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INVITED REVIEW

THE OVERTRAINING SYNDROME: NEURO-
ENDOCRINE IMBALANCES IN ATHLETES

Anthony C. Hackney & Claudio Battaglini

Applied Physiology Laboratory
Department of Exercise & Sport Science
University of North Carolina
CB #8700 - Fetzer Building UNC-CH
Chapel Hill, NC 27599-8700, USA
Tel: 919-962-0334 FAX: 919-962-0489
Email: [email protected]

Submitted for publication: may 2007
Accepted for publication: june 2007

Abstract

HACKNEY, A. C.; BATTAGLINI, C. The Overtraining Syndrome: Neuro-
endocrine imbalances in athletes. Brazilian J ournal of Biomotricity. v. 1, n. 2, p.
34-44, 2007. The purpose of this review paper is to present a brief overview of
the neuro-endocrine imbalance hypotheses associated with the development of
the Overtraining Syndrome in athletes, and to discuss mechanisms for treating-
preventing of the syndrome condition. The intent of the paper is to provide
background knowledge and information primarily for allied health professionals,
coaches and athletes who pursue the enhancement of human performance;
but, who may have limited sports medicine educational background. Specific
topics addressed are: (a) defining what the Overtraining Syndrome is, (b) how
athletes develop the Overtraining Syndrome, (c) neuro-endocrine hypotheses
as to the development of Overtraining Syndrome development, (d) treatment
and prevention of the Overtraining Syndrome.

Key words: Hormones, Dysfunction, Sportsmen, Training



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Introduction

There are many factors that contribute to the improvement of human
performance in sporting events. Present day coaches working with athletes
have more knowledge because of advances in the fields of sports medicine and
coaching pedagogy. Sporting equipment changes have also led some
improvements in certain select events. It is generally accepted, however, that
the principle cause for the contemporary improvement in human performance is
the level of exercise training that athletes are undergoing, particularly within
events that require high levels of endurance capacity or superior physical
conditioning (RAGLIN & BARZDUKAS, 1999). Some exercise scientists who
study sporting events have estimated that the exercise training loads of athletes
have increased on average by 20-25% over the past decade (KUIPERS &
KEIZER, 1988; RAGLIN & BARZDUKAS, 1999).
Limits exist, however, to the human bodys ability to adapt and endure intense
exercise training for sport. Once this adaptation threshold is exceeded, the
body fails to improve appropriately, and physical - mental performance tends to
decline. Investigators estimate that 10 to 20% of all elite level athletes who are
involved with intensive sports training programs may fall prey to the disorder
referred to as the Overtraining Syndrome (sometimes also referred to as
Staleness by psychologists) (LEHMANN et al, 1999; RAGLIN & BARZDUKAS,
1999). Athletes who suffer from the Overtraining Syndrome are typically not
able to train at their desired or prescribed level, and their sporting performance
is compromised and degraded. Moreover, they suffer a variety of psycho-
physiological symptoms that severely affects their personal life and emotion-
physical well being.
In many countries around the world athletes are maintaining their competitive
years well beyond their early adulthood because lucrative professional and
semi-professional contacts allow them to support themselves adequately. This
occurrence has increased the likelihood of allied health professionals
encountering athletes in their clinical practice who may have been training at
high intensive levels for a number of years; thus, they are more susceptible to
the development of the Overtraining Syndrome. Unfortunately, not all allied
health professionals or coaches receive adequate education the areas of sports
medicine and in particular exercise endocrinology related to the syndrome.
Therefore, the specific purpose of this brief review paper is to consolidate some
of the research information on the topic of Overtraining Syndrome, specifically
related to the neuro-endocrinology area and thus provide background for allied
health professionals. Furthermore, while there has been extensive research
published on the Overtraining Syndrome, the information is in some cases
conflicting, contradictory and, or confusing. Thus, an additional purpose of this
paper is to try and clarify some the ambiguity within this research literature. Key
points to be addressed in this paper are:



36
I. to present a working definition of the Overtraining Syndrome and its
symptoms;
II. explain the developmental causes of syndrome;
III. overview the neuro-endocrine hypotheses addressing the potential
causes of the syndrome; and finally,
IV. discuss mechanisms for treating and preventing the condition.

- Overtraining Syndrome Working Definition
Part of the confusion which exist in this area of research stems from the fact
there is a lack of consistent and precise terminology. The terms Overtraining
Syndrome and Overtraining are frequently used interchangeably. It is highly
advisable to reserve the used of the term "Overtraining" for referring to the
process of heavier than usual exercise training. The term "Overtraining
Syndrome" should be reserved for referring to the product of the overtraining (or
overreaching training [see below]) process (KUIPERS & KEIZER, 1988;
HACKNEY et al., 1990; LEHMANN et al., 1993; LEHMANN et al., 1995;
KENTT & HASSMN, 1998). The Overtraining Syndrome is a pathological
disorder, where there is consistent and persistent exercise performance
incompetence in an athlete that does not reverse itself after a few days of rest
and recovery. Furthermore, there is no underlying medical reason or
explanation for the finding of declining performance. That is, the athlete has no
overt illness to medically treat. This exercise performance impairment
associated with the syndrome can manifest itself within athletic competition as
well as during training. Furthermore, the decline in physical performance is
usually followed by a host of other psycho-physiological consequences that
initiate the development of a series of different symptoms that can further
attenuate performance and the health of the athlete. Some of those most
general and commonly reported consequences symptoms are listed in Table
1.


















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Table 1 - General consequences and symptoms of the Overtraining Syndrome
(BARRON et al., 1985; HACKNEY et al., 1990).



- Overtraining Syndrome - Cause of Development in Athletes
The physiological cause to the Overtraining Syndrome is already known - the
exercise training load placed upon an athlete is too great (GALBO, 1983;
MORGAN et al., 1987). To be precise, the athlete is being exposed to a stress
level that exceeds their ability to adapt. Conceptually this view is modeled after
Selyes General Adaptation Syndrome. While the cause of the syndrome is
recognized, however, it is difficult to determine on an individual basis what too
much stress is.
Normally, exercise training load refers to the dosage to which the athlete is
exposed. Such dosage is a function of exercise "intensity, frequency, and
volume of activity performed by the athlete. Exercise intensity refers to the
degree to which the exercise is performed in relation to athlete's maximal
aerobic capacity (VO
2max
). Frequency is the number exercise sessions
performed on a daily and weekly basis (e.g., it is not uncommon for athletes to
train more than once a day, 7 days per week). Volume is the amount of time
spent in conducting training. Typically, athletes have their training load adjusted
and modified based upon their periodization training plan (i.e., periods of
training preparatory, competitive, and transitory periods; physical fitness level;
health status; and levels of competition significance levels I-V [Olympic
Games/Olympic qualifiers, National competitions, State competitions, Regional
competitions, and local events). This modulation of training load is essential in
bringing about the desired adaptive physiological and psychological responses
in the athlete, which are critical for improved performance.
A training load can be of an underload nature, which does not lead to an
improved athlete performance but allows only maintenance or in some cases an

38
actually decline in performance. A training load can be of an Overload nature,
which research says is necessary to bring about an improved performance.
There is also the Overreaching training load. This is considered a short-term
excessive training overload and can actually result in a transient decline in
physical performance. However, overreaching is usually administered for a very
short period of time and is followed by reduced training in hopes of achieving
super-compensation, and its level of excessiveness is slight. Some coaches
and exercise scientists feel that short periods of overreaching are necessary in
a training program to result in a super-compensation which allows the athlete to
reach higher levels of competitive performance. In contrast, "overtraining" is a
training load that is extremely excessive and results in large more permanent
performance decline. It should be noted that overreaching could become
overtraining if it is administered for too long a period or at too large of a load
increase.
It is critical that other forms of stress must also be considered in the life of an
athlete besides that of training load alone. Athletes may experience many
psycho-social stresses within their educational, personal relationships,
occupational, and financial situations (MORGAN et al., 1987). There is as well
the stress of traveling to competitions, perhaps competing too frequently,
environmental factors, medical conditions, and poor dietary practices
(MORGAN et al., 1987; LEHMANN et al., 1995). All of these factors combine to
add to the total stress placed upon the athlete and in so doing can impact the
effect of the training plan on the desired overall performance outcome. Thus
what may have been an appropriate overload training dosage could become
excessive when combined with the influence of other daily stresses being
placed upon the athlete's physiology.
- Neuro-endocrine Theories Hyper-arousal vs. Hypo-arousal States
Researchers have theorized that the Overtraining Syndrome may actually be a
disorder with more than one distinct form or state (KUIPERS & KEIZER, 1988;
KENTT & HASSMN, 1998; LEHMANN et al., 1999). Current literature
proposes two discrete neuro-endocrine varieties for the development of
Overtraining Syndrome a hyper-arousal and hypo-arousal. This conclusion is
based upon the finding that in certain physiological parameters diverging
symptomology exist.
The hyper-arousal form is also referred to as the sympathetic or Basedows
Overtraining Syndrome. It is commonly observed in power athletes (e.g.,
sprinters, weight lifters) and occurs less frequently than the hypo-arousal
disorder (LEHMANN et al., 1999). The hypo-arousal form is more common and
is also referred to as parasympathetic or Addison's Overtraining Syndrome.
This form of the disorder is frequently observed in endurance trained athlete
(e.g., long distance runners, rowers, swimmers).
Each form of the disorder has some similar characteristics and symptoms (i.e.,
in particular declining physical performance); but, there also are obvious
psycho-physiological differences. The similarities and differences are

39
overviewed in Table 2.
Table 2 - Pathophysiologic findings in hyper-arousal versus hypoarousal forms
of the Overtraining Syndrome (KUIPERS & KEIZER, 1988; HACKNEY et al.,
1990; LEHMANN et al., 1993; LEHMANN et al., 1995; LEHMANN et al., 1999)


It should be noted, that it is still an issue of debate as to whether the neuro-
endocrine manifestations of the syndrome are causative factors or
symptomology of other etiologies. The current state of research endeavors do
not allow for a definitive distinction to be made at this time on that question.
Nevertheless, neuro-endocrine disturbances are frequent findings in the
athletes who suffer from this syndrome. The reader is directed to select articles
by KUIPERS & KEIZER (1988), HACKNEY et al. (1990), FRY & KRAEMER
(1997) and SMITH (2000) which discusses in detail other potential hypotheses
associated with the development of the Overtraining Syndrome. In particular,
some of the recent work by SMITH (2000) linking overtraining, the immune
system and the neuro-endocrine system presents highly interesting and
promising perspectives on the topic.
- Treatment of the Overtraining Syndrome
Athletes who develop the syndrome can expect to have their competitive
season seriously disrupted, if not completely compromised. Current evidence
suggests there is no known effective treatment of the disorder other than "rest
from training". The amount of rest necessary to restore and regenerate the
athlete is an issue of dispute among researchers. Recommendations vary from
a few weeks to a few months (KUIPERS & KEIZER, 1988; HACKNEY et al.,
1990; FRY et al., 1991; SHEPLEY et al., 1992; HOOPER et al, 1993; FRY &
KRAEMER, 1997; KENTT & HASSMN, 1998). Furthermore, there is
disagreement as to whether this rest period should involve total inactivity or if
some degree of recreational activity (unrelated to the athletes sport) should be
allowed. Members of an U.S. Olympic Committee expert panel who studied

40
overtraining have recently recommended that the latter is a better approach
(RAGLIN & BARZDUKAS, 1999). This is a debatable issue, however, and much
further research is necessary to clarify this issue.
Drug therapy and intervention are advocated by some clinicians as a means of
dealing with the syndrome, and thus perhaps shortening the time spent resting
and being away from sport. Some of the drug agents recommended have been
anabolic steroids, anti-depressants, beta-blockers, and 5 HT blockers
depending upon the form of the condition an athlete may display. Each of these
pharmacological agents could theoretically treat some of the symptoms and
physiological changes associated with the Overtraining Syndrome and; thus,
facilitate the recovery process of an athlete suffering from the syndrome.
Such an approach, however, has serious ethical and legal considerations. The
governing bodies of sports (e.g., International Olympic Committee) could
consider the usage of some of these pharmacological agents as potential
doping violations. The use of such agents even for medical purposes under
certain circumstances could result in the athlete being placed on competitive
probation or even banned from competition. Thus, their use should be carefully
considered by the coach, athlete or allied health professional attempting to treat
for the Overtraining Syndrome.
Even placing ethical legal consideration aside for a moment, the use of these
therapies may produce side effects or suppress the underlying pathology of the
Overtraining Syndrome to the extent that it may lead to a more refractory
disorder. In other words, treat the symptom without treating the cause.
Accordingly, at this time the most practical, safe and effective recommendation
for the treatment of the Overtraining Syndrome is a prolonged period of rest.
- Prevention of the Overtraining Syndrome
The above discussion of treatment suggests there is little that can be done as
an intervention once an athlete develops the syndrome. Consequently, the best
treatment for Overtraining Syndrome is prevention. It is the job of the coach,
athlete and allied health professional to work together proactively to prevent this
condition from occurring (VIRU & VIRU, 1997). There are several basic
principles which should be followed to lessen the likelihood of an athlete to
develop the syndrome.
First, it is critical that the signs and symptoms of overtraining be readily known
by anyone working with an athlete. Anytime that any of these characteristics are
noted, careful observation and scrutiny of the athlete is necessary (see Table
1). Detection is difficult, because many of these symptoms may appear almost
daily due to the rigors of training. However, when symptoms persist for several
days continuously, and are not abated by a day of rest, drastic alteration of a
training program may be necessary. Observation should be reinforced by
frequent and regular medical evaluations, which can ensure that the athlete is
healthy and able to deal with the training load prescribed for them.

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Secondly, it is necessary to develop and implement a well designed, realistic,
and scientific based, periodization training plan. Such a plan must go through
constant monitoring and evaluation to minimize the amount of monotonous
training, incorporate variations within the training methodology, and make
certain that weekly training load increases do not exceed approximately 10%
(AMERICAN COLLEGE OF SPORT MEDICINE, 2006). The periodization plan
must be designed to make certain that necessary rest and recovery from
training is precisely incorporated not only during weekly macrocycles, but
appropriate amounts are given to the athlete to fully recover during the
transitory period of training, prior to the beginning of the next cycle of
competitions (FRY et al., 1991; FRY & KRAEMER, 1997).
Thirdly, it is essential that proper nutrition and hydration be maintained at all
times. Athletes can lead busy life-styles and may not allow themselves the time
to maintain proper diets. Therefore, athletes should be constantly encouraged
to eat and drink what they need, and a key macro-nutrient requirement within
the diet is carbohydrate (COSTILL et al., 1991). It is also essential that caffeine
and alcohol-based drinks (which are diuretics) are not excessive as they defeat
the goal of maintaining adequate hydration.
Finally, interactive coaching is also a necessary principle in the prevention of
the Overtraining Syndrome. This means that coaches must talk to their athletes
about how they are feeling and about any problems they are having in their lives
which could generate "other stresses". Professor J ohn Raglin of the USA has
demonstrated that the psychological disturbances associated with the
Overtraining Syndrome tend to manifest themselves earlier than do the
physiological symptoms (RAGLIN et al., 1996). If the coach talks to their athlete
they may be able to detect coping problems before they become serious and
affect physiological capacity. While the coach needs to listen to the athlete, it is
also important that the athlete listens to his or her own body and acknowledges
to the coach when they are feeling overly fatigued, unmotivated, or just tired;
and, not feel such an admission is a sign of weakness. The coach then needs to
evaluate the athlete, take into account their feelings, and adapt their training
accordingly. Table 3 summaries these points mentioned above.














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TABLE 3 - Steps to the prevention of the Overtraining Syndrome in athletes.


Conclusion
In conclusion, the research on the Overtraining Syndrome is at best
confusing and contradictory. Further, extensive research is necessary on
many aspects of this topic. Perhaps the development of other clinical
assessment protocols, using blood markers in combination with the
suggested protocols mentioned in this manuscript, may facilitate Overtraining
Syndrome diagnosis and possibly the development of a minimal necessary
treatment timeline for an athlete to resume training and competition. Our
laboratory has already initiated studies where blood markers have been
explored as means to further understand the syndrome, and to create a
clinical tool to assist coaches and athletes in the prevention and diagnosis of
Overtraining Syndrome. Hopefully allied health professionals, coaches, and
athletes will work together to tackle this complex problem, so that athletes
can safely continue to train and pursue their goals of breaking records and
pushing the limits of human performance.

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