TECHNICAL BULLETIN

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ISP 1002





OVERVIEW OF FABRIC YELLOWING







This report is sponsored by the Importer Support Program and
written to address the technical needs of product sourcers.







2002 Cotton Incorporated. All rights reserved; Americas Cotton Producers and Importers.
INTRODUCTION

Yellowing of textile fabrics is one of the oldest and most widespread quality problems known.
The yellowing can be seen directly in the case of market whites, pastel shades or even after-
washed denims. However, shade change noticed in darker colored fabrics can often be attributed
to chemical change or degradation of the fiber or some chemical agent either purposely applied
to the fabric in finishing or inadvertently absorbed by the fabric in its storage and shipment to
market or during its end use. As a general statement, yellowing of textile materials is an
indication of unanticipated chemical degradation. Very often, as colorless chemicals
decompose, they form light to moderate yellowish colors. Of course, if this chemical is a textile
finish or additive or has been absorbed by a textile product, this color formation is noted as
fabric or garment yellowing. It should also be noted that continued chemical decomposition
could form moderate to dark brown colors or, in some extreme cases, even black colors.

It has been suggested by many investigators in the textile, retail, and consumer protection areas
that the frequency of occurrence of yellowing of fabrics is actually on the increase. This is
understandable because of the wide variety of fibers and fiber blends that compose textile fabrics
available in todays market. Additionally, textile finishing chemicals are more numerous and
chemically complex than ever before. They often show yellowing tendencies as they age or are
subjected to improper storage and cleaning techniques. Also, investigators have suggested that
the high concentration of various atmospheric pollutants present today in many parts of the
world resulting from a variety of industrial and natural sources are the major reason for the
observed fabric yellowing increase.

CAUSES OF YELLOWING
All types of textile products have been subject to yellowing including those made from natural
fibers such as cotton wool or silk, as well as those composed of synthetic fibers such as
polyester, nylon, or spandex. It should also be noted that in the cases of blended fabrics, at times
only one fiber in the blend may be affected by the yellowing. However, at other times several or
all fibers in the blend are affected. Specifically, the cause of the yellowing often determines
which fiber(s) in the blend exhibit the yellowing. This fact can be used as a diagnostic tool to
help determine the source of the observed yellowing and aid in the development of a strategy to
prevent future problems.

In recent years, the various causes of these yellowing issues have been studied extensively with
the subsequent publication of numerous technical papers and reports. Generally, the causes can
be grouped into the following broad categories with the understanding that there can be
crossover or combinations of causes that yield observed fabric yellowing:

1. Fiber Degradation Destruction, decomposition, internal change of the fiber structure due to
chemical or biological degradation, exposure to excessive heat, intensive or long term
exposure to light radiation and/or fiber aging are all primary causes of fabric yellowing.
Additionally, specific fiber blends may actually increase the occurrence of these problems.

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2. Chemical Additives or Auxiliaries It is well known that the overuse or misuse of chemical
finishes such as softeners, lubricating oils, resins, optical brightening agents, or metallic salts
can lead to unwanted fabric color change including fabric yellowing.

3. Atmospheric Pollutants As was stated previously, atmospheric contaminants from both
natural and industrial sources can lead to pronounced fabric yellowing. The specific
pollutants include, but are not limited to oxides of nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, and ozone. The
mechanisms for the actual fabric contamination are numerous and varied but are normally
directly related to specific fiber or fiber blend content along with fabric finishing processes.

4. Transferred Contaminants The contaminants often are contained in cardboard boxes or
dividers, plastic sheets, films, or bags and in auxiliary materials such as pumice stones used
for garment after-washing processes. In recent years this type of yellowing has been both
frequent and also difficult to minimize.

5. Consumer Contaminants These contaminants include perspiration, chemical residues from
such products as perfumes, body lotions, make-up, medical ointments, effects of commercial
and domestic laundry products on various textile materials, as well as build-up of chemical
additives such as cornstarch added by commercial shirt laundries. This is certainly not a
totally complete listing of all the potential causes of fabric yellowing but it does cover the
major sources indicated in the technical and trade literature.

Before discussing specific examples of circumstances of fabric yellowing, it is worth mentioning
the importance of the light used to evaluate a textile fabric or garment for this type of quality
problem. It should be noted that the choice of light source and lighting circumstances such as
surroundings are extremely critical when judging the shade, whiteness, or yellowness of textile
fabrics. The American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists has published specific
recommendations for both visually and instrumentally judging the color of textile fabrics. One
should be aware that each light source available such as simulated daylight, incandescent (home
light bulb), various fluorescent tubes, xenon arc, or even sunshine will differ in the energy output
distribution of the light wave lengths across the visible light spectrum. For instance, an
incandescent light has very high energy output in the yellow, orange, and red wavelength region
but is deficient in the energy output of the blue wavelengths. A textile fabric viewed under
incandescent would exhibit yellow more vibrantly since it is rich in yellow, orange, and red but
deficient in blue. The same fabric would show much less yellowing under a simulated daylight
light source, since these have much higher blue wavelength energy and much lower yellow,
orange, and red energy than the incandescent source. In practice, color evaluation should be
conducted under controlled and consistent circumstances that are agreed to by the buyer and
seller. Sunshine should never be used as a sole evaluation light source because of its inevitable
variability depending on factors such as geographic location, time of year, time of day, cloud
cover, and pollution load in the atmosphere.



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FIBER DEGRADATION

As mentioned earlier, normally fiber degradation is not considered a major source of fabric
yellowing but there have been studies that do indicate that this does occur. These investigations
have shown that natural fibers such as cotton degrade and show yellowing, as well as synthetic
fibers such as nylon. This fiber yellowing is normally accelerated by exposure to excessive heat,
especially in the presence of high humidity, high exposure to ultraviolet light, or long term
storage so that the fibers age. M. Yatagai from Tokyo Gakuex Women's College reported that in
aged cotton fabric there is yellowing, a loss of breaking strength, a decrease in moisture regain
and a decrease in dye uptake. It is well known that nylon and polyester fabric have a tendency to
yellow upon storage over long time periods or in high heat containing warehouses. Greige
spandex blend fabrics are notorious for their poor storage stability and normally should be
finished within two months of their manufacture.

CHEMICAL ADDITIVES OR AUXILLARIES

Textile finishing of modern textile fabrics employs varied and complex chemical formulations
depending on the end use requirements for the textile products. One of the most widely used
chemical additives are textile softeners because they can be added in home or commercial
laundries, as well as by the textile manufacturer. The source of these chemicals can be natural
products such as chemically modified animal fats and oils, vegetable fats and waxes or synthetic
products such as hydrocarbon waxes or silicone materials. Because of the chemical composition
of these materials many of them are subject to yellowing due to exposure to high heat, long time
storage, or incorrect chemical formulation. Additionally, because of their oily, greasy nature,
heavy application of these softeners leads to excessive attraction of oily dirt by the fabric
surface, which in turn creates a tendency toward yellowing.

Because yellowness within a fabric can be considered as minus blue, a traditional method to
improve apparent "whiteness" in home or commercial laundry is to add fugitive blue tints to the
wash-bath. In practice, this method generally leads to dulling of the textile fabrics. A group of
textile chemical additives called optical brightening agents (OBAs) or fluorescent whitening
agents have been developed to replace the fugitive blue tints. These unique chemicals have the
ability to absorb invisible ultraviolet light and emit this light in the blue region. This has the
two-fold benefit of adding blue energy to cancel out yellowness and adding increased light
energy so that the fabric appears brighter. These compounds are used in almost all laundry
detergent formulations. However, it has been shown that some of these materials dull certain
colored fabrics and in certain specific instances, actually contribute to fabric yellowness. As an
example, gray threads sewn or woven into a blue fabric tend to appear as yellow threads to the
human eye. Many optical brightening agents intensify the yellowish appearance. Additionally,
some of these materials are sensitive to aging, their chemical environment, atmospheric
pollutants or excessive heat. This sensitivity may cause degradation or change such that the
OBA's may yellow the fabrics themselves.

One of the most prevalent chemicals textile fabrics are exposed to is chlorine. It is used as a
disinfectant in household and industrial process water, in swimming pools and in some medical
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applications. Sodium hypochlorite is one of the oldest and most commonly used textile
bleaches. Chlorine in textile process waters has been called the "unseen assailant" and is a
common source for fabric yellowing. Chlorine is retained from process or wash water by many
textile resin finishes used for cotton, rayon, or lyocell, slowly building over time to finally
yellow and weaken the fabrics. Chlorine attacks and yellows protein based fibers such as wool
and silk. It also exhibits yellowing effects on nylon. Chlorine based chemical treatments can be
beneficial on certain textile fabrics but these must be applied selectively and carefully.

Any type of chemical additive for either fibers, yarns, fabrics, or garments which is not applied
correctly or that is sensitive to storage conditions, environmental conditions, heat, biological
attack or chemical environment has the potential to yellow the textile fabric. Industrially applied
chemicals such as fiber finishes, yarn lubricants, knitting oils, warp sizes, and many different
fabric chemical finishes not previously discussed fall into this category. For synthetic fabrics
such as nylon and polyester, as well as their fabric blends, over heat setting leads to fabric
yellowing and tear strength loss. Any residual chemicals left on these fabrics during heat setting
also contribute to the yellowing potential.

ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS

Studies have shown that one of the most potent agents for causing yellowing comes from
atmospheric pollution (from both natural and man-made sources). The single biggest source of
yellowing has been identified as oxides of nitrogen. For example, these oxides are formed by the
action of lightning in the atmosphere. Man-made sources include the burning of gasoline and
diesel fuel in tow motors, automobiles, trucks and trains, gas- and oil-fired heating systems, and
various types of industrial and commercial processes. The most prevalent pollutant, nitrogen
dioxide, may react with small amounts of chemical residues, oils or greases on the fabric surface.
High concentration of nitrogen dioxide has been shown to yellow nylon fiber directly.

Other gaseous pollutants shown to induce fabric yellowing include sulfur dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, and ozone. It must be emphasized that fabric yellowing in the presence of these
atmospheric contaminants is usually the result of a chemical interaction between the specific
pollutant and some chemical components on or near the fabric surface. For factories or
warehouses, it is important to ensure that gas or oil-fired heating systems are well maintained.
Proper air ventilation within the facility is also very important, especially if emissions from tow
motors can concentrate within fabric or garment storage areas.

TRANSFERRED CONTAMINANTS

Twenty-five years ago, the frequency of fabric or garment yellowing while in storage markedly
increased. This was a particular problem for white and pastel shades. The problem was not
particularly uniform, in that, within a carton of rolls of fabric, some rolls would exhibit severe
yellowing while other rolls showed no yellowing at all. After many attempts to isolate and
identify the problem over several years, researchers determined the source of the problem to be
what is now known as phenolic yellowing resulting from fabrics wrapped in polyethylene film or
bags. Many reports and papers have been published which explain the chemistry and reaction
mechanisms of the yellowing formation. However, the essence of these studies have shown that
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phenolic antioxidants, most notably butylated hyroxytoluene (BHT), blended into the
polyethylene film as a protectant and preservative react with nitrogen dioxide from atmospheric
pollution to form yellowing on the fabric surface. This yellowing can be in patches and is
normally reversible. It often can be removed by an acidic scouring of the fabric or exposure of
the fabric to direct sunlight. This phenolic yellowing has since been discovered to be much more
widespread throughout fiber-textile-cut & sew-retail chain than anyone initially believed. For
instance, these phenolic antioxidants have been found to be in polyethylene wrap and bags,
cardboard, brown paper, and other wrapping and packaging materials. In textile processing,
these antioxidants have been used as additives in the fiber extrusion process, as fiber finish
additives, as preservatives in textile softeners, coning oils, knitting lubricants, and various other
textile finishes. In the cut and sew industry, these phenolic antioxidants have been found in
foam paddings, interlinings, fabric adhesives, and stitch lubricants. Obviously, to prevent this
type of fabric yellowing, materials should be chosen which do not contain these phenolic
antioxidants. However, because of the widespread use of these compounds in many necessary
textile auxiliaries and supplies, it becomes difficult to completely eliminate these antioxidants
from all potential exposure scenarios. Therefore, to minimize yellowing in storage, warehouse
areas should be well ventilated to remove nitrogen dioxide and temperature controlled. Also, if
possible, gas-fired tow motors should not be used in storage areas.

CONSUMER CONTAMINANTS

Many times, once the textile end product is in the hands of the consumer, fabric yellowing can
be directly attributed to the actions of the consumer. For instance, fabric yellowing can occur by
the improper cleaning and removal of body lotions, perfume and cologne, hair spray, make-up,
perspiration, and other oily dirt absorbed into the fabric or garments through normal use. The
International Fabricare Institute Bulletin has identified these and other consumer caused
contaminants as typical sources of fabric yellowing. In many cases, such as around collars or
underarms of blouses or shirts, the contaminants which lead to fabric yellowing slowly build-up
over time until they reach a point where the garment appearance and performance is negatively
affected. A good example of this is the build-up of aluminum chloride from certain deodorants,
which imbeds into the fabric in the underarm area. It is very difficult to remove in laundering
and over a period of time builds to a level that severely affects the garment.

The textile consumer can contribute to fabric yellowing in other ways. The particular choice and
use of detergents and fabric softeners can be a factor. Over-drying of laundered garments can
lead to yellowing. Exposure of textile fabrics to smoke and soot from fireplaces, pipes, cigars,
cigarettes, and improperly maintained gas- and oil-fired furnaces within the household can all
contribute to fabric yellowing. In commercial laundering, overuse of starch or hot pressing
garments containing too much alkali can lead directly to yellowing.

As a final item, the yellowing of denim garments, specifically stone/bleach after-washed jeans
has been a major topic of study. This yellowing occurs as large patches throughout the garment
as well as at the folded edges of the garment. Studies have shown that the yellow formation is
due to decomposition products of indigo dye, namely isatin and anthranilic acid. The published
mechanism shows that yellow formation occurs when isatin interacts with nitrogen oxide
pollutant gases. Anthranilic acid has been shown to develop yellow color on exposure to natural
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sunlight or on interaction with ozone. Other decomposition products may lead to yellow
formation but at this time, they do not seem to be major contributors to the observed yellowing
problem. Yellowing of denims can be minimized by making sure that jeans are thoroughly
scoured after stone washing where possible to remove these indigo decomposition products from
the garment. Practices used to minimize atmospheric pollutant gas contamination are strongly
recommended.

SUMMARY

The following is a general but not complete list of measures to take to minimize yellowing of
textile fabrics:

Use chemical finishing agents, especially softeners, which do not contain phenolic-based
antioxidants and preservatives.
Minimum amounts of softeners, particularly cationics, should be used since they may
intensify yellowing by attracting dirt and oils and by storing phenolic compounds.
Maintain a slightly acidic pH of around pH six or below for the finished fabric.
Where possible use packaging and wrapping materials and boxes free from phenolic
antioxidants. Use gas impermeable wrapping films.
Avoid the use of vehicles powered with internal-combustion engines in warehouses,
storage areas, and processing facilities.
To ensure the removal of harmful gases, maintain good ventilation in storage areas, and
processing facilities.
Ensure that garment components such as shoulder pads or interlinings do not contain
phenolic compounds, which have a tendency to yellow.

As can be seen from this overview, there are a wide variety of causes for yellowing of textile
garments and fabric. Wherever possible, steps should be taken to prevent yellowing formation
rather than trying to remove or "fix" it. Once fabric is yellowed, the cause of the yellowing often
dictates what the possibilities for remedy may be. In some cases, fabric yellowing indicates
fabric degradation, in which instance; the fabric may not be able to be restored to its original
condition. Careful analysis of the sources of fabric yellowing and attention to detail in the
handling and treatment of textile fabrics are the keys to minimizing losses from yellowing.










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REFERENCES
1) Hall, David M., "Studying Causes for Yellowing in Textile Materials," American
Dyestuff Reporter, October 1995, p. 22-31.

2) Holme, Ian, "Textile Yellowing During Storage," Textile Horizons, August 1986,
p. 35-37.

3) Smeltz, Kenneth C., "Why Do White Fabrics and Garments Turn Yellow During Storage
in Polyethylene Bags and Wrappings?" Textile Chemist and Colorist, Vol: 15, No. 4,
April 1983, p. 52-56.

4) Maler, P., Krger, R., Gruniger, G., "Yellowing of Indigo-dyed J eanswear," Melliand,
English, November 1996, p. E172-E173.

5) Chong, C. L., Chan, K., Chow, F.S., "Overcoming Yellowing Problems with Cotton
Fabrics," American Dyestuff Reporter, May 1994, p. 18-23.

6) Yatagai, Mamiko, "Dyeability of Artificially Aged Cotton Fabrics," Textile Research
J ournal 66(1), J anuary 1996, p. 11-16.

7) Cooper, H. R., Ward, C. D., Martini, T., Fenn, R. I., Lawson, D. R., "Update on
Yellowing," Textile Progress, Vol. 15, No. 4, April 1987, p. 1-40.

8) Hildebrand, A., "Yellowing in Storage," IFI Bulletin, March 1996, No. 446.

9) Busler, C., "Stain Removal on Laundry Items - Part II," IFI Bulletin, September 1996,
No., 243.

10) Pannell, C., "Collar Problems," IFI Bulletin, March 1996, No. 36.

11) Hemmpel, W.H., "Yellowing of Textile During Storage - Possible Causes and
Preventative Measures," International Textile Bulletin, March 1985, p. 21-24.





"The statements, recommendations, and suggestions contained herein are based on experiments and information believed to be reliable only
with regard to the products and/or processes involved at the time. No guarantee is made of their accuracy, however, and the information is
given without warranty as to its accuracy or reproducibility either express or implied, and does not authorize use of the information for
purposes of advertisement or product endorsement or certification. Likewise, no statement contained herein shall be construed as a
permission or recommendation for the use of any information, product, or process that may infringe any existing patents. The use of trade
names does not constitute endorsement of any product mentioned, nor is permission granted to use the name Cotton Incorporated or any of its
trademarks in conjunction with the products involved."
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Importer Support Program



The Cotton Board and Cotton Incorporated are funded by U.S. upland cotton growers and
importers of cotton and cotton products (this includes raw cotton, piece goods, and finished
apparel). A percentage of the importer funds are devoted for importer specific programs
organized under the Importer Support Program. Examples of projects funded from this fund
include training schools, educational programs, focus groups, economic meetings, and research
initiatives.

Selected technical issues have been identified by importer members as relevant to their business.
This report is a condensed, less technical report of those issues intended to provide the reader
with basic, yet useful information on the topic.


For more information contact:

ELIZABETH KING
VICE PRESIDENT
IMPORTER SERVICES
COTTON BOARD
PHONE: 973-378-7951
FAX: 973-378-7956
[email protected]
DENNIS P. HORSTMAN
SENIOR DIRECTOR
ACCOUNT MANAGEMENT
COTTON INCORPORATED
PHONE: 919-678-2336
FAX: 919-678-2231
[email protected]



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