attach to a news item from the emphasis the media place on it.
McCombs and Shaw pointed out that the gatekeeping concept is related to the
newer concept, agenda-setting. (McCombs et al, 1976). The gatekeeper concept is
now 50 years old and has slipped into the language of many disciplines, including
gate keeping in organizations.
The gatekeeper decides which information will go forward, and which will not. In
other words a gatekeeper in a social system decides which of a certain commodity
– materials, goods, and information – may enter the system. Important to realize is
that gatekeepers are able to control the public’s knowledge of the actual events by
letting some stories pass through the system but keeping others out. Gatekeepers
can also be seen as institutions or organizations.
In a political system there are gatekeepers, individuals or institutions, which

control access to positions of power and regulate the flow of information and
political influence. Gatekeepers exist in many jobs, and their choices hold the
potential to color mental pictures that are subsequently created in people’s
understanding of what is happening in the world around them. Media gate keeping
showed that decision-making is based on principles of news values, organizational
routines, input structure and common sense. Gate keeping is vital in
communication planning and almost all communication-planning roles include
some aspect of gate keeping.
38
The gatekeeper’s choices are a complex web of influences, preferences, motives
and common values. Gate keeping is inevitable and in some circumstances it can
be useful. Gate keeping can also be dangerous, since it can lead to an abuse of
power by deciding what information to discard and what to let pass. Nevertheless,
gate keeping is often a routine, guided by some set of standard questions.
Conceptual Model
Source: White (1964)
Favorite Methods
Interviews, surveys, network analysis.
Scope and Application
This theory is related to the mass media and organizations. In the mass media the
focus is on the organizational structure of newsrooms and events. Gate keeping is
also an important in organizations, since employees and management are using
ways of influence.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1. Explain ‘gate keeping’?
Q2. Who proposed the gate-keeping model of mass communication?
2.3 SUMMARY
Models of communication are graphical representations that explain through

diagrams, figures and by all other such means as can help to make the concept
clear. In fact, a model is a way to explain a given theory.
39
No model can be said to be ‘right’ or ‘true’. Some may be more descriptive than
others, some may correspond more with a particular situation, while others
correspond more with other situations. Some models represent the knowledge of
yesteryears while others are modern and relate to the current state of knowledge.
Q1.Discuss any two models of Mass communication?

Q2. Explain Dependency model in detail.
Q3. What do we mean by Agenda Setting & Effect Model?
Q4. Discuss history, orientation and development of Two Step flow Model?
2.5 FURTHER READING

3. Mass Communication Journalism in India D S
Mehta 4.Mass Communication Theory Denis Mc Quail
40
UNIT 3-THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION
Structure
3.0 Unit Objectives

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Theories of Mass Communication
Authoritarian theory 3.2.2 Libertarian theory 3.2.3 Social Responsibility
3.2.4 Soviet Media 3.2.5 Development Communication 3.2.6 Democratization Theory
3.3 Summary
3.5 Further Reading
3.0 UNIT OBJECTIVES
• To learn the concept of various theories of Mass communication

• To understand each theory through diagrammatic representation
• To study the importance of theories of Mass Communication
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Of all the times in history to be studying the mass media, this is probably the best.
Not only the dizzying technological and economic upheavals within the media
industries themselves make it so, but also the outpouring of theory, argument, and
research on the mass media from diverse academic fields. Theories about mass
communication have never been more plural or more contentious.
The area of knowledge we provisionally call “Mass Communication Theories” is

an unsettled terrain, something of a frontier, and frontiers are known for adventures
and dangers, lawlessness and open vistas. It deals with central traditions of study,
topics of debate, and conceptual problems in media studies.
Mass communication theory is best understood as a branch of social theory.

Indeed, the attempt to theorize “society” and “communication” arise in the same
moment. A theorist is, one who argues, gives reasons and makes connections to
41
larger problems. Theory is not only something that people do in their armchairs; it
is an art that every scholar, if not citizen and human, should cultivate. All theories
are a re-approach with the past of an established theory.
3.2 THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION
3.2.1 Authoritarian Theory

The Authoritarian theory of the press can be traced to the very beginning of
printing. At that time, truth was thought to reside in those who held power-that is,
the governing agency. Thus there was strict control of the press through the
licensing of printers by the throne. Censorship was practiced if the ruler thought
that information should be with held from the masses. Therefore, although the
government did not necessarily own the press, it was looked on as being an
advocate of the state. Today many nations will not admit that their countries are
governed according to authoritarian principles, they publicly espouse libertarian
concepts, but behind the scenes authoritarian practices are carried out.
This term was first used by Siebert refers to an arrangement in which the press is
subordinated to state power and the interests of a ruling class. The theory justifies
advance censorship and punishment for deviation from externally set guidelines.
Unacceptable attack on authority, deviation from official policy, or offences
against moral codes should be criminal offences. Under certain circumstances,
media are subjected to authoritarian tendencies in democratic regimes as well,
especially in times of war and during internal and external emergencies. Other
media like film, video, etc are subjected to censorship. Even the press, which is
free, lost its independence and freedom during the emergency (1975-77). The
authorities can and do use the provisions of official secrets act to deny free access
to information, thereby hampering the freedom of press.
42
The table below will highlight the practice of this theory:
Complete Control to varying Degrees of control
Complete press Criticism Special press Suppression

control allowed, but laws lead to of press
government arrest of editors opposition is
invokes more covert
Censorship
Soviet Union
China Colombia South Africa Turkey
Yugoslavia Egypt Iran, Iraq Argentina
Syria Pakistan Indonesia
Lebanon
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.Name countries, which have, complete control over the press?
3.2.2 Libertarian Theory
Today ‘the open market place of ideas’ and the ‘self-righting process’ define the
boundaries of the libertarian theory of the press. In the seventeenth century John
Milton defended the concepts of reason and the moral integrity of man in telling
right from wrong, good from bad, and truth from falsehood in a powerful argument
for intellectual freedom. Other exponents of this philosophy were John Stuart,
Thomas Jefferson and other who believed in freedom of expression, rationalism, and
natural rights. They saw as the press’s function to inform, to sell, to entertain, to
uphold the truth, and to keep check on the government. Press ownership in countries
espousing the libertarian philosophy is likely to be private and should be free from
defamation, obscenity, impropriety and wartime sedition.
Countries practicing the libertarian philosophy today are the United States, Great
Britain, and other western European nations. Other theories related to libertarian
theory are the social responsibility theory and the objective theory of the press.
43
Libertarian theory is also called as the ‘free press theory’ and is based on the
fundamental right of an individual to freedom of expression, which is regarded as
the main legitimating principle for print media in liberal democracies. In its simple
form, it prescribes that an individual should be free to publish what he or she likes, it
is thus extension of other rights to hold opinions freely, to express them, to assemble
and organize with others. The free press theory needs no elaboration as is evident
from the first amendment to the American constitution, which states that ‘congress
shall make no law…abridging the freedom of speech or of the press, it is thus simply
an absolute right of the citizen’.
But the application of press freedom has hardly been straightforward. Milton, Stuart
Mill and many others argued that if freedom is abused to the extent of threatening
good morals and the authority of the state, it must be restrained. According to de
Sola Pool (1973), ‘no nation will indefinitely tolerate a freedom of the press that
serves to divided the country and to open the flood gates of criticism against the
freely chosen government that leads its’. Moreover, much difficulty has arisen
because press freedom has become identified with property rights (private
ownership) and freedom from interference in the market. The free press theory or the
libertarian theory thus protects the owners of media but fails to give equal
expression to the rights o editors and journalists or of the audiences.
3.2.3 Social Responsibility Theory
The social responsibility theory is an extension of the libertarian theory in that the
press recognizes that it has a responsibility to society to carry out its essential
functions. The social responsibility theory ascribes basically the same six functions
to the press as the libertarian theory:
1. Providing information, discussion, and debate on public affairs

2. Instructing and informing the public to make it capable of self government
3. Protecting the rights of the individual against the government through its
watchdog function
4. Maintaining the economic equilibrium of the system by bringing together
buyer, seller, and advertiser
5. Providing entertainment
6. Remaining independent of outside pressures by maintaining its own economic
self-sufficiency.
44
The basic principles of the social responsibility theory uphold conflict resolution
through discussion; there is high regard for public opinion, consumer action, and
professional ethics and jealous guard over private rights and important social
interests. This theory emerged in the United States in the twentieth century, and it is
evidenced today in the Anglo-American nations.
The social responsibility theory is based on the assumption that media serve
essential functions in society. Therefore, it should accept and fulfill certain
obligations to the society. These obligations are to be met by setting high
professional standards in communication of information, truth, accuracy, objectivity
and balance. In accepting and discharging these obligations, the media should be
self-regulatory within the framework of law and established institutions. In the
public interest, the media should underplay that news which might lead to crime,
violence, and social tension or cause offence to ethnic or religious minorities. The
media should be pluralist, should reflect the diversity of their society and allow
access to various points of view, including the right to reply.
This theory has lead to the establishment of self-regulatory bodies like the Press
Council, which is responsible for
• Drawing up of statutes to protect editorial and journalistic practice

• Framing of codes of ethics
• Ensuring implementation of anti-monopoly legislation, and
• Regulation of advertising
3.2.4 Soviet Media Theory
This is also called as ‘the communist media theory’. Just as the social
responsibility theory is an outgrowth of the libertarian theory, soviet-communist
theory is an outgrowth of the authoritarian theory. However, whereas according to
the authoritarian theory the press resides outside the government, in the soviet media
theory the press and the state are held to be one. The main purpose of the soviet-
media theory is to ensure the success and continuance of the soviet socialist system
and to promote the objectives of the soviet socialist party. This system is found
mainly in the Soviet Union and other communist countries. In addition to the
authoritarian theory this theory is related to the power of the press, gate
keeping/information control, and agenda-setting theories.
45
Russian media was reorganized after the revolution of 1917. This theory is derived
mainly from basic tenets of Marx and Engels. It envisages media to be under the
control of the working class whose interest they are meant to serve. Private
ownership of the press or other media is ruled out. The media must serve positive
functions in society relating to information, education, motivation, and mobilization.
The media must project society in accordance with the Marxist-Leninist principles.
They must support progressive movements in the country and abroad.
The media according to this theory are subject to the ultimate control of the state and
are integrated with other instruments of political life. Within these limits, the media
are expected to be self-regulatory. They must
• Act with responsibility

• Evolve and follow norms of professional conduct, and
• Respond to people’s needs and aspirations.
The media as per this theory are not subject to arbitrary interference as in the case of
the authoritarian theory.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.Give another name of Soviet Media Theory.
3.2.5 Development Communication
Development Communication refers to a spectrum of communication processes,

strategies and principles within the field of international development, aimed at
improving the conditions and quality of life of people struggling with
underdevelopment and marginalization. Reflective of the field’s historical
evolution, Development communication is characterized by conceptual flexibility
and diversity in the application of communication techniques used to address the
problems of development.
Some approaches in the “tool kit” of the field include: information dissemination
and education, behavior change, social marketing, social mobilization, media
advocacy, communication for social change, and participatory communication.
Development communication is for the betterment of the society though raised
from a particular group but affect the whole mass for better.
46
The limited application of the four established theories of the press to the third world
countries, which are vastly different from each other and also from western
countries, led to the birth of a new approach whereby communication is use to carry
out development tasks. These tasks are carried out in line with nationally established
policy. The best source for information on this issue is the report of the UNESCO
sponsored international commission fro the study of communication problems.
According to it, some common conditions of developing countries that limit the
potential benefits of other theories here are:
• The absence of communication infrastructure

• Dependence on the developed world for hardware and software
• The commitment of these societies to economic, political and social
development as a primary national task
• The developing countries awareness of their similar identity and interest in
international politics.
Because of these different conditions, the developing countries overriding objectives

would be to use mass media for nation building. In the interest of this task of
national development, the freedom of the media and of journalists needs to be
curbed to an extent. The major thrust of development communication theorists has
been on the use of media as a support to national development programme-poverty
alleviation, population control, literacy drive, employment generation schemes, etc.
but the effectiveness of this theory depends on how governments exercises their
right to restrict freedom or to intervene in media operations and how they use
devices of censorship, subsidy and direct control.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.What do we mean by development communication?
3.2.6 Democratization Theory
This is the most recent addition to the list of normative theories; is relevant to the
developed liberal societies but has some elements of the development media theory.
Mc Quail notes that it is most difficult to formulate this theory ‘partly because it
lacks full legitimization and incorporation into media institutions and partly because
some of its tenets are already to be found in some of the other theories’. In his
opinion, this theory represents a challenge to the reigning theories and merits
separate identification.
47
The main feature of the democratic participant theory relates to the needs, interests,
and aspirations of the active receiver in a political society. It is concerned with the
right to information, the right to answer back, the right to use the means of
communication for interaction in the small-scale settings of the community. The
theory favors
• Multiplicity of media
• Smallness of scale, of operation and
• Horizontality of communication at all levels. It opposes uniform, centralized,
high cost, highly professionalized and state-controlled media.
It is argued that the media should exist primarily for the audiences and not for media
organizations and professionals.
3.3 SUMMARY
Mass communication theory is best understood as a branch of social theory.

Indeed, the attempt to theorize “society” and “communication” arise in the same
moment. A theorist is, one who argues, gives reasons and makes connections to
larger problems. Theory is not only something that people do in their armchairs; it
is an art that every scholar, if not citizen and human, should cultivate. All theories
are a re-approach with the past of an established theory.
Q1. Discuss any two theories of Mass Communication?

Q2. What are the salient features of Authoritarian theory?
Q3. What do we mean by Development Communication?
Q4. What is the social responsibility of the press?
Q5. Explain the features of the Soviet Media?
3.5 FURTHER READING

3. Mass Communication Journalism in India D S Mehta
4. Mass Communication Theory Denis Mc Quail
48
UNIT 4-COMMUNICATION V/S
MASS COMMUNICATION
Structure
4.0 Unit Objectives

4.1 Meaning & Importance of Communication and Mass Communication
4.2 Functions of Communication and Mass Communication
4.3 Elements & Kinds
4.4 Summary
4.6 Further Reading
4.0 UNIT OBJECTIVES
• To learn the basics of ‘Communication’

• To discuss in detail the elements of Mass Communication
• To study the differences between Communication and
Mass Communication
4.1 MEANING & IMPORTANCE
COMMUNICATION
Communication is as essential as the food or water to living species of higher

order. Communicologists go a bit farther by saying that communication is the
means of existence of all living organisms. All living systems are structural and
functional units, which maintain themselves (grow, change and deteriorate) only
through interactions with their environment. Man, as are other forms of plants and
animals life, is an instance of a living system. Interaction between living systems
and the environment are subsumed under two life processes:
1. The consumption and transformation of matter into energy, which may be

termed as physiological metabolism
49
2. The acquisition and transformation of environment data into information,
which may be termed as information metabolism or communication.
Thus, communication may be viewed as one of the two essential life processes of all
living systems. To be precise, the basic needs are those, which help growth,
reproduction and survival of living organisms. Deprived of communication, on
cannot locate food and water and can not protect itself from destruction. Absence of
communication cannot establish conjugal relationship between two sexes. It is a
unique phenomenon of existence. Take off all the sense organs of a living being-it
will perish.
An individual has in him the unconscious socio-personal motives like self esteem,
security, knowledge, pleasure and rest and he communicates to and is communicated
by his fellow beings continuously to fulfill these motives. An ex-communicated
individual finds hard to maintain his social entity and takes it as severest
punishment. A criminal put into solitary confinement can feel the impact of
communication on the body and mind. A child threatened by his parents of their
refusal to talk to him would consider it as strongest punishment. Thus,
communication-involving interaction with physical, biological and social
environment is indispensable to one’s existence and continuance.
The English word ‘communication’ is derived from the Latin noun ‘communis’
and the Latin verb ‘communicare’ that means ‘to make common’. Communication
is a much-hyped word in the contemporary world. It encompasses a multitude of
experiences, actions and events, as well as a whole variety of happenings and
meanings, and technologies too. Meetings, conferences or even a procession thus
can be a communication event. Newspapers, radio, video and television are all
‘communication media’ and journalists, newsreaders; advertisers, public relation
persons and even camera crew are ‘communication professionals’.
Communication in its simplest sense involve two or more persons who come
together to share, to dialogue and to commune, or just to be together for a
festival or family gathering. Dreaming, talking with someone, arguing in a
discussion, speaking in public, reading a newspaper, watching TV etc. are all
different kinds of communication that we are engaged in every day.
50
MASS COMMUNICATION
Outside the realm of interpersonal communication exists another form of

communication, which involves communication with mass audiences and hence the
name mass communication; and the channels through which this kind of
communication takes place are referred to as mass media. Both mass communication
and mass media are generally considered synonymous for the sake of convenience.
Mass communication is unique and different from interpersonal communication as
evident from the following definition.
Any mechanical device that multiplies messages and takes it to a large number
of people simultaneously is called mass communication. The media through
which messages are being transmitted include radio, TV, newspapers, magazines,
films, records, tape recorders, video cassette recorders, etc and require large
organizations and electronic devices to put across the message.
Mass communication is the term used to describe the academic study of various
means by which individuals and entities relay information to large segments of the
population all at once through mass media.
In the United States, many university journalism departments evolved into schools
or colleges of mass communication or "journalism and mass communication," as
reflected in the names of two major academic organizations. In addition to
studying practical skills of journalism, public relations or advertising, students also
may choose major subject as "mass communication" or "mass communication
research." The latter is often the title given to doctoral studies in such schools,
whether the focus of the student's research is journalism practice, history, law or
media effects. Departmental structures within such colleges may separate research
and instruction in professional or technical aspects of newspaper and magazine
publishing, radio, television, and film. Mass communication research includes
media institutions and processes, such as diffusion of information, and media
effects, such as persuasion or manipulation of public opinion.
With the Internet's increased role in delivering news and information, Mass
communication studies and media organizations have increasingly focused on the
convergence of publishing, broadcasting and digital communication.
The academic mass communication discipline historically differs from media
studies and communication studies programs with roots in departments of theatre,
film or speech, and with more interest in "qualitative," interpretive theory with
51
cultural approaches to communication study. In contrast, many mass
communication programs lean toward analysis of media messages to survey
research, public opinion polling, and experimental research, including an
increasing interest in "New Media" and "Computer Mediated Communication."
Graduates of Mass Communication programs work in a variety of fields in

traditional news media and publishing, advertising, public relations and research
institutes.
What is Mass communication and how did it originate?
Approximately five hundred years ago a new form of communication arose.

This "mass" communication process, which makes use of permanent text that
can be made available to millions of people at the same time, has quickly
become an important factor in the lives of many human beings.
By removing words from the world of sound where they had first had their origin
in active human interchange and relegating them definitively to visual surface, and
by otherwise exploiting visual space for the management of knowledge, print
encouraged human beings to think of their own interior conscious and unconscious
resources as more and more thing -like, impersonal and religiously neutral. Print
encouraged the mind to sense that its possessions were held in some sort of inert
mental space.
The term "mass communication" is a term used in a variety of ways, which, despite
the potential for confusion, are usually clear from the context. These include (1)
reference to the activities of the mass media as a group, (2) the use of criteria of a
concept, "massiveness," to distinguish among media and their activities, and (3) the
construction of questions about communication as applied to the activities of the
mass media. Significantly only the third of these uses does not take the actual
process of communication for granted.
"Mass communication" is often used loosely to refer to the distribution of
entertainment, arts, information, and messages by television, radio, newspapers,
magazines, movies, recorded music, and associated media. This general use of the
term is only appropriate as designating the most commonly shared features of such
otherwise disparate phenomena as broadcast television, cable, video playback,
theater projection, recorded song, radio talk, advertising, and the front page,
editorial page, sports section, and comics page of the newspaper. In this usage
"mass communication" refers to the activities of the media as a whole and fail to
distinguish among specific media, modes of communication, genres of text or
52
artifact, production or reception situations, or any questions of actual
communication. The only analytic purpose this term serves is to distinguish mass
communication from interpersonal, small-group, and other face-to-face
communication situations.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.Give the main difference between communication and mass
communicating. Q2. Define ‘communication’ and ‘Mass communication’.
4.2 FUNCTIONS
COMMUNICATION
The basic functions of communication are:
Social purpose
Communication is purposive in social situation. Every individual lives to

communicate and be communicated to. The environment in which he lives to
communicate is charged with millions of communication stimuli but only a few are
received at a time. This means, various objects around an individual are
continuously communicating countless information. They form the sensory inputs
and reach an individual’s senses. He likes to be communicated to by that part or
parts of the information, which he can comprehend and which relates to his needs.
Similarly the objects communicating information have to do it to satisfy their needs.

We may remain mindful to the least to a neighbor’s smile toward us when he passes
by but become conscious of it and reciprocate in case we feel that in doing so, some
needs will be served. We may remain deaf to the sound of automobiles in our daily
city life but a similar sound at seven in the morning outside may communicate the
arrival of the school bus for our children for which we might wait anxiously.
Communication between sender and receiver is purposive and need -based. The
comprehensibility makes the communication meaningful to the receiver.
Communication act aims at transferring ideas, knowledge, thoughts and messages. It

is the means to influence others. There is communication whenever one system, a
source, influences another, the destination, by manipulation of alternative signals,
which can be transmitted over the channel connecting them. Communication is
essential to establish human relationship. Communication is participated by
53
individuals to develop commonness between them. It is an act of establishing
commonness with regards to ideas, information or an attitude that is, sharing of
ideas, information and attitude between individuals. Communication transfer
information and this information may include emotions, facts, opinion, guidance and
persuasion.
Edward Sapir says that communication is based on relationship. It takes place

between a group and an individual, collective society and an individual or a society
and a group or organization. Communication for and by the human being is more
specific and relevant to the study of human communication for the survival and
existence of individuals and society. Mc Quail finds human communication as the
sending from one person to another of meaningful messages. These messages could
be oral or written, visual or olfactory.
Human communication as the saying goes is a clash of symbols, and it covers a

multitude of signs. But it is more a deeper need and serves a higher purpose.
Whether clear or garbed, tumultuous or silent, deliberate or fatally in-advertant,
communication is the ground of meeting and the foundation of community. It is in
short, the essential human connection.
Transfer of experience
Communication is method of transferring experience from one individual to the

other. The individual receiving the experience from a communicator may do so
alone-face to face, in company with others in a group or remaining one among the
mass. Some means are used fro dissemination of experience. These means are
classified according the entry of the experience into individual’s mental system for
analysis and interpretation. Communication becomes less abstract through
involvement of more number of sensory organs. There are certain symbols like
verbal, which provide abstract meaning. Visual symbols although give clearer
understanding but the extent of the understanding becomes more when visual is
combined with audio. In the event of involvement of more number of senses like
touching, smelling and tasting, the clarity of communication is improved further.
Dynamic
Much like life itself, communication is a process. This means communication is

dynamic, ever changing and unending. When communication is static, although very
rarely that happens, it becomes ineffective, non-purposive and does not yield any
54
outcome. The hundred of bits of information, ideas, and opinions are individual
processes, evaluates and stores each day also change an individual to some extent.
The communication process is a system that involves an interrelated, interdependent

group of elements working together as a whole to achieve a desired outcome or goal.
There are four basic elements in the communication process: 1) a source of
communication, which sends 2) a message to 3) a receiver through a 4) channel. The
outcome will be message delivery and gain of message. Print carries the message as
radio and TV do. Therefore, print, radio or TV work as channels of communication.
The process of communication can be summed up in this way: it is the process
(continuing act) by which information is transmitted between individuals and /or
organizations so that an understanding response results. The act of communication is
continuous because the sender transmits information/message to receiver and the
receiver transmits his reaction to sender related to his attitude to the
information/message transmitted to him.
Encoding and Decoding are the two terms very often used in explaining
communication system and replying to the question like how does the message get
from the source to the receiver. First of all, the source must encode the message. It
may be called codification of message. The information the source wishes to convey
must be put into a form that can be sent to the receiver. Therefore, encoding is the
process through which the source converts the message, having origin in his mental
system, into meaningful signals.
However, once a message has been encoded and sent, it is completely free of the
source and beyond the power of the source to change it any way. The act of
communication is completed when message is decoded, and interpreted, by the
receiver. In the process of decoding the receiver converts the received signals into
meaningful message. Decodification results in understanding the message received.
MASS COMMUNICATION
Mass communication has the following basic functions:

• To inform
• To educate
• To entertain and
• To persuade
Additionally it also educates and helps in transmission of culture.
55
To Inform
Dissemination of information is the primary function of the news media.

Newspapers, radio and TV provide us news from around the world and keep us
informed. Over the years the concept of news has changed. News media do not ‘tell
it like it is’ anymore. From mere describing the events, news media have come to
include human interest, analysis and factorized treatment to news.
Journalists are not just ‘reporters’ now. They have become news analysts who
discuss the implications of important news stories. Also more ‘soft stories’ are filed
these days. In addition to dissemination of information news media provide us
information and also helps understand the news events, ideas, policy changes, etc.
To Entertain
The most common function of mass communication is entertainment. Radio,

television and films are basically entertainment media. Even newspapers provide
entertainment through comics, cartoons, features, cross word puzzles, word jumbles,
etc. entertainment through radio consists of mainly music. Radio also provides
entertainment through drama, talk shows, comedy, etc.
Television has become primarily an entertainment medium. Even highly specialized
channels like news channels, nature and wildlife channels also have a lot of
humorous and comic content. Among all media, films are perhaps the only medium
concentrating on entertainment. Except documentaries, educational films and art
movies, all films are made to provide three hour of escape, fantasy and
entertainment.
To Persuade
Most of mass media are used as vehicles of promotion and persuasion. Goods,
services, ideas, persons, places, events-the range of things that are advertised
through mass media is endless. Different media have different features and reach.
Advertisers and advertising agencies analyze these features and depending upon the
nature of the message and the target audience, choose where (in which media) and
how (with what frequency) the message should be placed.
Transmission of culture
Any communication leaves a direct or indirect impact on an individual. It becomes

part of one’s experience, knowledge and accumulated learning. Through individuals,
56
communication becomes part of the collective experience of groups, audiences of all
kinds and finally the masses. Mass communication plays an important role in the
transmission of culture from one generation to another.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1. What are the main functions of communication and mass communication?
4.3 ELEMENTS & KINDS
KINDS OF COMMUNICATION
Intrapersonal communication is language use or thought internal to the

communicator. Intrapersonal communication is the active internal involvement of
the individual in symbolic processing of messages. The individual becomes his or
her own sender and receiver, providing feedback to him or herself in an ongoing
internal process. It can be useful to envision intrapersonal communication
occurring in the mind of the individual in a model which contains a sender,
receiver, and feedback loop.
Although successful communication is generally defined as being between two or

more individuals, issues concerning the useful nature of communicating with
oneself and problems concerning communication with non -sentient entities such
as computers have made some argue that this definition is too narrow.
Intrapersonal communication is indeed a special case of interpersonal

communication, as "dialogue is the foundation for all discourse."
Intrapersonal communication can encompass:
• Day-dreaming
• Nocturnal dreaming
• Speaking aloud ("talking to oneself"), reading aloud, repeating what one
hears; the additional activities of speaking and hearing, what one thinks, reads or
hears may increase concentration and retention.
• Writing (by hand, or with a wordprocessor, etc.) one's thoughts or
observations: the additional activities, on top of thinking, of writing and reading
back may again increase self-understanding and concentration. It aids ordering
one's thoughts; in addition it produces a record that can be used later again.
Copying text to aid memorizing also falls in this category.
57
• Making gestures while thinking: the additional activity, on top of thinking,
of body motions, may again increase concentration, assist in problem
solving, and assist memory.
• Sense-making e.g. interpreting maps, texts, signs, and symbols
• Interpreting non-verbal communication e.g. gestures, eye contact
• Communication between body parts; e.g. "My stomach is telling me it's time
for lunch."
Interpersonal communication is the process of sending and receiving information
or communication with another person. This process happens in an environment
using different kinds of communication media. This communication could be
verbal or nonverbal.
Types of Interpersonal Communication
This kind of communication is subdivided into dyadic communication, public

communication, and small-group communication.
Basic elements
The process involves four basic elements. Sender; person who sends information.
Receiver; person who receives the information sent. Message; content of
information sent by sender. Feedback; response from receiver.
Interpersonal communication encompasses:
• Speech
• Nonverbal communication
• Unconscious communication
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• summarizing
• paraphrasing
• listening
• questioning
• Initiating: Declaring one's conversational intent and inviting consent from
one's prospective conversation partner
• Turn-taking: Managing the flow of information back and forth between
partners in a conversation by alternating roles of speaker and listener
Having good interpersonal communication skills support such processes as:
• parenting
• intimate relationship
• management
• selling
• counseling
• coaching
• mentoring and co-mentoring, which is mentoring in groups
• conflict resolution
Interpersonal communication is the subject of a number of disciplines in the field

of psychology, Transactional analysis etc.
It can be affected by a communication disorder or by arrogance, shyness, etc
The term group dynamics implies that individual behaviours may differ
depending on individuals' current or prospective connections to a sociological
group. Group dynamics is the field of study within the social sciences that focuses
on the nature of groups. Urges to belong or to identify may make for distinctly
different attitudes (recognized or unrecognized), and the influence of a group may
rapidly become strong, influencing or overwhelming individual proclivities and
actions. The group dynamics may also include changes in behaviour of a person
when he is represented before a group, the behavioural pattern of a person vis-a-vis
group.
Group dynamics form a basis for group therapy. Politicians and salesmen may
make practical exploitations of principles of group dynamics for their own ends.
Increasingly, group dynamics are becoming of particular interest because of online,
social interaction made possible by the internet.
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William Schutz looked at interpersonal relations from the perspective of three
dimensions: Inclusion, control, and affection. This became the basis for a theory of
group behavior that see groups as resolving issues in each of these stages in order
to be able to develop to the next stage. Conversely, a group may also devolve to an
earlier stage if unable to resolve outstanding issues in a particular stage.
Bruce Tuckman proposed the 4- stage model called Tuckman's Stages for a group.
Tuckman's model states that the ideal group decision making process should occur
in four stages:
• Forming (pretending to get on or get along with others);
• Storming (letting down the politeness barrier and trying to get down to the
issues even if tempers flare up );
• Norming (getting used to each other and developing trust and productivity);
• Performing (working in a group to a common goal on a highly efficient and
cooperative basis).
It should be noted that this model refers to the overall pattern of the group, but of
course individuals within a group work in different ways. If distrust persists, a
group may never even get to the norming stage.
Looked at for larger-scale groups, Tuckman's stages of group development are
similar to those developed by M. Scott Peck and set out in his (1987) book, The
Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace. Peck describes the stages of a
community as:
• Pseudo-community
• Chaos
• Emptiness
• True Community
Communities may be distinguished from other types of groups, in Peck's view, by

the need for members to eliminate barriers to communication in order to be able to
form true community. Examples of common barriers are: expectations and
preconceptions; prejudices; ideology, theology and solutions; the need to heal,
convert, fix or solve and the need to control. A community is born when its
members reach a stage of "emptiness" or peace.
Organizational communication is the study of the following:
1. how people communicate within an organizational context, or
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2. the influence of, or interaction with organizational structures in
communicating/organizing.
Organizational communication can include:
Flow of Organizational Communication, e.g.,
• formal, informal
• internal, external
• upward, downward, horizontal
• networks
Induction, e.g.,
• new hire orientation

• policies & procedures
• employee benefits
Channels, e.g.,
• electronic media such as e-mail, intranet, internet

• teleconference
• print media such as memos, bulletin boards, newsletters etc.
• face-to-face
Meetings, e.g.,
• briefings
• staff meetings
• project meetings
• town hall meetings
Interviews, e.g.,
Selection
Performance
Career
Cross-cultural communication (also frequently referred to as intercultural

communication) is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural
backgrounds endeavour to communicate.
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Cross-cultural communication tries to bring together such relatively unrelated areas
as cultural anthropology and established areas of communication. Its core is to
establish and understand how people from different cultures communicate with
each other. Its charge is to also produce some guidelines with which people from
different cultures can better communicate with each other.
For example, how does a person from China communicate with a person from
America? Furthermore, what underlying mental constructs appear from both
parties that allows for constructive communication?
Cross -cultural communication, as many scholarly fields, is a combination of many
other fields. These fields include anthropology, cultural studies, psychology and
communication. The field has also moved both toward the treatment of interethnic
relations, and toward the study of communication strategies used by co-cultural
populations, i.e., communication strategies used to deal with majority or
mainstream populations. The introduction of power as a cultural communication
variable leads to a body of critical scholarship
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.List the various kinds of communication.
ELEMENTS OF MASS COMMUNICATION
It is clear from the definition that mass communication is a special kind of

communication in which the nature of the audience and the feedback is different
from that of interpersonal communication. An examination of these components will
help in understanding the nature of mass communication itself.
Audience
Whosoever is the recipient of mass media content constitutes its audience. For
instance, individuals reading newspapers, watching a film in a theatre, listening to
radio or watching television, are situations where audience is large, heterogeneous,
anonymous in character and physically separated from the communicator both in
terms of space and time. A large audience means that the receivers are masses of
people not assembled at a single place. It may come in different sizes depending
upon the media through which the message is sent. For TV network programmes, for
example, there could be millions of viewers, but only a few thousand readers for a
book or a journal.
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By anonymous, we mean that the receivers of the messages tend to be strangers to
one another and to the source of those messages. So with respect to the
communicator, the message is addressed ‘to whom it may concern’. Also, the
audience tends to be heterogeneous rather than homogeneous in the sense that
messages are sent to people in all walks of life and person with unique
characteristics.
Feedback
As compared to interpersonal communication, feedback in mass media is slow and

weak. It is not instantaneous or direct as in face-to-face exchange and is invariably
delayed. Feedback in mass media is rather a cumulative response, which the source
gets after a considerable gap of time. It is often expressed in quantitative terms: like
circulation figures of newspapers and magazines, the popularity of a movie at box
office, success of a book on the basis of its sales, or the findings of public opinion
polls and on the basis of other feedback devices which are used to determine what is
acceptable or unacceptable to different audiences. In all such cases, considerable
time and money are required to process the feedback received from the audience.
Therefore, delayed and expensive feedback is ingrained in mass media.
Gate keeping
This is again a characteristic unique to mass communication. The enormous scope of

mass communication demands some control over the selection and editing of the
messages that are constantly transmitted to the mass audience. Both individuals and
organizations do gate keeping. Whether done by individuals or organizations, gate
keeping involves setting certain standards and limitations that serve as guidelines for
both content development and delivery of a mass communication message.
Noise
Communication is the rumor game. Here one person in a group is given a piece of
information or a statement. One individual then passes this on orally to the next.
By the time it reaches the last person, the original statement is often distorted or
twisted to a great extent. The same thing occurs during mass communication also.
Distortion or noise in mass communication is of two types-channel noise and
semantic noise. Channel noise is any disturbance within transmission aspects of the
media. In the printed mass media, channel noise ranges from errors, misspellings,
scrambled words, omitted lines, misprinting, etc. Semantic noise is the
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psychological barriers and are equally problematic. They are about understanding
of the message.
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Q1.What are the main elements of Mass Communication?
Importance of Mass Communication
The study of mass communication is particularly concerned

with how communication serves to create, animate, and influence
human societies. Wilbur Schramm is right when he calls communication the tool
that makes human societies possible as every
human endeavor implies communication at some level. Definitions
of communication abound, and basically, most authors agree that communication
involves the process of sharing information.
Mass communication, in the sense of communication mediated to reach extended
audiences, creates territories of its own. It
isolates audiences, defines boundaries, and caters to the needs it
has created. Thus the instrument becomes a creator of human societies, organizing
groups around similarities and dissimilarities.
During World War II Winston Churchill speaking for the Allies
and Adolf Hitler speaking for the Axis used the radio to shape
vastly different societies. Certainly there were economic and political questions
that aggravated the conflict, but it was the rhetoric of
these spokesmen broadcast throughout the world that polarized the
warring groups.
External forces can animate societies. Mass communication does this by raising
issues that fuel further discussion
and debate. The diffusion process prompts inquiry and interest.
This is not to say that without mass communication human societies would
disintegrate. Rather, our point is to emphasize the stimulative function of mediated
messages. The Watergate hearings clearly demonstrated the ability
of mass-communicated messages to animate a society.
Discussions of public policy, ways and means,
war and peace are intensified in the body politic when the issues
are broadcast.
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Mass Media
Mass media are the vehicles of mass communication. They have a special place in
our life today. Individually or collectively they serve the needs of various
audiences who have specific preferences. Some audiences want entertainment,
sports, news, films, plays, serials, dance, music, etc. others may have greater
interest in news and views. Yet others seek guidance to solve their socio-economic
problems. Each medium is powerful in its own right in serving people and each has
gone through several stages of development due to pressure and competition from
newer communication technology.
Print media: which include newspapers, magazines, books and other printed
matter; have served the literate society for long. Their growth, however, was slow
in the beginning but as the demand for education and information increased, they
evolved quickly and flourished greatly. The twentieth century has seen the rapid
growth of the newspaper industry and, to withstand the challenges posed by newer
electronic communication, newspapers have adopted the latest technology, like
computerization, to speed up the production process and improve their quality.
Newspapers have added colored Sunday and Saturday supplements to sustain the
interest of the readers. Colored glossy magazines, which appeal to specific
segments of the society, have mushroomed.
Traditionally, newspapers have a local emphasis, which serves the interests of a

specific community with news, comments, features, photographs, and advertising.
Now we have all kinds of newspapers-big, medium and small. The majority if
them are local in nature but there are some big metropolitan dailies, national in
character, catering to the interests of audiences in many parts of the country. Some
big newspapers have multiple edition coming out from several cities. In India,
among such newspapers are ‘The Hindustan Times’, ‘Navbharat Times’, ‘The
Times of India’, ‘Indian Express’ and ‘The Statesman’.
Electronic media: are the radio, television, satellite, TV, cable TV, cinema, etc,
which are essentially entertainment media. They are different from print medial in
many ways. They provide instantaneous communication and their impact is
greater. They need electricity for speedy delivery of messages across distances and
to the masses that are geographically, culturally, intellectually, and emotionally
separated from one another. Electronic media are quicker than print media the
latter takes more time for mass production and delivery to a widely dispersed
population.
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In spite of limited reach, mass communication is so central to society that life
seems inconceivable without mass media. They inform and shape our social life.
Their influence is positive if they are able to fulfill the information and
entertainment needs of the people in accordance with the existing norms, values
and culture in society, but what concerns us most today in their negative influence.
An overdose of foreign programmes, excessive television viewing and advertising,
exposure to violence, sex, crime, etc can adversely affect the audience, especially
children.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.What is the meaning of Mass media? What are the different media of Mass
communication?
COMMUNICATION V/S MASS COMMUNICTION
COMMUNICATION MASS COMMUNICATION
1.Communication in its simplest 1. Mass communication is defined as

sense involve two or more persons ‘a process whereby mass produced
who come together to share, to messages are transmitted to large,
dialogue and to commune, or just to anonymous and heterogeneous
be together for a festival or family masses of receivers’.
gathering.
2.Feedback is immediate. In this way 2.Feedback is delayed. Feedback

both participants in communication in mass media is slow and
interact and constantly exchange weak. Considerable time and money
roles. In face-to-face communication are required to process the feedback
the receiver responds naturally, received from the audience.
directly and immediately. This Therefore, delayed and expensive
provides the communicator an feedback is ingrained in mass media.
opportunity to improve and make his
communication effective.
3.The Channel of communication is 3.The channels of Mass

the vehicle through which a message communication are the various Mass
is carried from the communicator to Media like newspaper television,
the receiver. The channels of radio, books, computers, films, etc.
communication are many-written,
spoken, verbal, non-verbal, mass
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media like TV, radio,
newspapers, etc.
4. The receiver, at the other end 4.The mass of receivers, are often
of the communication, is the called as mass audience. Mass
recipient of the message and audience can be defined as
must possess the same ‘individuals united by a common
orientation as the focus of interest (to be informed,
communicator. If the receiver educated or entertained) engaging in
does not have the ability to identical behavior towards common
listen, to read, to think, he ends (listening, viewing or reading)’.
will not be able to receive and Yet the individuals involved are
decode the messages in the unknown to one other (anonymous).
manner the communicator
want him to. 5.Entertainment is the main purpose
of most of the mass media like
5. Education and Instruction, television, radio, films, video
Information, entertainment, recorder, though Mass
discussion, persuasion, cultural communication does perform the
promotion, integration, etc. are function of giving out information
the main functions of and education through newspapers,
communication process. books, magazines, etc.
6.It is through Mass communication
that millions of audience is exposed
6.An individual, group, or a to a variety of messages each day.
large number of people could The receiver of the message is a
receive message during the large mass of people.
process of communication.
4.4 SUMMARY
Communication in its simplest sense involve two or more persons who come
together to share, to dialogue and to commune, or just to be together for a festival
or family gathering. Dreaming, talking with someone, arguing in a discussion,
speaking in public, reading a newspaper, watching TV etc. are all different kinds of
communication that we are engaged in every day.
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Any mechanical device that multiplies messages and takes it to a large number of
people simultaneously is called mass communication. The media through which
messages are being transmitted include radio, TV, newspapers, magazines, films,
records, tape recorders, video cassette recorders, etc and require large organizations
and electronic devices to put across the message.
Communication is purposive in social situation. Every individual lives to

communicate and be communicated to. The environment in which he lives to
communicate is charged with millions of communication stimuli but only a few are
received at a time. This means, various objects around an individual are
continuously communicating countless information.
The most common function of mass communication is entertainment. Radio,
television and films are basically entertainment media.
Mass communication has the basic functions to inform, to educate, to entertain and
to persuade. Additionally it also educates and helps in transmission of culture.
The study of mass communication is particularly concerned
with how communication serves to create, animate, and influence
human societies.
Q1.List the main differences in the process of simple communication and Mass
communication.
Q2. Explain in detail the difference in Communication and Mass communication.
4.6 FURTHER READING

3. Mass Communication Journalism in India D S
Mehta 4.Mass Communication Theory Denis Mc Quail

Introduction To Mass Communication

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INTRODUCTION TO MASS

UNIT 2-MODELS OF MASS COMMUNICATION 26-39

UNIT 3-THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION 39-47

UNIT 4-COMMUNICATION V/S

1.0 Unit Objectives

1.0 UNIT OBJECTIVES

• To understand the meaning of Mass Communication

Mass Communication is defined as ‘ any mechanical device that multiples

Mass communication is unique and different from interpersonal communication as

Mass communication is the term used to describe the academic study of

Mass communication can also be defined as ‘a process whereby mass produced

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.3 ELEMENTS OF MASS COMMUNICATION

We require a sender, a message, a channel and a receiver for communication to

Message- A message needs reproduction for making it communicable through the

1. Print-newspapers, books, magazines, pamphlets, etc.

Receiver –Mass communication means communication to the mass, so there

Feedback- Mass communication will have indirect feedback. A source having

Noise- Noise in mass communication is of two types-channel noise and semantic

Characteristics of Mass communication:

1. Directs messages toward relatively large, heterogeneous and anonymous

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1.4.1 The Newspaper

It is the printed means of conveying current information. The modern newspaper is

Up to that time, ‘news’ generally meant reports on social, commercial, or political

Intellectuals in general were deeply wounded by yellow journalism. According to

Leaders in religion, education, law and government increasingly voiced strong

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1.4.2 The Magazine

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1.4.3 The Books

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1.4.4 The Radio

1. Spoken word programmes, which include news bulletins, talks, discussions,

Strength of the Radio

1. Radio reaches messages to illiterates, neo-literates and highly educated

Weakness of the Radio

1. Communication through radio lacks visual component and so does not

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Strength and weakness of Television

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Films refer to all documentary, educational, feature, informational and

Photography and projection were united when Stanford developed the

Strength and weakness

Then came videocassettes. Now it is videodiscs. These eliminate the necessity of

So it can be safely concluded that film, as a medium of entertainment and

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There is a rising use of personal computers by individuals at home and in offices.

1.5 NEED & IMPORTANCE OF MASS COMMUNICATION

1.5.1 Major functions of Mass Communication

The content of mass communication seem diverse in nature to audience as they

Surveillance of environment: It is one of the most important major functions of

Surveillance of environment involves seeking out and then transmitting

1) Increase personal esteem: Personal esteem is built through the

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Entertainment: We all need entertainment to break the monotony of our hectic

Persuasion: Persuasion is an alternative term used to denote an act of influencing

Instruction: Mass communication helps to instruct, educate and socialize the