The Maintenance

and Repair of Traditional

Farm Buildings:
A Guide to Good Practice
Farmsteads and buildings are as important to the character of the countryside
as the pattern of fields and boundaries associated with them. Together they help
to create local identity and sense of place. Traditional farm buildings provide
tangible evidence of local history and forgotten skills. Retaining such buildings
matters because their history tells us of past practices, technology, innovation
and achievements.
Changing agricultural practices and economic pressures mean that many
traditional farm buildings have lost their original purpose and become vulnerable
to neglect and decay. Even those that remain in active agricultural use still
need care and periodic repairs to keep them in good order. This guidance has
therefore been designed to help anyone who owns or manages such buildings.
As well as describing the best ways of carrying out maintenance and repairs
it also explains how work of this kind can help to ensure these buildings have
a sustainable future.
Further advice and research on traditional farm buildings, including the
English Heritage policy statement Living Buildings in Living Landscape: Finding
a Future for Traditional Farm Buildings is available at the Historic Environment
Local Management website. www.helm.org.uk/ruraldevelopment
Frontcover:The late-medieval Stank Hall barn at Beeston, near Leeds before repair. All photographs are copyright of English Heritage unless otherwise noted
1-3Dereliction is a significant 4In the Yorkshire Dales, field
problem with traditional farm barns such as these make a
buildings. It is fuelled by economic significant contribution to landscape
pressures and changing agricultural character Jen Deadman
practices Philip White
CONTENTS
page
INTRODUCTION 2
Why care for farm buildings? 2
Retention in agricultural use 3
DECIDINGABOUTREPAIR 4
A planned approach to the sustainable
management of farm buildings 4
Ownership 4
Designation 4
Condition 5
Understanding the building and its context 7
Options to consider 19
MAINTAININGFARMBUILDINGS 21
The importance of basic maintenance 21
Planned maintenance 21
REPAIRINGFARMBUILDINGS 23
Principles of repair 23
Emergency and holding repairs 24
Repairs to solid walled buildings 27
Repairs to timber framed buildings 29
Roof repairs 31
Floor repairs 35
Mortars and plasters 35
Drainage 37
Recording 37
Specication 38
Repair case studies 38
FURTHERINFORMATION 41
Wildlife 41
Professional help 41
Sources of funding 43
Further reading 44
1 2
3
1
4
THESOCIALBENEFITSOF
REPAIRINGFARMBUILDINGS
Aswellascontributingtothequalityofthelandscape
anditsenjoymentbythepublictherepairoftraditional
farmbuildingscreatesemployment,supportslocal
economiesandsustainscraftskills. Aprojectcommissioned
byEnglishHeritageandDefrahasevaluatedtheseeffects
indetailfortheLakeDistrictNationalPark.
WithoutESA(environmentallysensitivearea)grant
aidtwo-thirdsoftheparksfarmbuildingswerelikely
tobecomederelictwiththeremainderrepairedto
astandardnotinkeepingwithlocalcharacter.
Thegrant-aidedworkprovidedaviablefuturefornearly
65,000squaremetresofhistoricbuildingfloorspace
92%ofthebuildingsrepairedarenowbackinproductive
usewithouttheneedforconversiontoalternative
non-agriculturaluse.Becausethebuildingworkhas
beencarriedoutbylocalfirmsithasprovidedjobs
forthelocaleconomy.
Aswellascontributingtothequalityofthelandscape
anditsenjoymentbythepublic,themaintenanceof
historicbuildingscreatesemployment,supportslocal
economiesandsustainscraftskills.
Source:Building Value: Public Benefits of Historic Farm Building Repair
in the Lake District.EnglishHeritage2005
Image: Thisearly 18th-centuryfieldbarnatUllswaterinthe
LakeDistrictwasrescuedfromderelictionwithanESAgrant
AndrewLowe
INTRODUCTION
This publication gives practical advice to farmers, land
managers and others involved with the maintenance
and repair of traditional farm buildings
1
. It supplements
Living Buildings in a Living Landscape: Finding a Future
for Traditional Farm Buildings (English Heritage 2006),
which sets out the general English Heritage position
on the conservation and adaptive re-use of the farm
building stock.
This guidance is primarily directed to buildings in active
farming or related uses. However, it is also relevant for
buildings that have uncertain futures or need urgent
works to prevent further deterioration of their
structure and fabric.
WHYCAREFORFARMBUILDINGS?
Historic farm buildings and sites in the countryside
provide a unique record of past human activity.
Their great diversity stems from many inuences,
including varying local geology, farming practices,
settlement patterns, land tenure and building techniques.
Together these factors have shaped the form and
appearance of buildings and provided them with their
own distinct regional identities, not only in terms of
visual character but also their expression of differing
functional needs.
Farmsteads and buildings are as important to the
character of the landscape as the eld patterns,
boundaries and route-ways associated with them.
Together they help to create local identity and sense of
place. They are repositories of local history and forgotten
skills, providing tangible evidence of farming history.
Retaining such buildings matters because their fabric and
history have so much to tell us about past agricultural
practices, technology, innovation and achievements
a continuity of knowledge that helps us understand
where we are today.
1
The term traditional relates to building craft skills handed down from generation to generation and to the methods and materials historically used in building.
2
It excludes modern methods of construction using industrialised factory-produced materials such as concrete blocks, sheet roong and plastic products more
commonly employed since the 1950s.
5
5Although farming practices have changed and resources for maintenance
and repair are limited, by far the best option is to keep buildings in active
agricultural use wherever economically practicable. Philip White
RETENTIONINAGRICULTURALUSE
Although farming practices have changed and resources
for maintenance and repair are limited, by far the best
option in terms of conserving their historic character
is for farm buildings to be kept in continuing active
agricultural use, wherever economically practicable.
Alterations needed to keep a traditional farm building
in active agricultural use will often be less detrimental
to the historic character of the farmstead and the wider
landscape than the changes required for converting
it to a non-agricultural use.
THEWESTMIDLANDSFARMSTEADS
ANDLANDSCAPESPROJECT
ThisprojectwasconductedbyEnglishHeritagein
collaborationwiththeregionaldevelopmentagency
AdvantageWestMidlandsandlocalcountyand
metropolitanauthorities.Itspurposewastohelpnational
andlocaldecision-makersevaluatethefutureusesfor
farmbuildingsandtoidentifythemostsignificantand
vulnerablecasesusingthemappingofallfarmsteads
fromaround1900asabaseline.
Thestudyconcludedthathistoricfarmsteadsareassets
thathavesignificantpotentialtomakeanimportant
contributiontotheruralbuildingstock,landscape
characterandlocaldistinctivenessoftheWestMidlands,
eitherthroughagriculturalornewuses.
Athirdofhistoricfarmsteadswithbuildingssurviving
fromaroundorbefore1900remaininagriculturaluse
withvaryingdegreesofdiversification;only5%havebeen
convertedtosoleindustrial,commercialorretailuse.
Theremainder,however,areincompleteorpartial
residentialuseasaresultoftheconversionofsomeor
alloftheirworkingbuildingsintohousing. Theeconomic
significanceofmixedresidentialandcommercialuse
canbeeasilyoverlooked.Regardlessoflocation,historic
farmsteadsaremoreoftenusedforadiversityofhome-
basedentrepreneurialbusinessesthanotherdwellings.
Pressuresonpublicfinances,environmentalstewardship
andothergrantprogrammesformaintainingtraditional
farmbuildingsareallgrowing. Thismeansthatscarce
resourcesneedtobetargetedatareasofgreatest
amenityandlandscapevalue,especiallythosewithhigh
densitiesoffarmsteadsincontinuingagriculturaluse,and
towardsthemostsignificantbutleastadaptablebuildings.
ForthemajorityofsitesacrosstheWestMidlands,
however,privateinvestmentandmaintenanceoffersthe
mosteffectivelong-termsolutiontomaintaininghistoric
farmsteadsasassetsinthelandscape.
Images:FarmsteadsintheTemevalley
3
DECIDINGABOUTREPAIR
APLANNEDAPPROACHTOTHE
SUSTAINABLEMANAGEMENT
OFFARMBUILDINGS
The value of traditional farm buildings can easily
be compromised by neglect or unsympathetic repair
involving inappropriate materials and extensive
replacement of historic fabric. It therefore makes
good economic sense for farm businesses to include
planned maintenance in their annual budgets not
least because major repairs cost far more than
ongoing regular maintenance.
Farm buildings respond well to straightforward repairs
using simple materials and building skills compatible with
their existing construction. Once they are allowed to
develop serious defects, however, the costs of repair
can become so high that their continued agricultural
use becomes difcult to justify. And if unused buildings
are not kept weather-tight, they quickly begin a long
gradual decline into dereliction.
The rst aim of long-term maintenance planning is
to make sure that nancial investment is relative and
appropriate to the benets that the buildings can provide.
It also needs to be informed by an understanding of how
individual buildings contribute to the character of the
farmstead of which they are a part and to the wider
surrounding landscape in which they are set.
Before embarking on a programme of repairs it is also
important to think about how the building or buildings
are used now and how they might be used in the
future. Do they have:
Valuable agricultural use?
Marginal agricultural use, for storage etc?
No current agricultural use?
The assessment framework included in this guidance
is designed to help with planning repairs and working
out the available options for prolonging the life of
the building. An initial assessment might cover the
following issues:
Ownership-whether the occupant is the owner
or tenant?
Is the building subject to any form of designation?
What is the structural condition of the building?
What are the estimated costs of repairs?
Can the building serve a valued agricultural use?
How good is access to the building?
Does the building have the capacity for change?
What are the short/long term objectives?
A more detailed assessment would involve professional
advice about condition and repair costs, alongside an
options appraisal of the buildings potential short and
long-term uses.
OWNERSHIP
How a building is owned whether by an individual,
a company, a charity or a public utility can be a
major factor in determining the options for sustainable
management. Large estates often have a degree of
exibility in the use of their buildings that is not available
to an individual owner. In the case of leased buildings
the owner should note that:
The repair costs of leased buildings may need
to be apportioned between landlord and tenant.
Buildings in very poor condition might have to
be taken out of any tenancy agreement.
DESIGNATION
If the building or the area in which it stands is subject
to one or more kinds of statutory designation its repair
may require special consent in addition to planning
permission. The specic questions you need to ask are:
Is the building or farmstead listed or within the
curtilage of a listed building?
Does it stand close to or is any part of it a scheduled
ancient monument?
Is it in an adopted conservation area or area
of outstanding natural beauty?
Is it located in a site designated for its nature
conservation value or importance to bio-diversity?
4
LISTED BUILDINGS
AND SCHEDULED MONUMENTS
General maintenance and repair work to listed buildings
will not usually require listed building consent providing
there is a like-for-like use of materials and no major loss
of historic fabric. For unlisted buildings, repair work does
not constitute development and therefore will not usually
require planning permission. However, local planning
authorities may require a consent application for larger
programmes of work, such as re-roong or structural
repair involving extensive replacement of material, if
these are likely to alter the character of the building.
It is important to note that buildings lying within the
curtilage of a statutorily listed building are normally also
deemed to be listed. All works to scheduled ancient
monuments invariably require consent. If you are at all
uncertain about the designated status of your building
you should seek the advice of your local planning
authoritys conservation ofcer.
URGENT WORKS NOTICES
AND REPAIRS NOTICES
Local authorities have powers to serve urgent works
notices and repairs notices to the owners of listed
buildings. Although usually used only as a last resort, these
can be invoked when a listed building has been allowed
to deteriorate to such an extent that its future is at risk.
Urgent works are intended to be temporary measures
and can lead to repair notices being served if specied
work is not adequately undertaken. The building may
therefore remain at risk.
CONSERVATION AREAS
Conservation area designations allow local authorities
greater controls over demolition and minor development,
even if buildings are not individually listed. While these
controls do not apply to maintenance and simple repair
they may affect proposed repair works that could
signicantly change the areas appearance.
BUILDINGS AT RISK REGISTERS
English Heritage maintains a national register of Grade I
and II* listed buildings at risk from neglect and decay.
Local authorities also hold their own separate registers
of Grade II listed buildings at risk, which may also include
unlisted historic buildings, especially those that lie within
designated conservation areas or that make an important
contribution to the overall rural or urban landscape.
BUILDING REGULATIONS
Although farm buildings are normally exempt from
building regulation control there are exceptions to
this rule, particularly when they are close to sleeping
accommodation or are used for retailing, packing
or exhibiting.
It is important to note that re exits may be required for
certain uses. Any queries about this should be discussed
with your local authoritys building control ofcer.
CONDITION
Condition and the costs of repair can be key factors
in determining the range of options available for a farm
building. An initial assessment of condition can be made
fairly easily but it is often necessary to follow this up
with a more detailed condition survey, possibly involving
some initial investigative work, to give a better idea of
repair costs. A detailed survey is also essential for the
correct diagnosis of problems and the production of
a specication for repair works.
NEGLECT AND NATURAL WEATHERING
The most commonly encountered problems are
those associated with neglect and a lack of regular
maintenance. As a result, parts of the structure can
become subject to prolonged wetting which in turn
leads to decay and structural failures.
Dry rot is one of the most damaging fungal infections
affecting timber in buildings. However, it is almost
unknown in traditional farm buildings. This is because
of the high levels of ventilation in most farm buildings
and the infrequent use of timber as a ooring material.
It is also due to the natural durability of many old
timbers. It is important therefore to maintain plenty
of ventilation to prevent dry rot.
5
6
6 7
8
9 10
6Slipped slates needing re-fixing at
the verge a particularly vulnerable
area of a roof Philip White
7Single roman tile showing early
stages of spalling Philip White
8Undersized rafters with a high
collar showing considerable
bending Philip White
9Neglect of the roof and
guttering has resulted in
decay to this timber lintel
10Bird and vermin damage to
decayed cob Philip White
11Cutting this tie beam to
accommodate a grain bin could
result in structural problems
Philip White
12Poorly executed widening of
this stable door has resulted in
cracking above Philip White
11 12
The chances of fungal infection taking hold will also
increase if the fabric becomes saturated as a result
of defects such as raised ground levels or defective
rainwater down-pipes. Wet rot, if left unchecked,
will ultimately result in very high repair costs and
the loss of historic fabric.
Insect attack can seriously damage timber
components and will lead to their failure if left
unchecked. The sapwood of hardwoods, unseasoned
softwood and timber infected by fungi are the
most common targets for infestation by beetles.
Frost and salts are two other natural sources of
damage to building materials. If moisture penetrates
imperfect masonry joints subsequent frost action
can cause stones and bricks to become loose.
As a result yet more water is able to make its
way into the structure, which in turn results in
mortar being washed from joints and eventually
the collapse of the entire wall.
STRUCTURAL PROBLEMS
Sometimes it is inherent defects in the original
construction of a farm building that lead to later
problems. These can include:
Inadequate foundations, which may have moved
as a result of long-term structural loading overcoming
the passive resistance of the sub-base.
Roof trusses, particularly in older buildings, which
eventually become stressed through overloading.
Typical signs are bowing of the principal rafters
and purlins and support walls that lean outwards
as they resist the spread from inadequate trusses.
Wall movement that may be the result of overloading
from past or recent use, for example the storage of
big bales or bulk grain against walls not designed as
retaining structures.
ALTERATIONS
Problems can also arise as a result of inappropriate
earlier repairs or alterations, including:
Inappropriate structural alterations.
Work that has compromised the breathability
of the structure, leading to excessive dampness
and deterioration for example, rendering or
re-pointing walls with a strong cement mortar
is often the cause.
The use of heavy roong materials such as concrete
tiles that cause excessive loading to roof structures
designed for a lighter material such as slate.
Foundation sub-bases affected by ground water that
result in wall movement and cracking excavation can
inuence ground water movement even when carried
out some considerable distance from a building.
External ground levels that may have risen to such
an extent that part of the structure is subject to
prolonged wetting, which in turn gives rise to rot
and decay.
UNDERSTANDINGTHE
BUILDINGANDITSCONTEXT
Understanding the building and its context is
fundamental to determining its historical signicance
and its adaptabilityto new uses.
SIGNIFICANCE
Signicant traditional farmsteads will make a positive
contribution to localdistinctivenessand an areas
senseofplace, through their varied scales and layouts,
use of materials and the way that they relate to the
surrounding form and patterning of landscape and
settlement. They will have one or more of the following:
Historic groups of structures that contribute
to the landscapes and settlements within which
they developed.
Legible historic groups, where the buildings can be
seen and appreciated in relationship to each other,
and the yards and other open spaces within and
around the farmstead.
Historic buildings with minimal change to their
traditional form, or in some cases their importance
as examples of estate or industrial architecture.
Locally distinctive building materials.
Heritage assets buildings that are listed or subject
to another form of designation such as those within
conservation areas (see Designation).
Farmsteads and their buildings can also be important
wildlife habitats, in particular for protected species such
as owls and bats. Existing nesting areas and roosts should
be disturbed as little as possible and there may also be
opportunities to create new ones, both within the
buildings and through planting around the site.
7
13
14 15
16
17
13Farmsteads, including those
in hamlets as here in Drebley in
the Yorkshire Dales are often sited
amongst piecemeal patterns of
enclosure from farmland and open
pasture, which may date from the
medieval period
14Isolated farmsteads can be
sited among small-scale and
irregular fields which resulted
from land and woodland clearance
in the medieval period or earlier.
The Elms, Keswick, Worcestershire
15Farmsteads within and on
the edge of settlements can be
appreciated in relationship to
other historic buildings and
distinctive patterns of enclosure.
The latter often retain the narrow
profiles of earlier closes and strips.
A farmstead in a Leicestershire
Vales village Bob Edwards
16Farmsteads sited amongst
regular patterns of enclosure,
which are most commonly
associated with the re-planning
of common land or earlier
enclosed landscapes in the
period after 1750. A farmstead in
the Howardian Hills set amongst
fields that date from the enclosure
of open pastures and farmland
after 1750 Natural England
17Courtyard farmsteads have
the building set around and often
facing towards one or more
yards. A courtyard in the east of
Shropshire Shropshire Council
8
18
18The medieval farmstead with
a range of buildings set around
several yards, at Saddlescombe in
the South Downs Bob Edwards
19A loose courtyard complex
dating from the 16th century in
the lowlands of Herefordshire
Herefordshire Council
20Field barns and outfarms which
are detached from the main group.
These may have been built with
yards and provided with access
tracks. A field barn in Nidderdale
Jen Deadman
19
20
ADAPTABILITY
When thinking about potential for new uses for
historic farm buildings it is important to consider
both their own characteristics and their wider setting:
Landscapecontext
Viewpoints towards the farmstead, which may
be prominent or screened by landform, vegetation,
other buildings.
Thesiteanditsbuildings
The opportunities or constraints offered by the
plan form and the level of proposed change.
Ease of access. Some farmsteads may only have a
single, private point of access, which constrains the
amount of trafc that can leave and enter the site.
Others may stand alongside, or sit astride a road
or public path, or be at a junction of route-ways
that provide public rights of way to the centre
of the farmstead.
The capacity for change presented by the form
and scale of the buildings. The number and size
of openings and the existing and historic sub-division
of internal spaces. Buildings of varying sizes designed
for different historic purposes from smaller-scale
traditional buildings to large post-1950 sheds
will clearly present different capacities for change.
The number and size of the openings and the
existing sub-division of the internal spaces.
The evidence for lost oors and partitions, historic
features such as stalls, machinery, grain bins and oor
surfaces, exposed carpentry including roof trusses and
oors, historical grafti and marks of lost features.
The durability and vulnerability of the building materials.
The cost and availability of traditional building
materials, and the potential for the use of materials
salvaged from the site or available elsewhere.
HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT
The character of farmsteads and the landscapes around
them reects how distinct agricultural regions have
developed since the medieval period, specialising to
different degrees in the production of corn, livestock
or dairy products. Most traditional farm buildings
date from the19th century, and especially the capital
intensive high farming years of the 1840s70s that saw
a particularly sharp increase in productivity. This was
followed by a long but regionally varied depression
that lasted until the Second World War.
LANDSCAPE AND SETTLEMENT CONTEXT
The siting and density of farmsteads also reect
patterns of settlement and land use that frequently
reach back into the medieval period and sometimes
earlier. In some areas the land was worked from
villages, while in others there have since the medieval
period been high densities of isolated farmsteads.
FARMSTEADS AND BUILDINGS
A farmstead is the hub of the farm where the
farmhouse and some or all of the working farm
buildings are located; some farms have eld barns
or out-farms sited away from the main homestead.
Complete historic farmsteads, where the working
buildings are seen in relationship to each other, are
usually more signicant than individual surviving buildings.
It is important to understand the original purpose
of any farm building before undertaking repairs.
Farm buildings are often simply described as barns,
although they may in fact have housed a number of
different functions under a single roof. Clues to those
functions can range from the overall form of a building
to the size and layout of its openings, the pattern of
its doorframe and style of its windows. Other ttings
such as handles, brackets, and mouldings and details
associated with individual estates also serve to lend
local distinctiveness to farm buildings.
The three main traditional uses of farm buildings were
for housing animals, storing crops and equipment or
for processing the products of the farm. Where two or
more functions co-existed, they were usually separated
by partition walls or changes in oor level. For example,
cow houses and stables often had haylofts above them,
with adjacent feed-preparation rooms connected to
them by a door.
9
21
22
21Linear plans where houses
and working buildings are attached
and in-line. These are now most
common in northern and western
pastoral areas Longhouse in
Dartmoor Bob Edwards
22Dispersed plans have no
focal yard area. The buildings
are clustered, set out around
multiple dispersed yards or sited
along a track. A dispersed plan
typical of the High Weald of Kent
and Sussex, with the working
buildings clustered within a large
paddock Donna Scott/High
Weald AONB Unit
23Regular courtyard plans,
where buildings are carefully
planned as linked ranges and
often result from a single phase
of building. Farmsteads can
be arranged as full courtyard,
L,U and E-plan arrangements,
always with one or more yards
for the collection of manure.
A regular courtyard plan in
the North Pennines
23
STORAGE AND PROCESSING BUILDINGS
u The Barnfor threshing was the most important
building on the farm and usually the largest, though
in some areas usually where little corn was grown
barns can be very small. Threshing barns are unlit
ventilated buildings that were used exclusively for
threshing and storing the harvested crop. Combination
barns such as the bank barns of Cumbria and
the West Country incorporated animal housing,
granaries, root stores and feed preparation as well
as the essential storage and processing of crops.
From the late18th century equipment for threshing
and the preparation of feed for livestock was powered
by horse mills, waterwheels or steam, all of which
were usually housed in attached buildings of their own.
Wind power was rarely used. By the mid19th century
traditional barns had been replaced in some areas by
mixing barns multi-functional ranges for storing and
processing grain and feed with the aid of portable
steam engines.
The most distinctive feature of the traditional
ail-threshing barn is a threshing oor with opposing
doors for winnowing. The oor will be of timber, or
less commonly stone, running across the width of
the building. A threshing oor will often have heavier
boards than the adjacent storage oor and there
may be steps from one to the other. Entrance doors
were typically large and paired so that a varied draught
could be arranged. The winnowing (rear) door might
be relatively small and corn holes (small-boarded
chambers) may survive close to the threshing oor.
Slots at the side of the barn doorways were designed
to hold boards at oor level. Corn holes may also
be found close to the threshing oor.
Some barns were only built for storage and feed
preparation. These will have no threshing oor.
Field barns are in-eld cow-houses or shelters
with lofted fodder storage.
24
26
25
u Haybarnswere constructed in areas where
large numbers of cattle were housed over winter.
Metal-framed Dutch barns (originally termed French
barns) date from the 1880s.
10
27
11
28
u Outfarmsare multi-purpose buildings used for animal
housing and crop or fodder storage. They are sometimes
contained within an enclosure, and always sited away
from the main farmstead. Their distinguishing feature
is that no farmhouse existed with the facility.
29
u Ciderbarnsare usually older farm buildings that
were re-used for cider making from the 19th century
onwards; examples designed specically for cider
processing tend to be rare. Even if the original cider
press or horse gin has been removed, its former
presence can sometimes be conrmed from marks
on the walls or oor. Another indication is the inclusion
of a mezzanine or part upper oor for storing apples.
30
u Granarieswere very important facilities for storing
grain. Their age and size can be an indication of a farms
earlier scale and wealth. They can either be detached
structures or incorporated in the upper oor of a
working building such as a cart-shed or stable The latter
can often be recognised from their external stairs,
sometimes with a step up behind the entrance door.
Other telltale evidence can include various methods
for keeping vermin and thieves from the stored grain,
such as staddle stones, iron tongues in boarded ooring,
plastered ceilings and llets around walls, locks to doors,
and gaps or steps at the entrance.
31
u Oasthousesand hopkilnsare conned almost
exclusively to Englands two main hop growing areas in
the South East and around Hereford and Worcester.
Malthouseshave a wider distribution but are very
rare: they are associated with brewing which was an
ancillary part of the livelihood of some farms. They can
sometimes be misinterpreted as grain-drying facilities.
Millsfor grinding grain into our are found on some
farmsteads, but they are very rare.
32 33
u Cartshedsare most commonly 19th-century buildings
but earlier examples are sometimes found on larger
farms where machinery needed to be sheltered
separately from the main barn. Sometimes they
include overhead granaries and their entrances can
either be in the side or end, depending on the region.
Waggon houses, designed to shelter a loaded waggon
overnight, are much larger than simple cart-sheds and
were normally open at both ends, although some have
now been closed off at one end.
ANIMAL HOUSING
34
35 36
u Dairycowhousingvaries regionally more than any
other housing type. The majority of cow houses built
before the mid-19th century were lofted to provide
hay storage and are typied by hardened stone or
brick oors. The standings for the animals may be along
the building or across it depending on the region and
period of construction, typically with a step up to the
standings and partitions that meet a manger in front.
Today however, these are often concreted over.
Removing concrete will usually destroy historic details
such as cobbling, partition lines, and drainage routes.
Cowhouse doors needed to be wide enough for
the cattle to come in and out without damaging their
hips. To make dung-cleaning easier ventilated doors
typically opened outwards and had gaps beneath them
for drainage. Loose yards and shelter sheds generally
have earth or chalk oors and little else besides
mangers, ladders to lofts, where these existed.
A noticeable type in South West England is the
two-storeyed linhay, with an open or part-boarded
upper oor facing the yard.
37
u Pighousingmay take the form of enclosed piggeries
or individual pigsties. The more common pigsties are
identiable by their small pens and yards. In areas without
open yards, pigsties might be attached to or incorporated
within other buildings. These are characterised by the
presence of feed hatches that can be accessed from the
outside. Other signicant features are xed troughs or
feed positions, often within the wall line. Boar housing,
perhaps with a service pen, may be found nearby.
38
u Dairiesmay be attached to and part of the dwelling
house. Good examples will still have stone or slate
shelves and stone or brick oors with good drainage.
Less commonly, a channel will allow a through-ow of
cooling water. Examples within model farms may also
feature decorative tiling and even elements of gothic
or ferme orne design.
12
u Fowlhousesare much less common than pig houses
because hens and geese were often encouraged to
shelter in buildings designed for other purposes.
Geese houses may feature low entrance openings
and nests within the interior wall faces. Hen houses
can be small buildings offering sound refuge from
predators. Occasionally they are found above pig
housing since it was thought that foxes did not
enjoy the proximity of pigs.
39
40
u Stablingwas second only to the barn in status because
of the importance of horses to the farm. The quality
of construction and levels of ornamentation may
reect this importance, alongside horses needs for
good light and ventilation. Many stables were lofted
for hay storage and evidence of hay drops in the oor
above may still exist. Internal plastering to walls and
ceilings was typical. Floors were always of stone or
brick pavers, and only later concreted. Partitions could
be of industrially manufactured iron, or joinery-quality
timberwork. The positions of mangers and hayracks
on the walls can sometimes still be detected.
41
u Dedicated Sheephousingis rare compared with
unroofed sheepfolds and is generally conned to the most
remote parts of the northern uplands. Hogg houses (for
young adult female sheep) and shearing sheds are the
main forms, and are concentrated in the least accessible
parts of the uplands. Open fronted single-storey sheds,
typically low in height, are also found in upland areas
and other parts of England where large numbers of
sheep were kept.
42
u Dovecotesare among the most easily recognised
and attractive of farm buildings. Freestanding examples
date back as far as the medieval period, becoming
more common as early legal restrictions on dovecote
ownership began to relax. However, not all dovecotes
are dedicated freestanding structures. By the 19th
century, many farms provided accommodation for
pigeons in the form of nest holes with perching ledges
on the external faces of barn and stable walls.
13
14
43
43Small pinning stones have
been used with lime mortar to
this slatestone wall which is a
regional feature Philip White
44At least three different materials
have been used to construct this
farm building in the West Midlands
44
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
The wide range of materials used in farm buildings is
one of the keys to local distinctiveness and sense of
place. As well as reecting Englands great geological
diversity it owes much to different regional building
traditions, degrees of wealth, access to transport links
and the way in which local timber and other resources
were managed. The resulting variety in traditional walling
and roong materials and forms of construction often
survived much longer on working farm buildings
than farmhouses.
Awareness of these regional variations in the use of
materials and construction methods is fundamental
to achieving a successful repair. For instance:
The type of stone determined the way builders
dressed and laid the material.
Buildings constructed of locally dug earth mixed
with water, straw and cow dung were often
lime-plastered inside and out to protect the
vulnerable earth core.
Colourwash applied to plaster over timber
may be locally distinctive.
Timber construction can display local and regional
patterns of framing.
Bricks may be imported or baked from local clays;
they can also display variations in decorative treatment
and bonding.
Constructional details such as masonry bonding styles,
plastering, jointing types and structural layout all
differed between regions.
A fundamental characteristic of traditional construction
is its breathability and exibility. Breathability is the ability
of materials to absorb moisture and release it again as
conditions change without causing long-term damage to
the building itself. Until the mid-19th century, masonry
buildings (except those of dry stone) were pointed
with lime putty or earth based mortars. Timber-frame
construction also relied on masonry bases and
breathable inll panels.
Lime, when used in mortar and plaster, has a high
degree of breathability. This, coupled with ventilation
through roofs, doors, and windows, allowed buildings
to accommodate moisture and dry out through
evaporation. Earth buildings have a similar character.
Some lime mortars contained impurities that
made them slightly hydraulic, but others did not.
Builders might add materials such as brick dust to the
mortar to create a more hydraulic lime. The stronger
naturally hydraulic limes have the ability to set when
wet or under water and so were used below ground
and in other continuously damp conditions. For internal
plastering, ordinary (non-hydraulic) slaked lime putty
was the norm.
Cement began to supplant lime as the main bonding
agent at around the time of the First World War.
After the Second World War cemented concrete
block-work laid on substantial foundations and with
damp-proof courses rapidly replaced traditional
walling materials for farm buildings.
45Derelict stable with remnants 46Large sandstone tiled
of cob and limewashed lime plaster roofs typify many farm buildings
Philip White of northern England
45
46
15
BUILDING MATERIALS
u Stonedominates the stock of farm buildings in many
parts of the country, its use sometimes reecting the
status of the farm and its owner. Because each kind of
stone has its own special properties, masons learnt to
shape and bond the material in locally distinctive styles.
47
48
u Flintwas used as a building material in those chalk
areas of eastern and southern England that lacked a
better local form of building stone. Brick lacing courses
provided extra strength and stability and brick dressings
were used to form quoins and openings.
49
u Brickhas a long tradition as a building material. It was
rst used in eastern England in the14th century but did
not come into general use until the late 18th and 19th
centuries. Mass production and the growth of the
canals and railways allowed bricks to be transported
widely, even into areas where timber framing had been
the main form of construction.
50
u Earthwallingis an ancient building tradition that
has its origins in the medieval period and beyond.
It also displays greater regional variation than any
other construction technique. Areas in which it was
particularly favoured include the South East, South
West, the East Midlands, East of England, and northern
Cumbria. Mud and stud is a form of earth walling in
which earth daub is used to completely encase a frame
of timber studwork, resulting in a wall approximately
300mm thick. It was mainly used for cottages but just
a few mud and stud farm buildings have survived in
Lincolnshire and in the Fylde area of Lancashire.
51
16
u Timberframebuildings are now concentrated in
southern England and the Midlands and different
traditions of carpentry developed either side of the
limestone belt. The walls were either inlled with
wattle and daub, bricks or stone or clad in boards.
The earliest cleft or hand sawn boards are often of
elm or oak. These should be re-used wherever possible
and new boards sawn to match existing work and xed
in similar fashion. During repair, careful inspection of
interior faces for grooves, holes or slots can reveal
the method and type of earlier inll work.
52
u Slatefor roong could traditionally be obtained only
from parts of Wales, the Lake District, the West
Country, Leicestershire, and the Isle of Man. From the
late-18th century onwards Lake District and Welsh
slate was carried far and wide as a result of improved
canal, coastal shipping and rail networks. Slate was also
used to clad the walls of some farm buildings, most
notably in Cornwall, West Devon, and Cumbria.
53
u Stoneslates, usually of limestone or sandstone,
were used for the roofs of high-status buildings from
medieval times. Despite improved transportation from
the later 18th century it was always more restricted
in its distribution on account of the great weight of
the individual slates. Today the best examples are
encountered throughout the Pennines, part of the
Kent and Sussex Weald, and across the limestone
belt that runs from the Isles of Purbeck and Portland
in Dorset up through Bath, Oxford, Lincolnshire and
on to Whitby.
54
u Claytileshave been produced wherever suitable
clays are found essentially southern England east of
Somerset and the whole eastern side of the country as
far as the Scottish border. Many domestic tile patterns
came from the Low Countries and some found their
way onto farm buildings. In the South East hanging clay
tiles were also used as a form of wall cladding.
Improved transport systems also allowed the
widespread19th-century introduction of pantiles
instantly recognisable from their distinctive S-curve
prole. These are concentrated in Somerset, parts
of Dorset and in the north east from the Vale of
Pickering to Northumberland.
55
u Thatchwas historically the most widespread method
of roong farm buildings, although its method of
application varied from region to region and according
to the available raw material. Long straw and combed
wheat straw (also called Devon wheat reed) were the
most common, but heather and water reed were also
used in areas where they grew naturally.
Many thatched farm buildings had their roofs replaced
with tiles or slate during the 19th century, and in the
early 20th century many others were saved from
terminal decay by the application of cheap and easily
maintained corrugated iron sheeting.
17
18
56 57
58
59 60
61 62
63
56Inscription on a timber
post of a barns building date
Philip White
57Mason mark Philip White
58Disused timber grain bins
Philip White
59Evidence of the position
of a manger in floor stones
Philip White
64
60Daisy wheel Philip White
61Pencil graffiti on a barn timber
commemorating the declaration
of war in 1914 Philip White
62Evidence of previous
door hinges Philip White
63Cow stalls Philip White
64Cider pound Philip White
DOORS, WINDOWS AND FITTINGS
The doors and windows of traditional farm buildings
show considerable variation, depending on a combination
of functional need and local tradition. Cow house doors,
for example, have no frame and open outwards to
facilitate cleaning out. Features of this kind need to be
respected if the character of a building is to be maintained.
Replacement with different types of doors and frames
can signicantly reduce the historic and visual interest
of a building.
The internal features of historic farm buildings are
also of fundamental importance for working out the
original use of a building. They should not be removed
from a building before a survey has been undertaken,
even if only to a basic level. Without such a record,
important evidence will be lost.
Partitions within cow-houses and stables are the
most noticeable and may be part of the original
construction. Less obvious but important features
include hanging hooks, cupboards, window treatment,
door types, and xing details. The different ways in
which doors are hung can be a very useful guide
to the date of buildings.
Granaries were either plastered and/or boarded for
grain bins and may contain evidence such as tongued
ooring, wall-to-oor junction llets and steps or gaps
at their entrances. Corn holes and timber bins for
storing grain are other historic features that are not
always easy for the non-specialist to understand.
Various forms of carpenters marks can tell much about
the original construction of the building but are often
overlooked. As well as indicating how the timbers were
originally prepared (by hewing, cleaving or sawing) they
can also explain the sequence in which the frames and
trusses of the building were assembled. The style of the
marks may also demonstrate whether the timber was
locally sourced or imported from the continent of
Europe or North America.
As work places, farm buildings naturally acquire the
usual wear and tear resulting from constant use signs
of use. Other evidence takes the form of deliberately
incised markings often on timbers or walls. Amongst
the most intriguing are secret ritual and religious marks
made for the protection of the building or workers
within it. These are found in all parts of England but are
particularly common in East Anglia, which also has the
most complicated examples. Tally marks and general
grafti, often in pencil, are usually associated with those
who worked in the building. If unrecognised or ignored,
fascinating information of this kind can all too easily
be lost when material is removed from buildings.
OPTIONSTOCONSIDER
Having carefully considered the historical interest
and sensitivity of a farm building the next step is
to examine the options for its future maintenance,
repair and possible adaptation to an economically
viable new use.
basicmaintenance for buildings with low-intensity
uses such as storage
emergencyrepairs/holdingrepairs to prevent
collapse or signicant further deterioration in
building fabric
shorttermrepairs minimal repair to extend
the life of the building
fullrepair for signicant buildings that will remain
in agricultural use, have the potential for adaptive
reuse or are located in designated landscapes
donothing for buildings of lower signicance with
little potential for adaptive reuse and where repair
for agricultural use is not economic.
In the case of buildings that no longer serve an
economic agricultural function, sympathetic adaptation
to new uses will often be an acceptable alternative
means of conserving their character while simultaneously
recouping the costs of repair. The related English Heritage
publication The Conversion of Traditional Farm buildings:
a guide to good practice provides further guidance.
BARNSONTHEBOLTONABBEYESTATE
BoltonAbbeyisa12,000hectareestateinNorth
Yorkshirethatincludeslargenumbersoftraditional
farmbuildingsamongstitsassets.Maintainingthese
buildingsrequireslong-termplanningandthecareful
prioritisationoffinancialresources.Investmenthasto
beappropriatetotheeconomicbenefitsthatcanbe
sustainedfromrepairoradaptationforotheruses.
Italsoneedstocontributetotheestatesoverall
objectivesofcreatingemploymentinthecommunity
andenhancingthewiderenvironment. Theestate
thereforeusedanadaptedversionoftheassessment
frameworkdevelopedbyEnglishHeritages
CharacterisationTeamtoidentifytheoptions
forchangeandestablishprioritiesforaction.
Assessmentwasbasedonarapidsurveyofthecharacter,
significanceandsensitivitytoadaptivereuseofmorethan
70fieldbarnsscatteredacrosstheestate. Thisshowed
thatthepotentialforchangedependednotonlyonthe
typeofbarnbutitslocation. Asaresult,theestatewas
abletoidentifypreferredandsecondaryoptionsforthe
long-termmanagementoftheestatestraditionalfarm
buildings.Sinceitscompletionin2008thesurveyhas
informedanumberofsuccessfulapplicationsforadaptive
reuseaswellaspromptingarangeofothersolutions
forreuseandmaintenance.Forexample,thearchitects
FeildenCleggBradleyStudios(withsupportfromthe
YorkshireDalesNationalParkAuthority,YorkshireDales
MillenniumTrustandtheBoltonAbbeyestate)leda
practicalexperimenttoinstallaprototypefree-standing
eco-podintoafieldbarnidentifiedforadaptivereuse.
Source:Farm Buildings and Change on the Bolton Abbey Estate,
North Yorkshire: A Character-based Pilot Study.EnglishHeritage,
2009(www.helm.org.uk)
Images:FarmbuildingsontheBoltonAbbeyEstateinNorthYorkshire
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OPTIONASSESSMENTFRAMEWORK
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OWNERSHIP
individual/tenanted?
duty of care landlord/tenant
implications for capital investment?
DESIGNATION
is the farm building a scheduled ancient monument/listed building or within the curtilage of a listed building?
is the building within a conservation area/area of outstanding natural beauty/national park or a
designated area of nature conservation?
PRESENTUSE
building in original use?
valuable
marginal
agricultural use
agricultural use no agricultural use
eg. storage
CONDITION
preliminary assessment
fully costed assessment
very poor ongoing
emergency maintenance
repairs required is sufficient
basic holding full repair
repair with for continued
10 year life agricultural use
UNDERSTANDING
THEBUILDING
SIGNIFICANCE ADAPTABILITY
Consider levels of change assess Site scale issues location is it part
survival as a traditional group in its of a group? access to highway access
landscape setting rarity as a building/group to services capacity for change
REPAIROPTIONS
donothing-repair not economic for agricultural use
emergencyrepairs-structure needs urgent attention to avoid collapse
basicholdingrepair-to keep building in use
fullrepair for long term continued agricultural use-investigate grant aid
changeof use-this may emerge as an option where repair
costs are uneconomic for continued agricultural use
MAINTAINING
FARMBUILDINGS
THEIMPORTANCEOF
BASICMAINTENANCE
The best way to retain the value of a farm building
is to keep it in good condition. In turn this means
carrying out the regular maintenance needed to keep
it weatherproof and thus avoid expensive future repairs.
Damp penetration is the commonest cause of decay
in buildings and is usually the result of simple problems
such as defective guttering and downpipes that can
be easily avoided with regular maintenance.
Maintenance differs from repair work. Repair is
work to put right signicant decay or damage
that has already occurred whereas maintenance
is the continuous protective care of the building.
Maintenance can be carried out either on an
as needs basis or as part of a proactive cyclical plan.
PLANNEDMAINTENANCE
When carried out on a regular basis, maintenance
prevents those predictable and often expensive
types of failure that occur within the life of a building.
The annual cleaning of gutters can be much cheaper
than dealing with a discovery of rot in the feet of
rafters or a wall-plate.
Planned maintenance means regular inspection, cleaning,
testing and carrying out minor repairs. To make the task
easier it is a good idea to work from a plan. Begin this
by deciding how frequently each maintenance inspection
or task is to be carried out. Most jobs will be annual but
you should also plan to do some of them after one-off
events such as bad weather or accidental physical
damage. An example of a maintenance schedule is
included here.
65 66
67
68 69
70
65+66Poor maintenance of
rainwater goods can cause much
unnecessary damage
67Ivy can penetrate the structure
of a building that is already in
poor condition
68+69Holes in the roofs of farm
buildings can quickly lead to rapid
deterioration of the building fabric
70Evidence of frass on a joist
can indicate insect infestation
Philip White
21
MAINTENANCECHECKLIST
EXTERNALELEMENT WHATTOCHECKFOR FREQUENCY
Roofcoverings Annually and after storms
Slate, tile, stone Slipped, cracked and missing tiles or slates; moss growth;
loose lead ashings; cracking to mortar llets
Shingles Curling; splitting; moss growth; fungal attack
Thatch Ridges; moss, algae etc; bird damage
Sheeting Rusting; wind damage; lifting ridges; loose xings
Roofstructure Racking; sagging; twisted frame members; cracking;
open joints to trusses; wet or damp areas on
timbers wood frass Annually
Timberframe Bowing or leaning; rot; decayed joints; soft areas;
defects to inll panels; soleplates; wood frass;
masonry plinth condition Annually
Walls Annually
Masonry Leaning; cracking; defective mortar joints; dropped
arches; loose or spalling masonry; plaster or render
failure and hollowness; ground levels; erosion
Earth Cracking; surface degradation; plaster failure and
hollowness; rodent damage; long term damp patches
Openings Dropped arches; failing lintels; dislodged quoins
Timberoors Failing supports; broken and missing boards; dampness;
ventilation to granary oors Annually
Rainwatergoods Defective paintwork; blockage to gutters, downpipes
and drains; splits; leaking joints; broken or misaligned
brackets; poor falls or backow (reverse ow)
of discharged water Annually and after storms
Drainage Blockages or silting to gullies; test in the event of
blockage or leakage; monitor quality of water supplies Annually
ExternalJoinery Failing paintwork; open joints; rot to cills, casements
and frames; defective putty; broken glass; failed hinges;
rusting in metal frames Annually
Intrusivevegetation Cut back and remove all invasive growth,
especially ivy colonising walls Annually
Boundarywalls
andfences
Decay to copings of walls; dislodged mortar and
masonry; raised ground levels to fences
SAFETYPRECAUTIONS
Inspectionandmaintenancerequiresaccesstoroofsandotherpotentiallydangerousareas.Ideally,operationsshouldnotbe
undertakenalone. Alwayswearsuitableprotectiveclothingandmakesureladdersareproppedatasafeangleandsecuredon
firmground.Whereaccessisparticularlydifficult,consideremployingaprofessional.
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REPAIRINGFARMBUILDINGS
PRINCIPLESOFREPAIR
The purpose of repair is to stop the process of
decay without damaging the historic, architectural, or
archaeological signicance of the farm building and its
landscape context. This generally means carrying out
the minimum work necessary to put the building into
a sound condition. The repair work should also pay
due regard to habitats for wildlife that the building/s
and the site may provide.
Retainasmuchoriginalmaterialaspossible
The replacement of historic components and features
can undermine the historic value and authenticity of a
building. Contractors who have the right building skills
can usually repair decayed or failed components rather
than having to replace them.
Minimisechanges
Altering features that give the building its historic or
architectural importance should be avoided. If signicant
features have already been lost, there may be a case for
reinstatement providing that there is good evidence for
their former existence.
Useappropriatemethodsandmaterials
A key feature of traditional farm buildings is the use of
breathable materials in their construction. Permeable
materials coupled with the good ventilation inherent
in most traditional farm buildings allows moisture to
escape without causing damage to the building fabric.
Serious damage can result from the use of incompatible
materials that restrict this ability of the building fabric
to breathe.
Repairmaterials
New materials should be used only to replace existing
materials where necessary and should be close matches
for those being repaired or replaced. Where the cost of
using matching materials could jeopardise the viability of
a repair project it may be appropriate for the planning
authority/grant giving body to consider alternative
materials.
Respecthistoricrepairsorchanges
Repairs or additions made in the past may be of historic
interest. Do not remove them simply because they are
of later date.
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71
72
73 74
71A graphic illustration showing
failure of an incompatible cement
render to a cob, brick and stone
wall Philip White
72Joinery repairs to windows
maximising the retention of
historic material Philip White
73A cement render has been
applied over a cob wall resulting
in partial collapse Philip White
74Cement-rich pointing has
resulted in decay to these soft
bricks Philip White
75+76Modern materials such 77This window has been repaired
as steel ties can offer the optimum sensitively allowing maximum
conservation solution if they allow retention of original joinery
significant historic fabric to be Philip White
retained without dismantling parts
of the building Philip White
78Careful scarf repairs have
retained much of the historic fabric
of this door Philip White
76
75
77
78
WILDLIFEANDCOUNTRYSIDEACT1981
CONSERVATION(NATURALHABITATS)
REGULATIONS1994
Re-roofingandrepairworkstothewallsoffarmbuildings
candisturbbatsandotherprotectedspecies.Becauseit
isanoffencetointentionallyorrecklesslydisturbbats
ortheirroosts,ortoobstructaccesstotheirroosts,a
NaturalEnglandlicenceisneededbeforeanyworkis
begun.Itisalwaysbesttoassumethatbatsarepresent
inatraditionalbuildingandyoushouldseekadvicefrom
NaturalEnglandatanearlystageofanyplannedwork
toabuilding.
Onlyuseamodernmaterialifithelps
toretainoriginalfeatures
Modern materials, such as stainless steel ties, can be the
best solution if they allow signicant historic fabric to be
retained and avoid the need to dismantle parts of the
building. Resin repairs to timbers can sometimes help
retain more material than traditional methods and so
aid future interpretation of the buildings history.
Donotrobmaterialfromotherbuildings
Avoid using second-hand materials of unknown
provenance as this encourages the practice of
robbing out material from existing buildings that
may be of historic and architectural value.
Obtainprofessionalhelp
Take professional advice before carrying out major
repairs. The conservation and repair of traditional
buildings often requires specialist skills if mistakes
and unnecessary damage are to be avoided.
EMERGENCYANDHOLDINGREPAIRS
Emergency action is needed when the deterioration of a
building or its valuable features will soon reach the point
when repair is no longer be feasible on either practical or
nancial grounds. Holding repairs, on the other hand, can
prevent the building deteriorating to such an extent that
emergency action is needed.
Among the reasons for limiting work to temporary
holding repairs may be a lack of funds or grant aid, a
temporary shortage of expertise or suitable materials, or
the need for more time to plan a full repair programme.
Interim repairs can be a cost-effective and reversible
means of slowing down the deterioration of the historic
fabric of a building, thereby extending its life and reducing
the scale of longer-term repair work. However, they
24
should always be carried out in ways that neither
preclude nor hinder further work from:
using inappropriate materials which might
accelerate decay
making insufcient repairs that encourage
further decay
removing important historic fabric
postponing more comprehensive and
effective temporary work
using methods that might permanently damage
existing fabric.
ASSESSING CONDITION
Someone experienced with older buildings and
structures should carry out a careful survey to identify
the most urgent needs for protection and repair.
The two most common problems are structural
movement and water penetration. There will often
be more than one option for resolving each issue
and a competent specialist is best equipped to nd
the optimum solution.
STRUCTURAL PROBLEMS
If part of the building has collapsed immediate attention
will probably be required to avoid further serious
damage. Depending on the cause of the collapse it
may be necessary to relieve loadings on the structure
by introducing temporary supports (shoring, scaffolding,
tying and temporary construction) and removing
the roof nishes or even the entire roof structure.
External shoring and patent scaffolding can be an
economical option, especially if the equipment is
purchased and then re-sold following a full repair
programme. Internal ties of steel rod or hawser can
also be effective at restraining lateral movement,
provided that the potentially dangerous aspects of
such work have been properly assessed in advance.
Structural problems should be monitored following
temporary support or repair.
The use of materials such as concrete block-work as
buttresses to temporarily support the existing structure
might be justied so long as it does not accelerate decay
and is reversible without causing further damage.
Decay to joints in timber frames may be stalled by
carefully removing very soft material and lling the
joint with a low to medium-strength hydraulic lime
mix. Decayed post bases may be relieved of loading
by the use of support props. These must be located
securely and the frames may also require lateral restraint.
Roof spread is common in older farm buildings.
Steel tie cables, rods, or timber members can restrain
further movement when properly installed. It is
important that xings are securely embedded in
sound timber or masonry.
Sets of roof trusses that appear to be leaning in one
direction should be monitored. Where movement is
active it is inadvisable to attempt to right the trusses
because this will weaken the already stressed joints
and the rafter purlin system. Further movement can be
prevented, however, through the use of correctly located
ties, or timber wind braces xed diagonally to rafters
from the eaves to the truss peak.
Decayed or broken timber members may need
to be supported, particularly those in roof trusses.
Timber splints can be useful, although additional
propping is often needed.
Waterpenetration
Replace missing and slipped slates or tiles to maintain
a watertight roof. Individual slates can be held in place
with copper tingles or stainless steel clips.
If the roof has lost a considerable number of slates
or tiles, causing water damage, it may be sensible to
strip the remainder for retting at the full repair stage.
A secure temporary roof such as galvanised steel
sheeting or a reinforced tarpaulin would then be needed.
Plastic sheet tarpaulins are only short-term measures
because they can be difcult to tie down and are easily
damaged by the weather.
Defective rainwater goods should be repaired or replaced
unless alternative means of disposal can be set up.
Cracks and holes in the coatings to earth walls are
potentially more damaging than those on masonry
walls. Filling smaller cracks with a hydraulic lime plaster
mix is a good all-round option but larger openings
should be lled with suitable mixes of earth, lime and
chopped straw.
25
HEALTHANDSAFETY
Inlaw,apropertyownerhasadutytoprotectpeople
fromharmarisingfromtheunsafeconditionofa
dangerousbuilding,whethertheyarevisitingitwithor
withoutyourpermission. Actionmaybetakenagainstyou
ifsomeoneisinjuredbyanunsafebuildingonyourland.
26
79 80
81
82
83
79Temporary propping
to a roof truss
80Tarpaulin and timber propping
up a thatched barn Philip White
81Climbing plants can both
create and conceal problems
82Substantial timber buttressing
supporting a leaning barn wall
83Plastic tarpaulin protects granary
roof timbers until new roof
coverings are added Philip White
84The outward leaning wall of this
stone barn will soon collapse if no
action is taken
85Makeshift repairs such as
these are potentially dangerous
Philip White
84
85
DAMAGE FROM TREES AND VEGETATION
Tree roots can cause serious harm to farm buildings
particularly in areas with clay soils. Overhanging trees
can impede airow and may increase the growth of
moss and algae through constant shading and the
retention of moisture. Overhung thatch is more likely
to remain damp and have higher levels of moss growth.
Climbing plants can conceal serious problems and may
exploit and worsen existing problems. Any proper roots
may cause damage to walls in poor condition and shoots
can dislodge roof coverings and block gutters. They should
be removed from rainwater goods, window or doorframes,
and the eaves lines of roofs and in some circumstances
may need to be removed from walls.
Ivy requires particular attention as its roots can
sometimes penetrate the structure of a building,
although it is important to distinguish between proper
roots, which increase in size, and aerial rootlets which
are only used to cling onto the climbing surface and
do not get larger over time. If removal is considered
necessary, it should be carried out in one operation and
with great care wall collapses caused by heavy-handed
removal of climbing plants are not uncommon.
Cutting through the main stems at the base and leaving
them to wither is inadvisable because it can encourage
the severed sections to form new penetrating root
systems of their own. Climbing plants cannot regenerate
from root material alone but any remaining stem
material may need to be treated with a chemical
herbicide. Once the ivy has been removed it may
also be necessary to repair any damage its roots may
have caused to the stability and integrity of the wall.
In particular, it may be necessary to ll the voids that
will form once the dead roots have rotted away.
REPAIRSTOSOLIDWALLEDBUILDINGS
STRUCTURAL PROBLEMS
Any sign of structural failure or cracking in walling is
evidence of excessive movement. A variety of factors
can bring this about:
Differential settlement due to ground movement.
Moisture getting into and being retained
in the structure.
Timber decay.
Inadequacies in the original construction.
Rotation through loading from roofs and oors.
Ground movement may be due to heave or subsidence
particularly in clays soils, drainage problems, tree roots
or even heavy farmyard trafc.
Moisture entering and freezing within walls can physically
move masonry. Long-term dampness also weakens
mortar resulting in movement. It can also encourage
fungal growth and insect attack in timber, ultimately
leading to structural failure.
Long-term loading from roof structures and overloading
of upper oors can cause support walls to rotate and
lean outwards. Many stone walls consist of two skins of
masonry with a rubble inll. Degradation from imposed
loads and weathering can cause these skins to separate,
typically leading to the collapse of the outer skin.
Many cross walls are not tied to the main walls and
this creates instability over time. Brick walls were often
poorly bonded and previously inserted iron ties may
have subsequently corroded. Before re-building, seek
advice from a structural engineer as many walls bulge
or bow while remaining stable. Others can be stabilised
by the use of steel tie rods with connections back to
sound structure.
When faced with cracking to walls the rst task is to
establish whether the movement is active. Monitoring
over months rather than weeks with patent tell-tales
or thin pieces of glass bedded across a crack is an
established method, but periodic measurement across
marked points can also be useful.
If the tell-tales indicate that movement has ceased, an
experienced contractor may consider it acceptable to
stitch across cracks with compatible masonry; they will
also advise on any benet to be gained from the use
of additional reinforcement such as helical tie bars or
full-width tie rods. On some occasions, even where
movement exists, a buttress might be a suitable remedy.
27
86
87 88
89
86Temporary protection can
avoid situations like this one
where the roof timbers are
rapidly decaying
87If a building is in a dangerous
condition warning notices should
be displayed
88A cracked lower truss
member needs propping to
avoid potential collapse
89Felting held down with battens
can provide a temporary roof
covering once roof finishes have
been stripped Philip White
28
Each circumstance will warrant analysis to nd the
most acceptable solution.
Specialist structural advice is invariably fundamental to
nding workable and effective solutions to movement
issues. Propping a wall with timbers may work for a while
but, besides being dangerous, it will sooner or later fail,
leaving an even more expensive problem to be resolved.
90 91
92
93 94
95
96
90This cob barn has been
repaired with brickwork bedded
in cement mortar which has no
compatibility with the existing
materials. Consequently the corner
is near to collapse Philip White
91Badly maintained pointing has
allowed water to enter the wall
resulting in instability and the
separation of the outer skin
of brickwork Philip White
92Hard cement mortar cracking
away from stone Philip White
93Repairs in hand to a stone and
cob wall using lime mortar and cob
blocks Philip White
94Cracking such as this could be
due a number of factors which need
to be investigated before repairs are
carried out
95Cement slurry mortar disfiguring
flint panel S Gallimore
96Needling brickwork to a granary
to allow for timber sole-plate repairs
Philip White
97Soft stone which has spalled due
to cement pointing. Now re-pointed
with a lime mortar Philip White
97
MASONRY WALLS
Bricks
Bricks required for repairs should be compatible with
the existing work in colour, composition and strength.
Reclaimed bricks can be useful where the original type
is no longer manufactured but the source should be
checked to avoid the use of stolen or otherwise
robbed out material from listed and other historically
important buildings.
Bricks need to be inspected in order to pick out
damaged examples. Sound bricks usually have a slight
ring when tapped together. Well-burnt examples will
also be of roughly equal weight. Bricks that are sooted
or distorted should be discarded.
Providing a perfect visual match with the original wall
will never be possible, but this need not be seen as a
fault an easily understood repair is an honest repair;
it also causes much less disruption, loss of original fabric
and expense compared to rebuilding.
Chalkandint
Chalk and int construction has much in common with
other kinds of stone building but in other respects it
more closely resembles earth-built walling. Like the latter,
it is built up from harder or more durable base courses
that provide protection from damp and rain splashing
at the base of the wall. The relative softness of chalk and
the higher quantities of mortar in int walling means that
overhangs to wall heads are important, just as they are
with earth walling. To provide extra structural strength,
layers of int are often alternated with courses of brick.
Rebuilding and re-pointing int walls should only be
undertaken by suitably experienced practitioners. All too
commonly, int walls are re-pointed with cement mortar,
which is also smeared over large parts of the stones
themselves. Walls repaired in this way may look sound
but will decay more quickly and cause more damage
than if the ints are bedded in traditional mortar.
Earthwallconstruction
Cob, clob, clay lump, mud, clay dabbins, chalk mud,
rammed earth and wychert are all regional terms
applied to localised forms of earth walling. Clay lump
(adobe) and chalk lump are allied techniques in which
earth or chalk is made into un-burnt blocks that are laid
in clay-based or lime mortars. All forms are vulnerable
to water penetration, particularly where wall faces are
exposed to severe weather. In such circumstances walls
were generally plastered with lime, which should be
rigorously maintained whenever it survives.
While exposure to the elements can be a serious
source of damage, there are many earth-walled
structures, especially in the wetter West Country, that
have survived all their lives without being plastered
because of their sheltered locations. The West Country
phrase a dry hat and wellie boots tells you the essential
needs of earth structure maintenance. It is important
that wall-heads are kept dry by adequate overhangs
and sound roof coverings. Base courses usually take
the form of stone plinths. Nevertheless, attention to
their maintenance is fundamental to a dry building.
Typical problems in earth-walled structures include
damage from bird and rat activity, vertical cracking and
water damage, particularly in association with defective
plasters and cement renders. While bird activity generally
damages only wall surfaces, infestations by rats and mice
can eventually lead to complete collapse because of the
way in which their burrows create a destabilising
honeycomb structure.
Cracking can be due to a number of factors, which
means that a specialist in earth wall construction
should be consulted before repairs are carried out.
Bonding old earth to new can be difcult, though
earth-wall specialists are able to achieve sound repairs
in mass walling. A primary aid to bonding is the use of
ties in the form of dowels or tile slips inserted into old
material. Larger cracks can be prepared and stitched
across with mass earth or earth blocks bonded in a
clay and lime mortar.
Earth blocks are also useful for rebuilding quoins
because they are of similar strength to the original
work a repair that is too strong will always be in
danger of breaking away from the original work.
REPAIRSTOTIMBERFRAMEDBUILDINGS
TIMBER FRAMES
Traditional timber-frame construction in England
is primarily of oak. Apart from natural aging due to
weathering, most timber-frame problems result from
excessive moisture getting into joints leading to rot
and ultimately structural failure of components.
The use of cement-based llings to joints and coatings
to panels can both result in accelerated timber decay.
This is aggravated by fungal and insect attack because
the impervious work is unable to release moisture
quickly, or in other words to breathe.
Insect attack is usually historic and the use of chemicals
is rarely necessary. It is also unusual for the attack to
be serious enough to result in structural failure of a
component. Improved ventilation and the eradication
of dampness are the best ways of avoiding such
problems. Inspections should aim to locate any active
infestation. Principal clues include insect holes with clean
pale edges and of the presence of frass (grain-like wood
dust) on the timbers or on surfaces below insect holes.
Distortion and movement are common in timber
frames and contribute much of a buildings character.
It occurs because moisture and temperature changes
are greater in timber frames than in earth or masonry
walls. Like roof trusses, the various members and
associated joints constantly absorb and distribute the
stresses and strains of imposed loadings. Different types
of joint were designed for different purposes; mortice
and tenon joints are more efcient in compression than
in tension; simple half-lap joints are poor at bending.
Distortion may also be the historic response to
loading of timbers that were green (fresh) when
erected. Once settled into position frames can regain
acceptable stability. Do not try to force a distorted
frame into square without professional advice because
this can cause damaging stress to the joints. The condition
of joints is a major determinant of the stability of an
existing timber framed structure. Monitor any suspect
areas for movement by using tell-tales or periodic
measurements. Excessive distortion may be an
indication of more signicant structural problems.
29
The success of repairs depends on understanding how
the structural frame functions, how it developed and its
condition before repairs are undertaken. Only when an
analysis of this kind has been completed is it possible to
take informed decisions about repair, including whether
or not to dismantle a frame. While dismantling may be
the simplest way to repair joints and members, it should
be a last resort because the operation risks a greater
loss of historic fabric than in situ repair.
98
99
100
101
98Wattle and daub is surprisingly
resilient but can become loose and
fall out once cracked
99When repairing weatherboarding
try to disturb as few boards as
possible. Old boards are likely to be
of better quality timber and should
be reused whenever practicable
100Repairs to the corner of a
timber frame following decay due
to a roof leak
101Distortion and movement
are common in frames. Here the
entire frame is leaning or racking
in one direction
102A curved stainless steel angle
has been used to restrain the
outward thrust of the roof prior
to inserting a new oak wall plate to
house the rafter feet Chris Balme,
Acanthus Ferguson Mann Architects
103Major repairs have been carried
out to this fine raised cruck roof,
part of a Grade II* medieval tithe
barn. Great care has been taken to
retain historic fabric with minimal
intervention Simon Doling
104A utilitarian repair with stainless
steel angles bolted together to
support a failing roof truss
102
103
104
30
INFILL PANELS
Wattle and daub inll is generally resilient to impact
but can become loose once cracked. Lime-washing
is a highly effective way of sealing minor cracking; its
permeability also makes the best means of protecting
wattle and daub from the elements. Limewash should
be applied to a wetted surface to avoid suction and be
protected if rapid drying is likely. A minimum of three
coats are recommended.
Cracking around and within the panel face can
be repaired with a dry daub or a ne lime-plaster
mix depending on the size of gaps. Minor repairs
are relatively simple as long as the wattle and daub
remains soundly in place. Similar problems with panels
of brick-nogging can be dealt with in this way.
The ingress of water, salt contamination, frame
movement and poor repairs can all cause severe
cracking, crumbling and bulging to panels. Loose material
can be removed and re-made as a daub mix and
damaged wattle can be repaired by the insertion
of new sticks.
Daub can incorporate various materials including wetted
earth, lime putty, cow dung, chopped straw and sharp
sand. For repairs, barley straw chopped to a maximum
length of 150mm is a better and softer alternative to
wheat straw. Mixing must be thorough and a pug mill is
best for this. Otherwise, the mix will need to be trodden,
beaten and chopped for about half an hour.
Achieving the right workable consistency for any given
combination of materials will can only be determined
through trial testing, although the nished mix should
normally be as dry as possible. An earth-mix daub can
be applied to wetted areas and then shaded if hot sun
is a problem. Wattle may be of oak or elm laths, or hazel
or willow rods depending on local tradition.
Brick inll may be original but is often found to be a
later replacement for wattle or lath. Grooves and holes
in the inner faces of framing will conrm this.
WEATHERBOARDING
In some parts of the country, especially the South East,
East of England and West Midlands, timber frames were
often clad in horizontal weatherboarding. Hand sawn
hardwood boarding is now rarely found, its place having
been taken since the late18th century by machine-sawn
softwood. Early weatherboarding in oak or elm was
usually left unnished but the less robust softwood
needed articial protection wood tar (also known
as Stockholm tar) or limewash mixed with pigments
were often used as coatings. Up until the 1950s
weatherboarding in the South East and southern
areas of East Anglia was commonly nished in white
lead paint, and since then with lead-free alternatives.
When repairing weatherboarding try to disturb as
few boards as possible. Old boards are likely to be of
better-quality timber and should be re-used whenever
possible. Replacing slightly irregular boards with modern
machine-cut ones may detract from the character of
a building. New boards need to be matched to the
original prole and width to maintain the historic
and visual interest.
ROOFREPAIRS
STRUCTURE
Most traditional farm buildings have roofs of timber
construction, usually oak, although ash, elm and softwood
are found locally. Roof trusses are designed to contain
and resist loading and it is a tribute to their design and
fabrication that so many of them have survived
unaltered. The condition of a roof structure is often
overlooked in the belief that it is stable. It is important
to remember that it has constantly to bear not only
its own static weight but also the dynamic loading and
stresses that the weather brings. The resistance to these
loads depends upon the way in which it has been
designed (and later modied) and subsequently
maintained to keep it free from excessive moisture,
movement, or physical damage.
Close inspection is the best way to determine
condition but much also can be seen from oor level.
Look for sagging, tilting or twisting of timbers, gaps to
joints and cracked or broken timbers. These symptoms
are typical of overloading or spreading of the structure.
Look at the feet of trusses where they bear on the wall
or wall-plate for signs of compression or crushing which
can indicate long-term dampness. Investigate the cause
as moisture may have been wetting and softening
timber over a long time. Most insect holes are inactive
but wood dust (frass) found on timbers or oors will
indicate active infestation.
Where timbers are slightly decayed or softened
steel plates, brackets, itches or shoes can be used so
that original material is retained instead of complete
replacement. Such repairs can be designed for minimal
impact on visual appearance.
Slight sagging of purlins may be a natural response
to loading over the years, but purlin rotation (tilting),
open joints, and cracked members are indicative of
structural movement.
Racking is the term used for trusses that are beginning
to fall over and this is quite easy to see from below.
Concerns about any of these issues should be discussed
with a structural engineer.
The most common cause of roof spread is lack
of maintenance. It can also be seen when roof
nishes have been replaced with a heavier product
such as concrete tiles rather than the original slates.
Sometimes roof structures have been adapted to
provide space for agricultural equipment such as
storage bins and this inevitably leads to roof spread
if not correctly designed.
Carrying out repairs to failing roof trusses is not
only difcult but can be very expensive because
their failure can also affect walls and roof coverings.
This makes attention to good maintenance all the
more important. While the popular option of inserting
steel tie rods between support walls may resist roof
spread it does not necessarily address other structural
matters such as wall stability and truss integrity.
Before roof coverings are replaced, the roof
timbers must be inspected and assessed for decay
so that all damaged areas can be repaired. The aim
should be to replace the minimum amount of historic
timber necessary by splicing in new timber rather than
replacing entire members. New timbers always should
match the existing for example oak heartwood for
oak. Sourcing suitable sections of elm can now present
problems, particularly for large members. If home grown
or imported elm cannot be found, then oak will be the
best option. Ash is rarely found as roong or structural
timber and is not available as a stock item.
31
ROOF COVERINGS
A properly laid roof will be weatherproof. Before circa
1900 roofs never incorporated under-felting. This allowed
good airow, which in turn helped dry an atmosphere
made humid by animals, fresh crops, and occasional
damping from rain or snow. Some roofs were laid with
timber under-sheathing both for lateral strength and to
temporarily absorb moisture from animals, while some
later roofs clad in single-lap tiling used hessian felting.
The inclusion of modern under-felting in historic buildings
is unnecessary, inhibits drying and is visually obtrusive.
Abutment ashings often showed local preferences and
these should be continued where they are shown to
be traditional. Cement llets are often found on late
Victorian buildings.
Roof coverings usually fail due to deterioration
of their xing nails or pegs, the battens or laths
supporting the slates or tiles, or enlargement of
the xing holes. Where riven or sawn timber exists,
this should be used in repair work to maintain
character, uniformity and compatibility of strength.
Always try to reuse existing sound materials even
when, in the case of worn slates, re-holing is needed.
On roofs covered with random-sized slates it will
often be worthwhile to re-dress the worn slates to
smaller sizes as a way of recovering sound material.
Replacement slates, tiles or ags should be of matching
or compatible colour, size and thickness. Compatible
thickness is particularly important for achieving an
even plane of slating (slates lying close over each
other without raised margins).
Whenever possible, replacement tiles and slates should
match the original materials. In the case of listed buildings
or grant-funded work you will always be expected to
carry out any replacement with roong materials from
the original source.
Moss can increase dampness and deterioration and
should be removed by brushing or by proprietary
washes. Always read the instructions on usage of such
products before attempting any mixing or application.
Slateandstonenishes
Slated roofs can resist the need for maintenance
or repair longer than any other roof covering.
Once slates start to fail often indicated by many
loose tingles or clips on the roof it is usual and
sensible to strip the whole roof in order to make
sound and worthwhile repairs.
Many features of the roof need to be retained, not
only to preserve traditional regional character but also
to achieve a dry roof. These include the size of slates,
numbers of courses, amounts of overlap, method of
laying and bedding, torching, edge treatment, slating
layout and use of backers. These aspects are particularly
important where stone slate is used.
Some roofs featured stone ridges, which were often
bedded without mortar. Cement-based mortar may
sometimes have been added as part of a later re-roong.
This can make it difcult to recover ridge pieces intact
and care is needed when removing them.
Slated roofs become nail sick with age, that is to say
that movement through weathering enlarges nail holes
and erodes nailheads. Lead, copper or zinc tingles or
clips are useful for re-xing the odd slate. An alternative
is the use of small blocks bonded to the underside of
each slate when in position. This avoids the obtrusive
look of external tingles showing. However, where many
are needed it is a sure sign that the roof covering will
need to be stripped and recovered. This would then
constitute a major repair.
All of the above highlights the need for high quality nails
in repair and reroong. Nailing should not be carried out
with galvanised nails as these will have a shorter life than
copper, alloy, or other non-ferrous types. They are also
often harder to remove from battens when later repair
is needed. Pegged slates are now rare but still exist in
older roofs, particularly those laid in diminishing courses.
They are typically laid onto narrow split (riven) laths or
battens. Pegs might be cut off after xing so that partial
or full under-torching or parging could be carried out.
Fixings fail either by falling out or by slipping due to the
weight and movement of the slate. In older roofs large
areas of the roof nish can all move at once. This can
be caused by the simultaneous splitting of the narrow
and frail laths or battens under the constant loading
of many years.
One modern approach to this recurrent problem is to
use metal alloy pegs. These need to be made in a number
of different lengths to suit individual slates or courses.
Since they cannot readily be shortened, their use would
preclude the renewal of the under-torching that provides
some roofs with their distinctive regional character.
The like-for-like renewal of laths and battens is of
paramount importance in all roofs where the originals
are failing. Even sound battens will have hardened over
time, which makes re-nailing difcult because of the
32
shaking it induces. Hardwood pegs are readily available
for renewal. A few roofs, mainly in northern areas, used
sheep bones as pegs and these should be re-used
whenever possible.
Tiles
Most early plain tiles were pegged and these will be
of historic signicance where found. Some plain tiles
will have integral nibs and may have holes for nailing.
Where intermittent nailing of tiles occurs this is usually
to a regular pattern and its purpose was to help resist
wind shatter and skew on exposed roofs. Whenever
possible it should be replicated in repair.
All traditional tiles were made of clay and many types
are still widely available. Less common varieties may
need to be sourced from specialist manufacturers.
Tiled roofs need little attention beyond checking
for any dislodged tiles, particularly following a storm.
Signs of failure include spalling and breakage. In this
case, tiles should be carefully removed and inspected.
Acceptable tiles should be stacked under cover to
avoid accidental damage. It is usual to renew battens
prior to retiling.
Single-lap and larger tiles such as double Roman
tolerate undulation in a roof less well than plain tiles.
This should be considered during roof repair and it
may be necessary to provide packing over sagging
purlins to create a suitable line.
Thatch
Whether of straw, water reed, or heather the
maintenance issues are similar for all types of thatching
material. Early signs of failure occur at ridges, gables,
and chimney abutments. Thatched ridges will always
deteriorate sooner than the coat itself and so particular
attention is needed for ridge maintenance, which
usually consists of recapping. Wire netting over the
ridge can prolong the life of the thatch by retaining
material in place.
As the thatch ages it attracts moss, algae and fungi.
This is often worse where trees overhang or restrict
airow over the roof. Raking down of the roof to
remove growth and debris can be benecial as part
of a maintenance routine.
Moss growth can also be exacerbated by wire
netting over the main coat because of its tendency to
retain debris and thereby increase moisture retention.
It also makes raking or brushing down less effective.
More important still, it seriously inhibits removal of
105 106
107 108
109
110 111
112
105Barn re-thatching in progress
Philip White
106A stone slate roof nearing
completion of repairs
Natural England
107Corrugated cement
sheet roofing which is likely
to contain asbestos
108These stone slates had been
coated in bitumen before the roof
collapsed, which prevented their
re-use John Sewell PDNP
109A barn in Swaledale being
re-thatched with heather YDNP
110A newly slated roof nearing
completion Philip White
111These salvaged clay tiles
have been mixed with new
replacements and the undulations
have been retained in this repair
IJP Conservation
112Combed water-reed thatching
in progress, with the fixings visible
Philip White
33
113
114 115
116 117
118
113Most farm building roofs
had no under-felting, which allowed
a good airflow to dry an often
humid atmosphere Spratley
and Woodfield Architects
114Long-straw ridgework
in progress Philip White
115Corrugated iron sheeting has
become part of the farm building
vernacular and has saved many
roofs from decay
116Steel T section inserted
to joist end with top plate
Philip White
117Steel T section inserted
to joist end Philip White
118New joist ends have been
scarfed onto an existing joist and
bolted Philip White
34
thatch in the event of a roof re. New material may be
stitched in where faults are beginning to show. The advice
of an experienced thatcher can prove invaluable.
Traditionally, straw thatch was repaired piecemeal and
only fully over-coated when absolutely necessary. After a
number of re-coats thatch becomes too deep and heavy
for the supporting timbers. It will then be necessary to
strip back to a sound coat or even to the basecoat, and
to re-thatch. Basecoats can be extremely old and can
contain much historic information. Old basecoats should
be recorded before any removal is carried out.
The thatcher will be able to provide advice on the
most suitable material for your building. Although there
has been a general move towards the use of imported
water reed for thatching, there is still some uncertainty
about its durability. The best guide to the quality of the
material is its growth history. This is easy to monitor
when the reeds or straw have been locally grown but
difcult when the material is imported. The lifespan of
a thatched roof is also inuenced by exposure, roof
pitch and airow over the roof.
A thatcher will not necessarily deal with repair work
to roof timbers but may insist on certain sizes of batten
to suit his style of work. This may not be the same as
that used previously, so any changes in method should be
specied beforehand, as should any required attendance
by a builder for scaffolding or preliminary repair work.
The rst base course of straw thatch was often tied
even where the remainder was xed with spikes and
sways. Spiking into battens requires larger-section timber
than is often found in tied roofs. Such traditions should
be respected in repair.
If the nished level of the thatch is to be changed its
relationship to chimneys and protective gables must be
checked. It may be necessary to adjust both in order
to provide a weatherproof junction when renewing
or remaking ashings and llets.
Less commonly used materials such as heather and
bracken require specialist help because they each have
their own special methods of application. Heather is
applied around the roof in courses so that a coat is
built up gradually; it may not be waterproof until the
material has settled a little to form an effective barrier.
Your local planning authority is likely have a policy
concerning the thatch types that are appropriate to
its area.
CorrugatedSheeting
Corrugated sheeting has been used from the 19th
century, either as a replacement or covering for thatch
and other roong materials or (mostly in the case
of Dutch barns) as part of the original construction.
Unprotected galvanised sheeting will eventually decay
naturally, but its deterioration will be accelerated if it
has been damaged during storage or xing. The rst
signs of decay are often seen at the under-laps and are
due to moisture retention between sheets, particularly
in animal houses that have inadequate ventilation.
In such buildings, painting between the laps or indeed
across the whole underside before xing is an excellent
aid to preservation.
The painting of metal roof cladding is the best way of
prolonging its life. Some regions have a long-standing
practice of using a particular colour, generally red raddle,
or black. Traditionally, the chosen colour related to
that of the local soil; in general a matt black nish is
particularly good at helping the building sit into the
landscape. On new galvanised sheeting an etch paint
needs to be applied as a basecoat. Alternatively, the
material can be left to weather and tone down
for around a year before painting.
FLOORREPAIRS
It is common to nd the joist ends of timber oors
decaying due to damp. It is normally less disruptive to
splice on new ends or add steel support brackets and
itch plates than replace whole lengths of joist. Resin can
sometimes be used as a repair medium and might be
justied when joists or beams contain historic information
such as chamfering or ritual marks.
Floorboards of oak or elm are especially likely to be
of historic interest but softwood boarding may also
be of signicance, particularly if it involves broad planks.
The type of wood, size, and the age of boarding are all
important. Softwood boarding does not last as long as
hardwood and the existing ooring may well be
replacement work.
Many ground oors were constructed simply of
compacted earth. Rammed chalk oors occur in
chalkland areas and these are relatively easy to repair
with lump chalk thoroughly wetted and rammed
into place.
Occasionally, and especially along the limestone belt
of England, upper oors may be made of a plaster
composition (gypsum lime-ash) and laid upon a reed
or brushwood base. These are very important to the
historic character of a building. They can be surprisingly
robust but recreating original mixes is not always possible
and they may need to be repaired by specialist contractors.
Some solid ground oors may also be of a lime-ash
composition. Now rare, these are softer, warmer, and
more forgiving than later concrete oors and can be
repaired using similar materials. Early Victorian concrete
oors can be lime-based and often included additives
such as animal blood, or isinglass. Again, knowledgeable
specialist contractors will be able to repair these.
In the case of cobbled or pitched stone oors the
stones were beaten into a clay base and packed down
tightly. Joints can be brushed with a lime bedding mix to
further tighten the stones. Repair is possible but sourcing
compatible stones may be difcult. Original sources
include riverbeds and weathered stone from eld margins.
Commercially available imported sea cobble is a poor
match in most cases and cement should always be
avoided as a bedding material.
MORTARSANDPLASTERS
The appearance of masonry owes as much to the
character of the mortar joint as to the stonework itself.
Inappropriate re-pointing can have a signicant impact
on the character of farm buildings and can ultimately
be damaging to the fabric.
Before the mid-19th century masonry bedding
mortar was either lime-based or, particularly in earlier
buildings, made simply of earth or earth mixed with
lime. Mortar was also often spread across the face of
stone as a render nish. Some later and higher-status
buildings featured cement-based decorative joint nishes.
Decayed joint mortar and all earth walls are vulnerable to
water penetration and damage. The subsequent expansion
of frozen moisture causes movement and surface spalling,
both of which may damage the wall surface and even the
interior. Spalled brickwork and stonework (particularly
softer stone) caused by cement-based mortar that has
forced moisture to evaporate through the weaker
medium is one of the commonest problems affecting
historic farm buildings.
35
Mortar should be weaker and more porous than the
masonry in which it is placed. Although it is necessary
to take account of the exposure to which the walls are
subject it is the nature and attributes of the masonry
that will usually dictate the strength of mortar required.
Establishing a compatible composition may well require
trial mixes to be tested on site. The use of contractors
experienced in lime work is fundamental to the success
of a project.
Much damage to masonry is caused by the use
of cement-rich mortar. Soft lime-based mortars
are preferable because their elasticity allows slight
movement and their porosity allows the wall to
breathe. When deciding on a mortar mix look for
evidence of the aggregate and sands used in the past,
which may well have local signicance and will enable
a close visual match.
Until the advent of harder mortars in the mid-19th
century many rubble, earth and some brick-walled
farm buildings were lime plastered and lime washed
for additional protection. If they are regularly maintained,
external plasters can last for many decades. However a
reduction in maintenance, or the application of
inappropriate cement renders, will both cause the
original nish to degrade or fail.
When considering external nishes as part of a repair
project it is well worth trying to nd out what kind of
coatings may have been used before. Does the building
show remnants of a lime plaster or was the building
simply lime washed? Lime plaster and lime wash create
an authentic and protective external nish for many
traditional farm buildings and are especially appropriate
where there is surviving evidence of previous use.
The 20th-century practice of nailing wire mesh to
walls as a support for cement rendering has caused
varying degrees of damage to walls, most disastrously
to earth walling because of both moisture ingress and
physical damage from nailing. Because cement renders
are inexible they invariably start to crack and let
in water which is then unable to freely evaporate.
Defective cement render should be removed entirely
and replaced with a lime-based render.
Defective plaster coats may not need to be removed
entirely. It is not uncommon to nd that nishing coats
are degrading and falling away from a more stable
basecoat. Where a basecoat strengthened by hair
remains in sound or repairable condition further
coats of haired lime plaster can be applied together
with a new nishing coat.
120
122
121
119
119Many farm building gutters are
attached with gutter spikes driven
into bedding joints which can
follow the often irregular line of
the outside walls Philip White
120Well-executed lime mortar
pointing to random stone walling
Philip White
121Cement renders should
be avoided on traditionally
constructed farm buildings
Philip White
122Limewashing is the best way
to protect wattle and daub from
the elements Philip White
36
DRAINAGE
RAINWATER GOODS
Particular attention will be needed if gutters
and downpipes are near to, or overhung by, trees.
Though rare in farm buildings, any parapet or valley
gutters require particularly close attention.
Signs of blockage to gutters and downpipes will be most
obvious during heavy rain. Leaking joints to cast-metal
gutters should be disconnected, cleaned and resealed
with a non-acidic gutter sealant suitable for metal
application or a joint sealing tape suitable for use on
metal. Painting metal downpipes and gutters (both
inside and out) can extend their lives for many years.
Some traditional buildings now feature plastic rainwater
goods. Plastic products are generally not as suitable as
metal products as they are not designed to follow the
often sinuous changes of line that occur on the eaves
of traditional buildings. As a result they are liable to
respond to stress by deforming, springing, and sometimes
breaking their xing brackets. Their insubstantial visual
appearance can also impair the historic character of a
traditional building.
It is now common practice to attach modern guttering
to fascia boards but for farm buildings these are often
out of character. They are relatively short-lived in
comparison with metal xings, which in contrast, can
be safely connected with a wider tolerance of angles.
In many cases installations are mounted on gutter
spikes driven into the bedding joints.
DRAINAGE SERVICES
Drainage runs and outlets need to be regularly inspected
for blockages, and especially after storms. The latter are
likely to cause the most serious problems in autumn
and winter when leaves and debris can be washed
into drains.
RECORDING
Recording is carried out in order to collect information
about a building that will help with its future management,
whether it is about to be changed or not. Where parts
of an historic building are likely to be dismantled prior to
repair an accurate record of existing detail can help to
avoid unnecessary loss of historic information. It is strong
recommended that records should be sent to the county
or district Historic Environment Record by the project
123
123The extent of recording required will depend on the nature of the building,
its significance and the extent of work to be undertaken
37
manager or building owner. The local authoritys
conservation ofcer should be able to provide
advice on how this can be done.
The level of recording required will depend on the
nature of the building, its signicance and the extent
of the intervention in its fabric. The cost of recording
should not usually be disproportionate to the cost of
the repair work. Advice on the levels of recording
appropriate to different kinds of structure is set out
in the English Heritage booklet Understanding Historic
Buildings: A guide to good recording practice (2006).
The four levels are linked to the complexity of the
building and the amount of repair required.
Level1is essentially a basicvisualrecordsupplemented
by the minimum of information need to identify the
buildings location, age and type.
Level2is a descriptiverecord, made in circumstances
similar to those of Level 1 but when more information
is needed. Both the exterior and the interior will be
viewed, described, and photographed. The record will
present conclusions regarding the buildings development
and use, but will not discuss in detail the evidence on
which these conclusions are based.
Level3is an analyticalrecord, and will comprise
an introductory description followed by a systematic
account of the buildings origins, development, and use.
The record will include an account of the evidence on
which the analysis has been based. It will also include all
drawn and photographic records that may be required
to illustrate the buildings appearance and structure and
to support an historical analysis.
Level4provides a comprehensiveanalyticalrecord
and is appropriate for buildings of special importance.
The record will draw on the full range of available
resources and discuss the buildings signicance in terms
of architectural, social, regional, or economic history.
The range of drawings may also be greater than at
other levels.
A photographicsurveydiffers from other surveys in
that it provides a very full visual record, accompanied
by a brief written account, but without an analytical
or drawn survey at a comparable level of detail.
SPECIFICATION
Once the surveys and evaluation have been completed
attention can be turned to specication and subsequent
cost of work that is needed. A competent specication
can only be produced from comprehensive surveys
and their proper evaluation. It should include for all
works necessary to return a building to a weatherproof
and structurally sound state in sympathy with its
historic character.
However, there may be hidden problems that cannot
be fully assessed from surveys alone. An experienced
consultant will draw attention to such issues and may
recommend that a contingency sum is included as
part of the specication for costing.
124
125 126
REPAIRCASESTUDIES
Most of the following case studies involved grant-aid
for repairs, often quite small amounts that have been
sufcient to give the building a future. All of them
beneted from careful investigation by those skilled in
traditional construction work designed to determine
the most appropriate way of repairing the building while
retaining as much of its original fabric as possible. In every
case the repairs were then carried out by highly skilled
contractors and traditional craftsmen.
BARN IN COURTYARD RANGE
w
This small early-19th century moorland farmstead in
Devon had been derelict for some years and the
corrugated metal roong to the bank barn was leaking.
Although the principal oor beams were in an acceptable
condition, the doors and hatches, which were modern
replacements, were in very poor condition.
A structural survey was commissioned to establish
the condition of the roof structure with a view
to retaining as much original timber as possible.
This revealed some roof spread and the need to
strengthen the trusses to carry the roof loads.
An experienced local building contractor was
engaged to undertake a condition survey and draw
up a specication of works for repair. The existing roof
trusses were strengthened with additional timbers and
many of the roong battens were retained. New doors
and hatches were made to the original design and nish.
Salvaged hinges were overhauled and further new ones
made to the original pattern.
124These roof trusses were strengthened with additional timbers Philip White
125New doors and hatches were made to the original pattern and finish,
but the hinges were salvaged Philip White
126Stone paving to courtyard after repair Philip White
38
w
127
127Barn after repair, showing the rebuilt gable porch end Philip White
128Barn after repair Philip White
129Granary before repair Philip White
130Granary after repair Philip White
131Steel support added for a roof structure Philip White
128
THRESHING BARN
w
Parts of the stone-slate roof of this large Grade II listed
Cotswold stone threshing barn were failing. As a result,
some of the roof timbers had suffered water damage.
A porch with an upper wool store was in a dangerous
state due to a cracked and leaning gable wall caused by
a failing door-head lintel. The barn doors were damaged
and required new Harr-type hinges to be made.
A conservation architect was engaged to produce
a specication and oversee the repairs. A structural
engineering report was commissioned to assess the
condition of the gabled porch and suggest remedial work.
The roof was largely stripped so that the existing
rafters could be repaired with only minimal replacement.
Battens were added to the rafters to make it easier to x
the slates and steel ties were attached to a failing roof
truss. Some slates were reused together with new local
stone to re-roof the barn to match the existing. The gable
end to the porch was re-built above a new oak lintel.
39
129
130 131
GRANARY
This small freestanding early 18th-century brick granary
on staddle stones in Wiltshire was in a perilous state
due to a failed soleplate and some ground settlement.
Cracking was extensive and the stone slated roof
needed replacing.
Complete re-building could have resulted in a major
loss of historic integrity and character. Consequently,
the building was entirely propped for support so that
individual parts could be repaired as necessary. The great
majority of original brickwork was retained and repaired,
with some new bricks sourced to match the existing.
Virtually all original timbers were retained in-situ and
the roof re-slated and re-torched. The building is now
in use again for storage.
132 133
134
FIELD BARN
This is one of four upland barns on a farm in
Cumbria that were repaired with the aid of funding
from an Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) scheme.
Barns of this kind form a key part of the upland
landscape around Helvellyn and are passed by thousands
of hikers every year. This particular example was derelict
and had to have substantial repairs to bring it back into
use. Without grant-aid its repairs would not have been
economical; today it is once again being used for the
practical storage of hay.

w w
132Derelict condition of field barn LDNPA
133New barn roof under construction LDNPA
134Barn after repair Natural England
135Cart shed in semi-derelict condition Philip White
136Re-thatching in progress Philip White
137Interior view of a cart shed during repair Philip White
135
40
136
137
CART-SHED
This late 18th-century stone-and-brick cart shed in
Gloucestershire with later sheeted roong was in a
serious state of decay. The initial proposition was to
replace the original collar tie, pegged rafter roof structure
with a new arch-braced roof that would be thatched in
combed wheat straw. Further inspection showed that
the existing roof structure was in fact repairable, while
surviving traces of thatch beneath metal sheeting proved
that the building had originally been thatched with long
straw. The proposals were therefore revised to allow the
existing roof structure to be repaired and re-thatched in
long straw work.
FURTHERINFORMATION
WILDLIFE
Many species of wildlife that live in or gain benets
from farm buildings may be adversely affected by
major works of repair. An ecological survey should
therefore be carried out right at the beginning to
establish whether any species protected under the
Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 are present.
If there are any positive sightings or indirect evidence
of occupation you should seek advice should from the
local Natural England ofce and if necessary obtain a
licence before the project can be approved. This licence
may require mitigation measures to prevent disturbance
of the species or its habitat, particularly during nesting
and breeding seasons.
Buildings can become important habitats for birds
and mammals (including bats). These can be
further enhanced by the provision of nest boxes,
improvement of eave and roof design, retention
of rough surfaces and use of the small openings
typical of farm buildings.
Buildings also serve as habitats for many genera and
species of plants, which should not be removed unless
they are clearly causing physical damage or speeding
up weathering.
Regular maintenance on a rolling basis is good for
wildlife as only a proportion of the building is affected
at any one time.
PROFESSIONALHELP
The amount and type of professional help you require
will depend very much on the size, complexity and
nature of your farm building and kind of repair that it
needs. It is very important to choose someone who
has a thorough understanding of traditional buildings
and is aware of the problems and pitfalls associated
with their repair.
Many of the repairs needed by traditional farm
buildings are relatively straightforward and involve
little risk. A reliable local rm of building contractors
skilled in traditional construction may be all you need.
Independent recommendations can be useful, especially
if they allow examples of a contractors work on
comparable buildings to be inspected at rst-hand.
If costs have to be kept to a minimum, contractors may
be relied upon to offer sound impartial advice on the
works that are needed. However, if you are unsure as to
the experience or competence of a building contractor,
you should seek independent professional advice.
For buildings with any sign of structural problems
a structural engineers report will provide a sound
basis from which to design a scheme of repairs.
The Institution of Structural Engineers (IStrucE) and
the Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE) maintain a list
of engineers accredited in building conservation
(Conservation Accreditation Register for Engineers
CARE, www.careregister.org.uk). Structural engineers
deal primarily with the examination, condition assessment
and specication of repairs to defects in building
structures including matters of ground movement.
If the building is listed, unusually complicated or
a candidate for grant aid for repair then other
expertise may be required:
41
ARCHITECTS
An architect is a person whose name appears on
the register held by the Architects Registration Board
(ARB,www.arb.org.uk). There are other professional
design practitioners who are not registered architects
but adopt similar titles such as architectural designer.
Only a small proportion of architects specialise
in the repair of old buildings. Those registered as
Architects Accredited in Building Conservation
(AABC, www.aabc-register.co.uk) or on the
Conservation Register of the Royal Institute of British
Architects (RIBA,www.architecture.com)have been
assessed as having knowledge and experience in
conservation work. The Society for the Protection of
Ancient Buildings (SPAB, www.spab.org.uk) also keeps a
list of architects experienced in the repair of traditional
buildings. Architects can also carry out condition surveys.
An architect would be particularly useful for overseeing
repairs that are more complex, where a number of craft
trades are required and where there is an element of
design needed in the approach to the repairs.
BUILDING SURVEYORS
Members of the Royal Institution of Chartered
Surveyors (RICS, www.rics.org) have a broadly similar
role to architects but are trained primarily in building
construction rather than architectural design. An RICS
Building Conservation Group has its own list of
members accredited in building conservation. Building
surveyors can also deal with condition surveys.
QUANTITY SURVEYORS
These professionals deal with the nancial side of
building work and contractural issues. Those who
are members of the RICS are termed chartered
quantity surveyors.
SPECIALIST SUPPLIERS
OF CONSERVATION MATERIALS
There is a wide range of specialist suppliers who can
help with the sourcing of appropriate materials, ranging
from lime products and earth block to ironmongery
and specially matched bricks
(www.buildingconservation.com).
Reclaimed materials can sometimes help to sustain the
visual character of repaired and restored farm buildings.
However, to avoid the risk of materials being stolen or
taken from listed buildings without legal consent it is of
paramount importance that they are obtained only from
legitimate suppliers. A statement of provenance should
be requested at the time of purchase.
A number of suppliers adhere to the voluntary
Salvo Code (www.salvo.co.uk/salcoinfo.html).
Members undertake not to buy any item if there is
the slightest suspicion it may be stolen or taken from
a protected historic building without legal consent.
Sellers details are recorded including proof of identity.
LOCAL AUTHORITY CONSERVATION OFFICER
Conservation ofcers are local-authority specialists who
are able to give technical advice on work to old buildings
as well as advice on development and planning issues.
THE ADVANTAGES OF USING PROFESSIONALS
Hiring experienced professional consultants will add to
the overall costs of repair but can be the best way to
avoid cowboy builders and problems with inappropriate
or poor workmanship. The tasks that can be dealt with
by professionals such as architects and surveyors include:
carrying out surveys
obtaining consents and approvals
writing specications of works, appropriate materials
and standards for repair
nding suitable builders
drawing up a contract
tendering works and deciding on a contract
supervising on site and administering the contract.
Further help with nding suitably qualied professionals
is provided by HESPR (Historic Environment Service
Providers Recognition), a promotional service for
companies operating in any area of historic environment
conservation. It is maintained by the Institute of Historic
Building Conservation, the professional body for historic
environment conservation specialists across the UK.
42
Sometimes hidden repair problems will only become
apparent once opening up works have begun on an
historic farm building. It is therefore a good idea to
establish with the builder before he starts work how
any additional unbudgeted works will be costed. It is
also sensible to allow a contingency sum in your own
budget to allow for such problems.
CONSTRUCTION (DESIGN AND
MANAGEMENT) REGULATIONS 2007
These are statutory health and safety regulations
designed to encourage safe working on construction
sites. Under these regulations all owners of farm
buildings, as well as their designers and contractors,
have a duty to ensure competent design, management
and construction.
There are further comprehensive duties covering
everyone involved in projects that will last for more
than 30 days or involve more than 500 person days
of construction work.
Further information is available from the Health
and Safety Executive (www.hse.gov.uk).
SOURCESOFFUNDING
NATURAL ENGLAND (PREVIOUSLY DEFRA RDS)
Agri-environment funding via the Environmental
Stewardship scheme has considerable potential value
for traditional farm buildings, on two levels:
the Entry Level Scheme (ELS) can provide small but
regular payments for the maintenance of historic
farm buildings
the Higher Level Scheme (HLS) can provide larger
payments for repair projects.
Applicants for HLS grants have access to a general guide
to the repair of historic buildings. It explains which types
of buildings and what restoration works are in principle
eligible for grant aid. Successful entry to the HLS scheme
may then allow grant aid to be offered for repairs that
return an eligible building to sound condition (termed
restoration within the scheme). Contact Natural England
for further advice and eligibility on the Environment
Stewardship schemes (www.naturalengland.org.uk).
LOCAL AUTHORITY AND OTHER GRANTS
Some local authorities may offer discretionary grants for
the upkeep of historic farm buildings and it is common
for such grant aid to be targeted at listed buildings.
Of those authorities that provide grant aid at least half
stipulate a restriction to listed buildings or for buildings
in conservation areas, some of them also saying the
building has to be on the authoritys Building At Risk
register to be eligible.
The majority of authorities have very small budgets
and historic farm buildings are only one of a number
of building types eligible for funding.
If the farm building is listed Grade I or II* the work may
be eligible for a grant from English Heritage as part of the
Historic Buildings, Monuments and Designed Landscape
grants scheme (www.english-heritage.org.uk/grants).
The grant application is more likely to be successful if
it meets national and regional priorities that are outlined
in the application pack. The application must demonstrate
that there is nancial need for a grant and that the work
will be undertaken within two years.
These and other sources of grant aid are described
in detail in the Funds for Historic Buildings website
(www.ffhb.org.uk).
43
FURTHERREADING
LEGISLATION AND GOVERNMENT GUIDANCE
Guide to the Principles of the Conservation of Historic
Buildings, British Standard 7913 (1998). London: BSI
Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act
(1990). London: HMSO
Planning Policy Statement 5: Planning for the Historic
Environment (replaces PPG 15 & 16) (2010). London:
Department for Communities and Local Government
Planning Policy Statement 5: Planning for the Historic
Environment: Historic Environment Planning Practice Guide
(2010). London: English Heritage and the Departments
for Communities and Local Government and for Culture,
Media and Sport
Planning Policy Statement 7: Sustainable Development in
Rural Areas (2004). London HMSO and Ofce of the
Deputy Prime Minister
Town and Country Planning Act (1990). London: HMSO
ENGLISH HERITAGE GUIDANCE
Most of the publications listed below can be downloaded
from www.helm.org.uk/guidance. Further information
about historic farm buildings and their settings can
also be found at www.farmsteadstoolkit.co.uk, English
Heritages online resource for everyone involved with
the care and management of these vital components
of our rural heritage
Clark, K 2001. Informed Conservation: Understanding
Historic Buildings and their Landscapes for Conservation
Clark, J, Darlington, J, and Fairclough, G 2004.
Using Historic Landscape Characterisation
EH 2000. Power of Place: the Future of the
Historic Environment
EH 2004. Farming the Historic Landscape:
Caring for Farm Buildings
EH 2004. Farming the Historic Landscape:
An Introduction for Farm Advisers
EH 2005. Stone Slate Roong
EH 2005. Outstanding Beauty: Outstanding Heritage: AONBs
and the Historic Environment
EH 2006. The Conversion of Traditional Farm Buildings:
A Guide to Good Practice
EH 2006. Identifying and Sourcing Stone
for Historic Building Repair
EH 2006. Understanding Historic Buildings:
A Guide to Good Recording Practice
EH 2008. Conservation Principles, Policies and Guidance for
the Sustainable Management of the Historic Environment
EH 2009. Farm Buildings and Change
on the Bolton Abbey Estate, North Yorkshire
EH 2009. Historic Farm Buildings:
Extending the Evidence Base
EH/Countryside Agency 2006. Living Buildings in a Living
Landscape: Finding a Future for Traditional Farm Buildings.
EH/Countryside Agency 2006. Historic Farmsteads:
Preliminary Character Statement (a series of eight regional
documents)
TECHNICAL GUIDANCE
Brockett, P and Wright, A 1986. The Care and Repair of
Thatched Roofs. Technical Pamphlet 10. London: SPAB
Boutwood, J 1991. The Repair of Timber Frames and Roofs,
Technical Pamphlet 12. London: SPAB
Cadw 2006.Traditional Agricultural Buildings in Wales:
Care and Conservation. Cardiff: Cadw
Darley, G 1988. A Future for Farm Buildings. London: SAVE
Easton, T1998. Scribed and painted symbols, in Paul
Oliver (ed), The Encyclopaedia of Vernacular Architecture
of the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Hartley, P 1996. Introduction to the Repair of Lime-ash
and Plaster Floors, Information Sheet 12. London: SPAB
Holmes, S and Wingate, M 2002. Building with Lime:
A Practical Introduction (revised edn). London:
ITDG Publishing
Hughes, P 1987. The Need for Old Buildings to Breathe,
Information Sheet 4. London: SPAB
44
Lodge, D and Wright, A . Care and Repair of Flint Walls,
Technical Pamphlet 16. London: SPAB
Murless, B J 2000. Somerset Brick & Tile Manufacturers:
A Brief History. SIAS Survey No. 13. Somerset Industrial
Archaeological Society
Oxley, R 2003. Survey and Repair of Traditional Buildings, a
Sustainable Approach. Shaftesbury: Donhead Publishing
Pearson S, and Meeson B, (eds) 2001. Vernacular Buildings
in a Changing World: Understanding, Recording and
Conservation, CBA Research Report 126.York: Council for
British Archaeology
Read, K 1989. Panel Inllings to Timber-framed Buildings,
Technical Pamphlet 11. London: SPAB
Ridout, B 2000. Timber Decay in Buildings. London:
English Heritage
Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings 1982.
The SPAB Barns Book. London: SPAB
Thomas, A, Williams, G and Ashurst, N1992.
The Control of Damp in Old buildings,
Technical Pamphlet 8. London: SPAB
Williams, G B A 2002. Repointing Stone and Brick Walling,
Technical Pamphlet 5 (revised edn). London: SPAB
Wade-Martins, S (ed) 1991 Old Farm Buildings in a new
Countryside: Redundancy, Conservation and Conversion in the
1990s. Reading: Historic Farm Buildings Group
HISTORY OF FARM BUILDINGS
AND SETTLEMENT
Barnwell, P S and Giles C 1997. English Farmsteads
17501914 Swindon: RCHME
Brigden R 1986. Victorian Farms Ramsbury:
Crowood Press
Brunskill, R W 2000. Vernacular Architecture:
An Illustrated Handbook. London: Faber & Faber
Brunskill. R W 1982. Traditional Farm Buildings
of Britain. London: Gollancz
Brunskill. R W 1999. Traditional Farm Buildings of Britain
and their Conservation (3rd edn). London: Gollancz
Darley, G 1981. The National Trust Book of the Farm.
London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson
Harris, R 1978. Discovering Timber-framed Buildings.
Aylesbury: Shire Publications
Harvey, N 1980. The Industrial Archaeology of Farming
in England and Wales. London: Batsford
Harvey, N 1984. A History of Farm Buildings in England and
Wales (2nd edn). Newton Abbot: David and Charles
Lake J 1989. Historic Farm Buildings, An Introduction
and Guide. London: Blandford Press
Peters, J E C 1981. Discovering Traditional Farm Buildings.
Aylesbury: Shire Publications
Roberts, B K and Wrathmell S 2002. Region and Place: A
Study of English Rural Settlement. London: English Heritage
Taylor, C 1983. Village and Farmstead: A History of Rural
Settlement in England. London: George Philip
Wade Martins, S1991. Historic Farm Buildings.
London: Batsford
Wade Martins, S 2002. The English Model Farm.
Maccleseld: Windgather Press
Wade Martins, S 2004. Farmers, Landlords
and Landscapes: Rural Britain 17201870.
Maccleseld: Windgather Press
WILDLIFE
National Trust 2001. Wildlife and Buildings: Technical
Guidance for Architects, Builders, Building Managers
and Others. London: National Trust
(www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-wabman.pdf)
English Heritage, National Trust and Natural England
2009. Bats in Traditional Buildings. London: English Heritage
Barn Owl Trust 1995. Barn Owls on Site: A Guide
for Developers and Planners. Ashburton: Barn Owl
Preservation Trust
Bat Conservation Trust (www.bats.org.uk)
Mitchell-Jones, A J 2004. Bat Mitigation Guidelines.
Peterborough: English Nature
45
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EnglishHeritage2011
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