The Key Success Factors of Oman Air :

To be able to face the severe competition in the aviation industry today, any airline
company must be efficient in some common areas related to its customers .Oman
Air success factors can be noticed obviously in two areas : "1) attracting customers
and 2) managing its people.

Attracting Customers

Oman Air attracts its customers through some "attractiveness factors" which are
related mainly to the services such as: price, promotions, special offers etc.

Managing People

Oman Air employees are well trained , morlas, having the ability to offer help for all
customers from different age, helath training,

Managing Finances
The last of the four areas is financial management, for which six factors are used. Unit
revenue and unit cost are important by themselves, but their relationship is also
important. Therefore, we have compared both unit revenue and unit cost as well as the
unit margins among the airlines. A measure of capacity to normalize these factors is
used since the airlines fly all their available seats, not just those that are occupied.
Better unit revenue may not be an advantage for an airline whose unit costs are out of
line.

In addition to unit revenues and unit costs, funding for growth is an important factor
for an organization's long-term success. Most successful organizations choose to grow
over time. In the case of the airlines, growth is measured in terms of capacity growth.
Furthermore, in order to grow, an airline needs adequate funds. To be attractive for
most equity investors, an airline must grow its equity over time. Moreover, to be
attractive to most debt investors, a reasonable debt-to-assets ratio is desirable. In this
realm of funding, this study is less precise. However, in light of this study's prior
research, the measures in this case appear to indicate the likelihood of enduring
success for the airlines.

Sources :
Airline Industry Key Success Factors

The ability for airlines to succeed today is measured

according to several key success factors.
Richard M. McCabe, PhD

Pepperdine University 2009

Can you highlight the vision Jet Airways has embarked on?

The vision is to grow with quality and to make the airline- the passenger's first choice of flying.

What marketing strategy has Jet Airways planned to conquer the gulf region?

Jet Airways believe in Quality, Quality and Quality...

Our Chairman Mr. Naresh Goyal believes that there is always room for improvement even for
a perfectionist. He emphasises on Quality, flight on-time performance and passenger
satisfaction. These are the three most important aspects which have elevated Jet Airways as
one of the top five airlines in the world. Mr.Goyal's ability to take quick decisions and to take
risks while implementing such decisions are the key factors for the ongoing success of Jet
Airways. It is his vision, perception and perseverance that the airline is flying high and has
climbed the summit of success.

What is the rapport between Jet Airways and Oman Air?

There is a great level of understanding between Oman Air and Jet Airways. Oman Air has
been very supportive. We look up to them as it is the national Airline of Oman. From now on
we will enjoy mutual cooperation, mainly in the aircraft handling and engineering
departments.

What is the kind of market response Jet Airways expects from the Gulf region?

There will be a healthy competition between the airlines. There is an aviation boom within and
towards India. The class of passengers traveling to and fro India has seen a phenomenal
change. At present, most of the executive positions overseas are held by Indians, and there
are many others who are highly successful in IT, Medicine and other fields. Thus the
frequency of travel of these Indians has increased drastically and because of the increased
demand for Indian sectors every airline will get the passenger load

Do you have Mangalore sector on your cards?

Yes... we are well aware of the strong demand for the Mangalore sector. We are still waiting
for the green signal for destinations like Mumbai, New Delhi, Chennai and Mangalore.

Mr. Abraham Joseph, Senior General Manager, Gulf, Middle East and North Africa said that
both the governments of India and Oman have been very supportive towards launching the
flight and he added that he is very confident that the airline will be a success in the gulf
region.

Visibly elated, Mr. Jay David, Country Manager, Jet Airways Oman, reiterated the new slogan
of Jet Airways Change the way you Fly and experience the Joy of flying.

The Key Factors chapter covers the industry's Key Sensitivities and Key Success
Factors. The Key Sensitivities section outlines the key factors that are outside the
control of an operator in the industry, but are likely to have significant impact on a
business. The Key Success Factors section details the factors within the control of an
industry operator and which should be followed in order to be successful in the
industry. Often this will include behavior that will help to minimize the effects of the
Key Sensitivities.

Industry Issue Paper

CROSS-CULTURAL FACTORS AND CORPORATE GOVERNANCE

TRANSPARENCY IN GLOBAL AIRLINE STRATEGIC ALLIANCES
by Catherine C. Giapponi and Carl A. Scheraga

This paper argues that a critical dimension in understanding the factors

that inhibit the effectiveness and benefits of airline alliances is corporate
transparency. Specifically, the issue of transparency in corporate
governance is considered. Corporate governance is the set of institutional
arrangements affecting corporate decision making, and deals with the
relationship among various participants in determining the direction and
performance of corporations.

However, airline strategic alliances span an array of national cultures

which influence the development of such relationships. The impact of
national culture as a determinant of governance transparency is also
investigated in this paper. This study draws on the literature which
examines the impact of national culture on international joint ventures
and governance systems. National cultures are described by Hofstede's
five dimensions of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism,
masculinity, and temporal orientation.

Governance transparency is investigated by the examination of corporate

annual reports. Thus, this study investigates not only the level of
corporate governance transparency demonstrated by participants in each
of the three major airline alliances, but the relationship between said
governance transparency and the cultural identity of each of the
participants.
Introduction and Focus of Current Study

Strategic alliances have become an increasingly important part of the

corporate strategic planning process. Within the international airline
industry, the 1990s witnessed the emergence of three global multi-carrier
alliances: Star, oneworld, and Skyteam. These three alliances are
comprised of airlines spanning numerous national cultures. However,
while these alliances have been successful in achieving incremental
revenue enhancements, they have been less so with regard to the
achievement of economic synergies through cost cutting. This study
provides an integrated framework for understanding the organizational
drivers of these economic synergies, specifically those associated with
corporate governance transparency. The rationale for focusing on these
specific drivers and their importance is discussed here in detail.
Furthermore, the impact of specific characteristics of national cultures on
corporate governance transparency is empirically tested.

A recent study by the Boston Consulting Group done by Cools and Roos
(2005) provided a sobering prognostication regarding the future of
strategic alliances in the airline industry. Strategic alliances in this
industry were a response to regulatory and cultural barriers that inhibited
airlines from pursuing merger and acquisition strategies that were
consistent with the economic logic of consolidation. High fragmentation in
the airline industry had resulted in excess capacity and poor economic
performance. Consolidation would have provided several opportunities.
First, operational synergies provide opportunities for cost rationalization.
Second, network synergies can reduce costs and improve asset utilization.
Finally, consolidation can provide platforms for future growth.

Because of the regulatory and cultural barriers noted above, airlines have
pursued the alternative strategy of global alliances. Consumers have
directly benefited from these alliances through increased frequency of
flights, better connectivity between destination points, and the
consolidation of frequent flyer programs. The Boston Consulting Group
study suggests, however, that the extra revenue that has resulted from
these consumer benefits has been almost fully realized or "harvested"
(Cools and Roos 2005, 18). The study notes that while cost cutting is long
overdue, the alliances have not been effective in facilitating tougher cost
synergies.

The study also notes four major reasons for the inability of airline
strategic alliances to provide further consolidation in the industry. First,
there are asymmetric benefits to airlines that make the initial investments
necessary for cost synergies. That is, there is no guarantee that "the
airline that invests the most will receive the greatest benefits" (Cools and
Roos 2005, 19). Thus, airlines are hesitant to make these investments.
Second, such investments represent a commitment to an alliance that is
irreversible. Airlines perceive this as a reduction in strategic flexibility
even though such flexibility has been used to justify the logic of strategic
alliances. Again, airlines are hesitant to make the necessary investments.
Third, a significant engagement in a strategic alliance is often seen as
erosion in option value. Company executives have less freedom to choose
alternative strategies in shaping the destinies of their airlines. Finally, the
effectiveness of global strategic airline alliances has been hampered by
cumbersome decision making. Often, every airline in an alliance has an
equal vote regardless of size or importance. Thus, operational
consolidations have typically been bilateral in nature, involving only two
members of an alliance rather than all members.

The strategy of collaboration is often perceived as having significant costs

that may outweigh any possible benefits. Whipple and Frankel (2000)
suggest that the most important factors influencing the success of
alliances are trust, senior management support, and the ability to meet
performance expectations, clear goals, and partner compatibility. Koza
and Levin (1998), as well as Whipple and Frankel (2000), argue that
different alliance partners have different views on trust and what it
entails. Mutual trust is best fostered when the structure of an alliance
closely supports the intent of the alliance. Thus, alliances must be
carefully and thoroughly planned and controlled so that trust and defined
boundaries are not violated (Spekman et al. 1998; Whippel and Frankel
2000). Participants in an alliance being formed must agree to the
contribution of each member and the sharing of profits. This is not always
easily accomplished because the reality is that every firm has specific, if
not idiosyncratic, objectives that it wishes to achieve (Lewis 1990).
Therefore, alliance members must have a clear understanding of what
each of them needs to invest in the strategic alliance as well as what each
can expect in return. In addition to a commonality of goals among
strategic alliance participants, there must also be compatibility of
corporate cultures (Spekman et al. 1998).

This latter point is more specifically addressed in a model proposed by

Simon and Lane (2004). They argue that the existence of shared
complementary resources between strategic alliance partners is not
sufficient to allow for alliance effectiveness. In addition to these resources,
the factors that allow the employees of alliance members to interact with
each other in order to share, combine, and leverage such
complementarities are critically important. In defining these factors, they
focus on differences in organizational, professional, and national culture.
They suggest that the "more salient the cultural differences are to the
value-creating activities of an alliance, the more disruptive those
differences will be on the alliance's value-creating activities" (Simon and
Lane 2004, 315).

The discussion below will illustrate how the concept of netchains, which
incorporate the attributes of supply chains and networks, can be used to
describe airline strategic alliances. However, the work done by Larson
(1992) is critical to this study. She found that strategic alliances, which by
nature are networks, have critical factors for success beyond economic
incentives and mutually beneficial strategic rewards. These include a
history of prior personal relations and knowledge of network partners'
reputations that lead to a commitment to a mutual orientation. Such an
orientation requires knowledge of potential partners' businesses and a
respectful understanding of the interests of others.

Spekman et al. (1998) suggest that strategic alliance cooperation occurs

at the boundaries of each of the alliance participants. If the firm is the
total set of inter-structured activities in which it is engaged and over
which it has discretion to initiate, maintain, or end behaviors, then the
boundary of the organization is located where its discretion ends and that
of another begins. Thus, one can also define the boundary of the strategic
alliance itself. This definition establishes the "permeability" between firms,
that is, the extent to which members of the strategic alliance allow skills,
information, and technology to flow from one firm to another.

Lewis (1990) argues that these alliance boundaries, which mark the points
of contact among strategic alliance participants, are characterized by two
phenomena: formal and informal interfaces. Formal interfaces include the
control and reporting mechanisms that structure inter-firm interactions.
These mechanisms may include the structuring of boards of directors and
other management personnel, the content of equity agreements,
contracts joint development agreements, and the execution of operational
integration. At the same time, informal interfaces, as noted by Spekman
et al. (1998, 759), "reinforce personal commitment and trust, provide
access to personal information and contacts, and foster the development
of informal networks that allow managers to accomplish various tasks at
different levels of the organization."

For all of the reasons noted above, this study argues that corporate
transparency among strategic alliance partners is critically important. We
use the definition of corporate transparency developed by Bushman et al.
(2004). Corporate transparency is the availability of firm-specific
information to those outside the firm. Specifically, the study focuses on
the dimension of corporate transparency embraced by corporate
governance disclosure. Corporate governance is the set of institutional
arrangements affecting corporate decision making, and deals with the
relationship among various participants in determining the direction and
performance of corporations (Monks and Minnow 1995). Corporate
governance transparency directly impacts relationship transparency – a
concept of considerable interest in the supply chain management
literature. Relationship transparency can be defined as an individual
party's subjective perception of being informed about relevant actions and
properties of the other party in the interaction (Eggert and Helm 2003).
Greater relationship transparency in a strategic interaction leads to more
favorable behavioral intentions on the part of participants in such an
interaction.

Governance transparency is investigated by the examination of corporate

annual reports. The latest available reports of all the members of the
three major airline alliances – Star, oneworld, and Sky Team – are
utilized. There is analytical precedent for this approach (see Bushman,
Piotroski, and Smith 2004). An extension of the conceptual and
measurement scheme utilized by Bushman et al. (2004) is employed in
this study. Furthermore, the seminal work by Gray (1988) and subsequent
research has demonstrated a relationship between a country's cultural
profile as measured by Hofstede's (1980) dimensions and the level of
disclosure/transparency in the annual corporate reports of firms in that
country. The importance of cross-cultural factors is discussed in detail
below. Thus, this study investigates not only the level of corporate
governance transparency demonstrated by participants in each of the
three major airline alliances, but the relationship between said governance
transparency and the cultural identity of each of the participants.

Netchains and Transparency

The two concepts of netchains and transparency are very relevant to a
description of the interrelationships found in strategic alliances in the
airline industry. Lazzarini, Chaddad, and Cook (2001, 7) define a netchain
as a "set of networks comprised of horizontal ties between firms within a
particular industry or group, such that these networks (or layers) are
sequentially arranged based on the vertical ties between firms in different
layers." Suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, and customers typically
represent these different layers, linked by supply chains. Furthermore,
"netchain analysis explicitly differentiates between horizontal (transactions
in the same layer) and vertical ties (transactions between layers),
mapping how agents in each layer are related to each other and to agents
in other layers."

There are sources of value in netchains, as discussed by Lazzarini,

Chaddad, and Cook (2001), which are much akin to the sources of value
in airline strategic alliances. The supply chain aspects of netchains
underpin the advantages of airline strategic alliances that are traditionally
discussed in the literature. Supply chain analysis focuses on production
and optimization. Supply chain structures also help to optimize
transactions costs that are incurred when using the market system. Not
surprisingly, airline strategic alliances have focused on economies of scale,
increased traffic density, and economies of scope, as well as the
improvement in service quality and convenience.

Of more interest to the current study are the network aspects of netchains
that have value impacts on organizations with regard to social structure,
learning, and network externalities. In the first case, networks give rise to
a social structure, which influences individual or collective behavior, and
by extension, performance. This social structure influences the resources
that accrue to an individual or group because of their location in the
network (Adler and Kwon 1999, 4).

The discussion in the literature as to the optimal structure of networks,

which are most likely to yield social structure benefits, has divided itself
between proponents of "dense" networks and those of "sparse" networks.
Dense networks are defined as those where network members are
extensively connected with each other (Coleman 1990) and have
repeated, relational exchanges (Nelson 1989; Krackhardt 1992). Such
dense networks promote trust, the development of social norms, and
resultant cooperation. In addition, intra-industry coalitions may emerge
that possess the power to negotiate better terms of trade with firms in
other industries or netchain layers as well as modifying the degree of
competition within coalition industries (Pfeffer and Nowak 1976;
Galaskiewicz 1985; Lane and Bachmann 1996).

Proponents of sparse networks with weak ties and occasional market-like

transactions between organizations suggest that such relationships
generate new information and diversity, both of which are critical for
generating innovations that create benefits and opportunities for members
of the network. The "looseness" of these relationships is important in that
the temptation to be "locked into" resources which are highly specialized
and may be of only temporal value (Grabher 1993; Uzzi 1997; Afuah
2000).

Additionally, networks provide opportunities for learning. Membership in a

network allows for the sharing of specific and specialized knowledge
developed by individual organizations, thus creating the diversity of
information noted above (Demsetz 1988; Zenger and Poppo 1999).
Learning in a network may also give rise to "co-specialization." The
process of co-specialization reflects the combining of individual capabilities
of network members to develop network-wide routine practices (Nelson
and Winter 1982; Kogut and Zander 1992). However, co-specialization
may, as in the case of dense networks, lead to a reduction in the
opportunities that can be exploited by individual network members and
may inhibit their ability to react to new external knowledge (Leonard-
Barton 1995).

Finally, network externalities may provide "increasing returns to adoption"

(Katz and Shapiro 1985; Arthur 1989). Network externalities provide the
opportunity for such an effect in both a direct and indirect manner. Direct
increasing returns to adoption occur when the adoption of a technology or
process by multiple organizations allows for increased benefits for all
users. Furthermore, greater adoption of a technology or process allows for
more experience to be gained with that technology leading to greater
improvement in said technology or process. Indirect increasing returns to
adoption occur when the technologies, products, or processes of network
members can be used together, that is, they exhibit complementarities.

An example of an area of technological concern for airline alliance

partners, as noted by Cools and Roos (2005), which lends itself to the
benefits of increasing returns to adoption, is information technology. They
observed that information systems, even among alliance partners, are still
fragmented, idiosyncratic, and backward. Consolidation would benefit all
alliance partners. Yet, such consolidation has not made significant
progress. Another area that would benefit from increasing returns to
adoption is that of joint procurement with regard to high cost items, such
as aircraft and spare parts, or more mundane items, such as food and
fuel.

Hofstede (2003, 18) defines transparency in a netchain as "the extent to

which all the netchain's stakeholders have a shared understanding of, and
access to, the product-related information that they request, without loss,
noise, delay and distortion." Loss occurs when a netchain participant does
not transmit information, while noise implies that a netchain participant
adds non-relevant data to the body of accumulated information. Delay
occurs when a netchain participant delays information, and distortion
implies that a netchain participant changes information either by accident
or on purpose. He further notes that a precondition for netchain
transparency is a shared understanding that may include: a shared
language, shared interpretation of key concepts, shared standards for
product quality, shared reference information models, and shared
technological infrastructure.

Transparency allows the netchain to be more responsive to

(unanticipated) external events. Again, Hofstede (2003, 18) notes that
increased responsiveness allows producers to anticipate market demand
accurately; netchain participants to plan their capacity accurately;
netchain participants to readily perceive defects in quality control and to
readily identify the source of such problems; and customers to identify the
quality- and value-related attributes of a product or service.

National Culture and Transparency

Hofstede (2003) provides an interesting discussion of the relationship

between national culture and network transparency. His father (Hofstede
1980; Hofstede and Bond 1988) empirically derived five dimensions of
culture: individualism versus collectivism, power distance, masculinity
versus femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and short-term versus long-
term orientation. Numerous replication studies utilizing these dimensions
have established their validity and reliability (see Sondergaard 1994).
Furthermore, these dimensions have found widespread use in many areas
of behavioral and organizational research. In recent research, his cultural
dimensions have been related to perspectives on and determinants of
business ethics (Schepers 2006; Su 2006; Smith and Hume 2005;
Swaidan and Hayes 2005), consumer decision-making and advertising
(Mikhailitchenko and Whipple 2006; Bang, Raymond, Taylor, and Moon
2005; Leo, Bennett, and Hartel 2005; Malai and Speece 2005; Yoo and
Donthu 2005), new product development (Garrett, Buisson, and Yap
2006; Dwyer, Mesak, and Hsu 2005), international negotiations (McGinnis
2005; Rammal 2005), joint ventures (Ritchie and Eastwood 2005),
management control (Garg and Ma 2005; Lere and Portz 2005),
information technology (McCoy, Everard, and Jones 2005), total quality
management (Jabnoun and Khafaji 2005), industrial relations (Black
2005), leadership (Littrell and Valentiri 2005), and incentive preferences
(Rehu, Lusk, and Wolff 2005).

The individual in an individualistic culture is independent; so too are

organizations in such a culture. A market model governs networks with
transactions regulated by contracts or informal deals, but with no ulterior
motives to a particular transaction. Collectivist cultures would view
networks as extended families. Individuals in these networks are bound to
each other by life-long links of loyalty and obligation, and there is no need
for contracts. There is a clear distinction between the in-group and the
out-group. While netchains may be reconfigurable in individualistic
cultures, they are typically not so in collectivistic ones. Providing
information to members of the out-group is seen as morally wrong. Lying
is not necessarily seen as inherently problematic. It is acceptable, in fact,
morally acceptable, to favor friends over others even though this might be
labeled as corruption in individualistic cultures.

Cultures of high power distance also provide a problematic environment

for netchains. In such cultures, delegation of authority is problematic
which, in turn, impedes transparency. Providing information to third
parties not controlled by senior authorities may not be acceptable.
Transparency in netchains requires strategic alliance partners to yield
some of their autonomy, which may be difficult in rigid hierarchies.

Feminine cultures would be more likely to capitalize on the social and

learning structures of netchains. In such cultures, talking is preferred over
fighting and cooperation is preferred over competition. Masculine cultures,
by contrast, favor fierce competition with a basic distrust held between
individuals. Leader firms in a strategic alliance would seek to dominate
less dominant partners in the alliance.

Cultures that demonstrate high uncertainty avoidance exhibit a preference

for strict dogmas and principles. For organizations in such cultures, rules
are important as is strict adherence to tradition. Cooperative relationships,
therefore, may exhibit conflict over agreements and exceptions. Low
uncertainty avoidance cultures will have no problem changing deadlines
and contracts in response to situational changes. Finally, organizations in
cultures with a short-term orientation pursue short-term returns, as
opposed to those realized in the long run. Long-term agreements are thus
fragile, often replaced by transactions in short-term spot markets.

Netchains and Airline Strategic Alliances

Oum et al. (2000) provide an extensive discussion of the reasons for

airline strategic alliances. These include the expansion of seamless service
networks, traffic between alliance partners, cost efficiencies, the
improvement of service quality, co-marketing advantages, and the
reinforcement of market power with cooperative pricing. As suggested
above, these motivations represent the supply chain aspects of netchains.

It was also noted that of greater interest to this study were the network
aspects of netchains. Doganis (2001) points out that airline agreements
fall along a spectrum that ranges from interline agreements, or joint
frequent flyer programs, to joint ventures, where partners come together
to operate a business. KLM has been particularly active in the latter area.
In 1998, KLM and Alitalia announced their intent to operate their
passenger and cargo services as two integrated joint ventures. More
recently, KLM and Air France have consolidated their operations through
the first large international merger of two airlines. The two airlines are
owned by a common parent/holding company, Air France-KLM; but, at the
same time, will retain and operate under their own brand names from
their home bases of operation in Paris and Amsterdam. The new holding
company will be managed by the joint structure of the Strategic
Management Committee, consisting of four French and four Dutch
members.

Doganis (2001) further points out that airline strategic alliances fall along
a similar spectrum. The simplest alliances, covering a limited number of
routes or city pairs, involve special pro-rate (the prices airlines agree to
charge for carrying each other's passengers) agreements and/or code
sharing. At the other end of the spectrum are the global alliances that
include schedule coordination, joint sales offices and ground handling,
combined frequent flyer programs, and joint maintenance activities.
Sometimes such alliances include mutual equity stakes. Global strategic
alliance partners may also have regional alliances, thus making the global
alliance a very complex structure. Ultimately, global strategic airline
alliances may move towards franchising, common branding, joint cargo
and passenger services ventures, and, finally, full mergers. To facilitate
such undertakings, airlines will need to understand the network aspects of
netchains in order to fully exploit the benefits of these opportunities.

The Use of Corporate Annual Reports

Stanton and Stanton (2002) provide a comprehensive overview of the use

of corporate annual reports in the research literature. Corporate annual
reports are the means by which companies communicate with their
various constituencies and stakeholders. However, they are more than
simply formal documents that are produced in response to mandatory
corporate reporting requirements. Hopwood (1996, 55) suggests that
corporate annual reports have the main purpose of constructing a
"particular visibility and meaning" as opposed to "what was there." In
discussing financial accounting, Hines (1988, 257) elaborates on this
notion: "We create a picture of an organization, or the 'economy',
whatever you like, and on the basis of that picture (not some underlying
'real' reality of which no one is aware), people think and act. And by
responding to that picture of reality, they make it so; it becomes 'real in
its consequences.' And what is more, when people respond to that picture,
and the consequences occur, they see it as proof of our having correctly
conveyed reality."

Thus, as Stanton and Stanton (2002) argue, researchers use corporate

annual reports to view the "visibilities and meanings" noted by Hopwood
above. Anderson and Imperia (1992), Bekey (1990), and Neu et al.
(1998) provide interesting examples of how corporate annual reports
communicate the personality and philosophy of the firm, market the firm,
and present a particular organizational image. Stanton and Stanton
(2002) compile a detailed listing of the perspectives in annual reports that
have been studied by researchers. These include image management,
marketing, organizational legitimacy, political economy, and
accountability. More specifically, there may be an inherent tension
between the presentation of corporate legitimacy and social responsibility
and that of political economy and image management and marketing.
Keasey and Wright (1993) argue that this tension between perspectives
affects the quality of communication with regard to accountability and
governance.
The use of annual reports for studies related specifically to disclosure has
been well documented. Botosan (1997, 329) states that "although the
annual report is only one means of corporate reporting, it should serve as
a good proxy for the level of voluntary disclosure provided by a firm
across all disclosure avenues." Lang and Lundholm (1993) note that
annual report disclosure levels are positively correlated with the amount
of disclosure provided via other media. Knutson (1992, 7) states that "at
the top of every analyst's list (of financial reports used by analysts) is the
annual report to shareholders. It is the major reporting document and
every other financial report is in some respect subsidiary or
supplementary to it." Patel and Dallas (2002, 6) suggest that the use of
annual reports "facilitates analysis and comparison of companies around
the globe."

Gray (1988) has developed a framework that links Hofstede's dimensions

of culture and the development of accounting systems, the regulation of
the accounting profession, and attitudes towards financial management
and disclosure. He suggests four accounting value dimensions that
influence a nation's financial reporting practices. These are:
professionalism versus statutory control, uniformity versus flexibility,
conservatism versus optimism, and secrecy versus transparency. This last
dimension is of particular interest to this study. Gray (1988, 8) defines
secrecy as "a preference for confidentiality and the restriction of
disclosure of information about the business only to those who are closely
involved with its management and financing as opposed to a more
transparent, open and publicly accountable approach." Furthermore, he
hypothesizes (p. 11) that the higher a country ranks in terms of
uncertainty avoidance, power distance, and masculinity, and the lower it
ranks in terms of individualism, the more likely it will rank high in terms of
secrecy.

High uncertainty avoidance implies a preference for secrecy because of

the need to restrict information disclosures in order to avoid conflict and
competition. A high ranking on power distance, associated with the need
to preserve inequalities in power, would also be consistent with a
preference for secrecy. A collectivistic orientation with a sense of
responsibility to insiders, as opposed to those external to the firm, would
also be consistent with secrecy. Feminist cultures that emphasize the
quality of life, people, and the environment will tend to be more
transparent with regard to information.
Research Design

A qualitative analysis of the intensity of governance disclosure was

conducted through the examination of the most recent corporate annual
reports filed by the full members of the three major airline alliances, Star,
oneworld, and SkyTeam. The Star Alliance members examined in the
study included Air Canada, Air New Zealand, ANA, Austrian, LOT Polish
Airlines, Lufthansa, SAS, Singapore Airlines, South African Airlines, Swiss,
TAP Portugal, Thai, United, U.S. Airways, and Varig. It should be noted
that annual reports for two members of the Star Alliance, Asiana and BMI,
were not available. These companies were, therefore, excluded from the
research. The members of the oneworld Alliance included in the study
consisted of Aer Lingus, American Airlines, British Airways, Cathay Pacific,
Finnair, Iberia, LAN, and Qantas. The SkyTeam Alliance members studied
included Aeroflot, Aero Mexico, Air France, Alitalia, Continental, Czech
Airlines, Delta, Korean Air, and Northwest Airlines. The airlines in this
study and their ICAO designators are listed in Table 1.

For purposes of the study, governance transparency was defined as the

disclosure of governance information that can be used to hold
executives/officers, boards of directors, and majority owners accountable
to investors, stakeholders, and the public. Governance transparency,
therefore, was measured based on the specific disclosure of information
related to corporate executives, board of directors, and shareholders
provided in each company's annual report, or 10K when issued in lieu of
an annual report. The measurement framework is an extension of the
governance transparency variables used in research conducted by
Bushman, Piotroski, and Smith (2004) and Christopher and Hassan
(2005). The list of disclosure items adopted for purposes of this study was
extended to include additional governance attributes identified in the Patel
and Dallas (2002) study of transparency and disclosure. A total of 29
disclosure items were used (see Table 2 for a complete list). Each
company was rated based on the actual disclosure of each piece of
information (see Tables 3A, 3B, and 3C). They were categorized into two
groups: those that disclosed 50% or more of the governance items and
those that disclosed less than 50% of the items. The 50% criterion was
utilized as this was the intra-group division suggested by the data.

The relationship between Hofstede's cross-cultural factors (1980) and

governance disclosure was examined using the Tukey-Kramer method
(Tukey 1953; Kramer 1956). The fifth factor of time orientation was not
included because the Hofstede-Bond (1988) study provided data for only
23 countries, which represented a very small sub-sample of the strategic
alliances. In the current study, the problem of testing differences in
means was complicated by the fact that the sub-samples were of unequal
size. These unequal cell sizes required that an extension of the test
proposed by Tukey (1952, 1953) be used. The original Tukey test (1952)
was designed specifically for pair-wise comparisons based on the
studentized range and controls the maximum experiment-wise error rate
(MEER) when the sample sizes are equal. Tukey (1953) and Kramer
(1956) independently proposed a modification for unequal cell sizes. The
Tukey-Kramer method, as used in this study, has fared extremely well in
Monte Carlo studies (Dunnett 1980). Additionally, Hayter (1984) provides
a proof that the Tukey-Kramer procedure controls the MEER.

Specifically, for two groups yi and yj, with ni and nj observations in each
group respectively and s being the root mean square error based on v
degrees of freedom, their means i and j are considered significantly
different by the Tukey-Kramer criterion if:

| i- j|/s
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