WELDING

Gas metal arc welding (MIG welding)

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals
or thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the
workpieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material (the weld
pool) that cools to become a strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in
conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld. This is in contrast with
soldering and brazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-point material
between the workpieces to form a bond between them, without melting the
workpieces.
Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an
electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an
industrial process, welding may be performed in many different environments,
including open air, under water and in outer space. Welding is a potentially
hazardous undertaking and precautions are required to avoid burns, electric shock,
vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes, and exposure to intense
ultraviolet radiation.
Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge welding,
which blacksmiths had used for centuries to join iron and steel by heating and
hammering. Arc welding and oxyfuel welding were among the first processes to
develop late in the century, and electric resistance welding followed soon after.
Welding technology advanced quickly during the early 20th century as World War
I and World War II drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining
methods. Following the wars, several modern welding techniques were developed,
including manual methods like shielded metal arc welding, now one of the most
popular welding methods, as well as semi-automatic and automatic processes such
as gas metal arc welding, submerged arc welding, flux-cored arc welding and
electroslag welding. Developments continued with the invention of laser beam
welding, electron beam welding, electromagnetic pulse welding and friction stir
welding in the latter half of the century. Today, the science continues to advance.
Robot welding is commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to
develop new welding methods and gain greater understanding of weld quality.
Processes
Arc
These processes use a welding power supply to create and maintain an electric arc
between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point.
They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or
non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by some
type of inert or semi-inert gas, known as a shielding gas, and filler material is
sometimes used as well.
Power supplies
To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of
different power supplies can be used. The most common welding power supplies
are constant current power supplies and constant voltage power supplies. In arc
welding, the length of the arc is directly related to the voltage, and the amount of
heat input is related to the current. Constant current power supplies are most often
used for manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded
metal arc welding, because they maintain a relatively constant current even as the
voltage varies. This is important because in manual welding, it can be difficult to
hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus voltage
tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the voltage constant and
vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for automated welding
processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and submerged
arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in
the distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large
change in current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close, the
current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip
of the wire to melt, returning it to its original separation distance.
The type of current used also plays an important role in arc welding. Consumable
electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding
generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or
negatively. In welding, the positively charged anode will have a greater heat
concentration, and as a result, changing the polarity of the electrode has an impact
on weld properties. If the electrode is positively charged, the base metal will be
hotter, increasing weld penetration and welding speed. Alternatively, a negatively
charged electrode results in more shallow welds. Nonconsumable electrode
processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct current, as
well as alternating current. However, with direct current, because the electrode
only creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a positively charged
electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper
welds. Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-
penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited
after every zero crossing, has been addressed with the invention of special power
units that produce a square wave pattern instead of the normal sine wave, making
rapid zero crossings possible and minimizing the effects of the problem.
[4]

Processes
One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW); it is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA) or stick welding.
Electric current is used to strike an arc between the base material and consumable
electrode rod, which is made of filler material (typically steel) and is covered with
a flux that protects the weld area from oxidation and contamination by producing
carbon dioxide (CO
2
) gas during the welding process. The electrode core itself acts
as filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary.
Shielded metal arc welding
The process is versatile and can be performed with relatively inexpensive
equipment, making it well suited to shop jobs and field work. An operator can
become reasonably proficient with a modest amount of training and can achieve
mastery with experience. Weld times are rather slow, since the consumable
electrodes must be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux,
must be chipped away after welding. Furthermore, the process is generally limited
to welding ferrous materials, though special electrodes have made possible the
welding of cast iron, nickel, aluminum, copper, and other metals.
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), also known as metal inert gas or MIG welding, is
a semi-automatic or automatic process that uses a continuous wire feed as an
electrode and an inert or semi-inert gas mixture to protect the weld from
contamination. Since the electrode is continuous, welding speeds are greater for
GMAW than for SMAW.
A related process, flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), uses similar equipment but
uses wire consisting of a steel electrode surrounding a powder fill material. This
cored wire is more expensive than the standard solid wire and can generate fumes
and/or slag, but it permits even higher welding speed and greater metal penetration.
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is a
manual welding process that uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode, an inert or
semi-inert gas mixture, and a separate filler material. Especially useful for welding
thin materials, this method is characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds,
but it requires significant operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively
low speeds.
GTAW can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often applied
to stainless steel and light metals. It is often used when quality welds are extremely
important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and naval applications. A related process,
plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to make the
arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control
more critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process.
Because of its stable current, the method can be used on a wider range of material
thicknesses than can the GTAW process and it is much faster. It can be applied to
all of the same materials as GTAW except magnesium, and automated welding of
stainless steel is one important application of the process. A variation of the
process is plasma cutting, an efficient steel cutting process.
Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding method in which the
arc is struck beneath a covering layer of flux. This increases arc quality, since
contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the
weld generally comes off by itself, and combined with the use of a continuous wire
feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working conditions are much improved over
other arc welding processes, since the flux hides the arc and almost no smoke is
produced. The process is commonly used in industry, especially for large products
and in the manufacture of welded pressure vessels.
[11]
Other arc welding processes
include atomic hydrogen welding, electroslag welding, electrogas welding, and
stud arc welding.
Gas welding
The most common gas welding process is oxyfuel welding, also known as
oxyacetylene welding. It is one of the oldest and most versatile welding processes,
but in recent years it has become less popular in industrial applications. It is still
widely used for welding pipes and tubes, as well as repair work.
The equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple, generally employing the
combustion of acetylene in oxygen to produce a welding flame temperature of
about 3100 C. The flame, since it is less concentrated than an electric arc, causes
slower weld cooling, which can lead to greater residual stresses and weld
distortion, though it eases the welding of high alloy steels. A similar process,
generally called oxyfuel cutting, is used to cut metals.
Resistance
Resistance welding involves the generation of heat by passing current through the
resistance caused by the contact between two or more metal surfaces. Small pools
of molten metal are formed at the weld area as high current (1000100,000 A) is
passed through the metal. In general, resistance welding methods are efficient and
cause little pollution, but their applications are somewhat limited and the
equipment cost can be high.

Spot welder
Spot welding is a popular resistance welding method used to join overlapping
metal sheets of up to 3 mm thick. Two electrodes are simultaneously used to clamp
the metal sheets together and to pass current through the sheets. The advantages of
the method include efficient energy use, limited workpiece deformation, high
production rates, easy automation, and no required filler materials. Weld strength
is significantly lower than with other welding methods, making the process
suitable for only certain applications. It is used extensively in the automotive
industryordinary cars can have several thousand spot welds made by industrial
robots. A specialized process, called shot welding, can be used to spot weld
stainless steel.
Like spot welding, seam welding relies on two electrodes to apply pressure and
current to join metal sheets. However, instead of pointed electrodes, wheel-shaped
electrodes roll along and often feed the workpiece, making it possible to make long
continuous welds. In the past, this process was used in the manufacture of beverage
cans, but now its uses are more limited. Other resistance welding methods include
butt welding, flash welding, projection welding, and upset welding.
Energy beam
Energy beam welding methods, namely laser beam welding and electron beam
welding, are relatively new processes that have become quite popular in high
production applications. The two processes are quite similar, differing most
notably in their source of power. Laser beam welding employs a highly focused
laser beam, while electron beam welding is done in a vacuum and uses an electron
beam. Both have a very high energy density, making deep weld penetration
possible and minimizing the size of the weld area. Both processes are extremely
fast, and are easily automated, making them highly productive. The primary
disadvantages are their very high equipment costs (though these are decreasing)
and a susceptibility to thermal cracking. Developments in this area include laser-
hybrid welding, which uses principles from both laser beam welding and arc
welding for even better weld properties, laser cladding and X-ray welding.
[16]

Solid-state

Solid-state welding processes classification chart
[17]

Like the first welding process, forge welding, some modern welding methods do
not involve the melting of the materials being joined. One of the most popular,
ultrasonic welding, is used to connect thin sheets or wires made of metal or
thermoplastic by vibrating them at high frequency and under high pressure.
[18]
The
equipment and methods involved are similar to that of resistance welding, but
instead of electric current, vibration provides energy input. Welding metals with
this process does not involve melting the materials; instead, the weld is formed by
introducing mechanical vibrations horizontally under pressure. When welding
plastics, the materials should have similar melting temperatures, and the vibrations
are introduced vertically. Ultrasonic welding is commonly used for making
electrical connections out of aluminum or copper, and it is also a very common
polymer welding process.
Another common process, explosion welding, involves the joining of materials by
pushing them together under extremely high pressure. The energy from the impact
plasticizes the materials, forming a weld, even though only a limited amount of
heat is generated. The process is commonly used for welding dissimilar materials,
such as the welding of aluminum with steel in ship hulls or compound plates.
[18]

Other solid-state welding processes include friction welding (including friction stir
welding),
[19]
electromagnetic pulse welding, co-extrusion welding, cold welding,
diffusion bonding, exothermic welding, high frequency welding, hot pressure
welding, induction welding, and roll welding.
Geometry


Common welding joint types (1) Square butt joint, (2) V butt joint, (3) Lap joint,
(4) T-joint
Welds can be geometrically prepared in many different ways. The five basic types
of weld joints are the butt joint, lap joint, corner joint, edge joint, and T-joint (a
variant of this last is the cruciform joint). Other variations exist as wellfor
example, double-V preparation joints are characterized by the two pieces of
material each tapering to a single center point at one-half their height. Single-U
and double-U preparation joints are also fairly commoninstead of having straight
edges like the single-V and double-V preparation joints, they are curved, forming
the shape of a U. Lap joints are also commonly more than two pieces thick
depending on the process used and the thickness of the material, many pieces can
be welded together in a lap joint geometry.
Many welding processes require the use of a particular joint design; for example,
resistance spot welding, laser beam welding, and electron beam welding are most
frequently performed on lap joints. Other welding methods, like shielded metal arc
welding, are extremely versatile and can weld virtually any type of joint. Some
processes can also be used to make multipass welds, in which one weld is allowed
to cool, and then another weld is performed on top of it. This allows for the
welding of thick sections arranged in a single-V preparation joint, for example.


The cross-section of a welded butt joint, with the darkest gray representing the
weld or fusion zone, the medium gray the heat-affected zone, and the lightest gray
the base material.
After welding, a number of distinct regions can be identified in the weld area. The
weld itself is called the fusion zonemore specifically, it is where the filler metal
was laid during the welding process. The properties of the fusion zone depend
primarily on the filler metal used, and its compatibility with the base materials. It is
surrounded by the heat-affected zone, the area that had its microstructure and
properties altered by the weld. These properties depend on the base material's
behavior when subjected to heat. The metal in this area is often weaker than both
the base material and the fusion zone, and is also where residual stresses are found.

Quality

The blue area results from oxidation at a corresponding temperature of 600 F
(316 C). This is an accurate way to identify temperature, but does not represent
the HAZ width. The HAZ is the narrow area that immediately surrounds the
welded base metal.
Many distinct factors influence the strength of welds and the material around them,
including the welding method, the amount and concentration of energy input, the
weldability of the base material, filler material, and flux material, the design of the
joint, and the interactions between all these factors. To test the quality of a weld,
either destructive or nondestructive testing methods are commonly used to verify
that welds are free of defects, have acceptable levels of residual stresses and
distortion, and have acceptable heat-affected zone (HAZ) properties. Types of
welding defects include cracks, distortion, gas inclusions (porosity), non-metallic
inclusions, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration, lamellar tearing, and
undercutting. Welding codes and specifications exist to guide welders in proper
welding technique and in how to judge the quality of welds. Methods such as
visual inspection, radiography, ultrasonic testing, dye penetrant inspection,
Magnetic-particle inspection or industrial CT scanning can help with detection and
analysis of certain defects.

Heat-affected zone
The effects of welding on the material surrounding the weld can be detrimental
depending on the materials used and the heat input of the welding process used, the
HAZ can be of varying size and strength. The thermal diffusivity of the base
material plays a large roleif the diffusivity is high, the material cooling rate is
high and the HAZ is relatively small. Conversely, a low diffusivity leads to slower
cooling and a larger HAZ. The amount of heat injected by the welding process
plays an important role as well, as processes like oxyacetylene welding have an
unconcentrated heat input and increase the size of the HAZ. Processes like laser
beam welding give a highly concentrated, limited amount of heat, resulting in a
small HAZ. Arc welding falls between these two extremes, with the individual
processes varying somewhat in heat input. To calculate the heat input for arc
welding procedures, the following formula can be used:

where Q = heat input (kJ/mm), V = voltage (V), I = current (A), and S = welding
speed (mm/min). The efficiency is dependent on the welding process used, with
shielded metal arc welding having a value of 0.75, gas metal arc welding and
submerged arc welding, 0.9, and gas tungsten arc welding, 0.8.
Lifetime extension with aftertreatment methods


Example: High Frequency Impact Treatment for lifetime extension
The durability and life of dynamically loaded, welded steel structures is
determined in many cases by the welds, particular the weld transitions. Through
selective treatment of the transitions by grinding (abrasive cutting), shot peening,
High Frequency Impact Treatment etc. the durability of many designs increase
significantly.
Metallurgy
Most solids used are engineering materials consisting of crystalline solids in which
the atoms or ions are arranged in a repetitive geometric pattern which is known as
a lattice structure. The only exception is material that is made from glass which is a
combination of a supercooled liquid and polymers which are aggregates of large
organic molecules.
Crystalline solids cohesion is obtained by a metallic or chemical bond which is
formed between the constituent atoms. Chemical bonds can be grouped into two
types consisting of ionic and covalent. To form an ionic bond, either a valence or
bonding electron separates from one atom and becomes attached to another atom to
form oppositely charged ions. The bonding in the static position is when the ions
occupy an equilibrium position where the resulting force between them is zero.
When the ions are exerted in tension force, the inter-ionic spacing increases
creating an electrostatic attractive force, while a repulsing force under compressive
force between the atomic nuclei is dominant.
Covalent bonding is when the constituent atoms lose an electron(s) to form a
cluster of ions, resulting in an electron cloud that is shared by the molecule as a
whole. In both ionic and covalent boding the location of the ions and electrons are
constrained relative to each other, thereby resulting in the bond being
characteristically brittle.
Metallic bonding can be classified as a type of covalent bonding for which the
constituent atoms of the same type and do not combine with one another to form a
chemical bond. Atoms will lose an electron(s) forming an array of positive ions.
These electrons are shared by the lattice which makes the electron cluster mobile,
as the electrons are free to move as well as the ions. For this, it gives metals their
relatively high thermal and electrical conductivity as well as being
characteristically ductile.
Three of the most commonly used crystal lattice structures in metals are the body-
centred cubic, face-centred cubic and close-packed hexagonal. Ferritic steel has a
body-centred cubic structure and austenitic steel, non-ferrous metals like
aluminium, copper and nickel have the face-centred cubic structure.
Ductility is an important factor in ensuring the integrity of structures by enabling
them to sustain local stress concentrations without fracture. In addition, structures
are required to be of an acceptable strength, which is related to a material's yield
strength. In general, as the yield strength of a material increases, there is a
corresponding reduction in fracture toughness.
A reduction in fracture toughness may also be attributed to the embitterment effect
of impurities, or for body-centred cubic metals, from a reduction in temperature.
Metals and in particular steels have a transitional temperature range where above
this range the metal has acceptable notch-ductility while below this range the
material becomes brittle. Within the range, the materials behavior is unpredictable.
The reduction in fracture toughness is accompanied by a change in the fracture
appearance. When above the transition, the fracture is primarily due to micro-void
coalescence, which results in the fracture appearing fibrous. When the
temperatures falls the fracture will show signs of cleavage facets. These two
appearances are visible by the naked eye. Brittle fracture in steel plates may appear
as chevron markings under the microscope. These arrow-like ridges on the crack
surface point towards the origin of the fracture.
Fracture toughness is measured using a notched and pre-cracked rectangular
specimen, of which the dimensions are specified in standards, for example ASTM
E23. There are other means of estimating or measuring fracture toughness by the
following: The Charpy impact test per ASTM A370; The crack-tip opening
displacement (CTOD) test per BS 7448-1; The J integral test per ASTM E1820;
The Pellini drop-weight test per ASTM E208.
Unusual conditions

Underwater welding
While many welding applications are done in controlled environments such as
factories and repair shops, some welding processes are commonly used in a wide
variety of conditions, such as open air, underwater, and vacuums (such as space).
In open-air applications, such as construction and outdoors repair, shielded metal
arc welding is the most common process. Processes that employ inert gases to
protect the weld cannot be readily used in such situations, because unpredictable
atmospheric movements can result in a faulty weld. Shielded metal arc welding is
also often used in underwater welding in the construction and repair of ships,
offshore platforms, and pipelines, but others, such as flux cored arc welding and
gas tungsten arc welding, are also common. Welding in space is also possibleit
was first attempted in 1969 by Russian cosmonauts, when they performed
experiments to test shielded metal arc welding, plasma arc welding, and electron
beam welding in a depressurized environment. Further testing of these methods
was done in the following decades, and today researchers continue to develop
methods for using other welding processes in space, such as laser beam welding,
resistance welding, and friction welding. Advances in these areas may be useful for
future endeavours similar to the construction of the International Space Station,
which could rely on welding for joining in space the parts that were manufactured
on Earth.
Safety issues

Arc welding with a welding helmet, gloves, and other protective clothing
Welding can be dangerous and unhealthy if the proper precautions are not taken.
However, with the use of new technology and proper protection, risks of injury and
death associated with welding can be greatly reduced.
[30]
Since many common
welding procedures involve an open electric arc or flame, the risk of burns and fire
is significant; this is why it is classified as a hot work process. To prevent injury,
welders wear personal protective equipment in the form of heavy leather gloves
and protective long sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat and flames.
Additionally, the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called arc eye or
flash burns in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can
burn the retinas of the eyes. Goggles and welding helmets with dark UV-filtering
face plates are worn to prevent this exposure. Since the 2000s, some helmets have
included a face plate which instantly darkens upon exposure to the intense UV
light. To protect bystanders, the welding area is often surrounded with translucent
welding curtains. These curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield
people outside the welding area from the UV light of the electric arc, but can not
replace the filter glass used in helmets.
Welders are often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter. Processes
like flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding produce smoke
containing particles of various types of oxides. The size of the particles in question
tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a
greater danger. This is due to the fact that smaller particles have the ability to cross
the blood brain barrier. Fumes and gases, such as carbon dioxide, ozone, and fumes
containing heavy metals, can be dangerous to welders lacking proper ventilation
and training.
[32]
Exposure to manganese welding fumes, for example, even at low
levels (<0.2 mg/m
3
), may lead to neurological problems or to damage to the lungs,
liver, kidneys, or central nervous system. The use of compressed gases and flames
in many welding processes poses an explosion and fire risk. Some common
precautions include limiting the amount of oxygen in the air, and keeping
combustible materials away from the workplace.
History

The iron pillar of Delhi
The history of joining metals goes back several millennia, called forge welding,
with the earliest examples of welding from the Bronze Age and the Iron Age in
Europe and the Middle East. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus states in The
Histories of the 5th century BC that Glaucus of Chios "was the man who single-
handedly invented iron-welding." Welding was used in the construction of the iron
pillar in Delhi, India, erected about 310 AD and weighing 5.4 metric tons.
The Middle Ages brought advances in forge welding, in which blacksmiths
pounded heated metal repeatedly until bonding occurred. In 1540, Vannoccio
Biringuccio published De la pirotechnia, which includes descriptions of the
forging operation. Renaissance craftsmen were skilled in the process, and the
industry continued to grow during the following centuries.
In 1802, Russian scientist Vasily Petrov discovered the electric arc and
subsequently proposed its possible practical applications, including welding. In
188182 a Russian inventor Nikolai Benardos created the first electric arc welding
method known as carbon arc welding, using carbon electrodes. The advances in arc
welding continued with the invention of metal electrodes in the late 1800s by a
Russian, Nikolai Slavyanov (1888), and an American, C. L. Coffin (1890). Around
1900, A. P. Strohmenger released a coated metal electrode in Britain, which gave a
more stable arc. In 1905 Russian scientist Vladimir Mitkevich proposed the usage
of three-phase electric arc for welding. In 1919, alternating current welding was
invented by C. J. Holslag but did not become popular for another decade.
Resistance welding was also developed during the final decades of the 19th
century, with the first patents going to Elihu Thomson in 1885, who produced
further advances over the next 15 years. Thermite welding was invented in 1893,
and around that time another process, oxyfuel welding, became well established.
Acetylene was discovered in 1836 by Edmund Davy, but its use was not practical
in welding until about 1900, when a suitable blowtorch was developed.
[39]
At first,
oxyfuel welding was one of the more popular welding methods due to its
portability and relatively low cost. As the 20th century progressed, however, it fell
out of favor for industrial applications. It was largely replaced with arc welding, as
metal coverings (known as flux) for the electrode that stabilize the arc and shield
the base material from impurities continued to be developed.

Bridge of Maurzyce
World War caused a major surge in the use of welding processes, with the various
military powers attempting to determine which of the several new welding
processes would be best. The British primarily used arc welding, even constructing
a ship, the Fulagar, with an entirely welded hull. Arc welding was first applied to
aircraft during the war as well, as some German airplane fuselages were
constructed using the process.
[40]
Also noteworthy is the first welded road bridge in
the world, designed by Stefan Brya of the Warsaw University of Technology in
1927, and built across the river Sudwia Maurzyce near owicz, Poland in 1929.
[41]


Acetylene welding on cylinder water jacket, 1918
During the 1920s, major advances were made in welding technology, including the
introduction of automatic welding in 1920, in which electrode wire was fed
continuously. Shielding gas became a subject receiving much attention, as
scientists attempted to protect welds from the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the
atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness were the primary problems, and the solutions
that developed included the use of hydrogen, argon, and helium as welding
atmospheres. During the following decade, further advances allowed for the
welding of reactive metals like aluminum and magnesium. This in conjunction
with developments in automatic welding, alternating current, and fluxes fed a
major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and then during World War II.
[43]

During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented. 1930
saw the release of stud welding, which soon became popular in shipbuilding and
construction. Submerged arc welding was invented the same year and continues to
be popular today. In 1932 a Russian, Konstantin Khrenov successfully
implemented the first underwater electric arc welding. Gas tungsten arc welding,
after decades of development, was finally perfected in 1941, and gas metal arc
welding followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of non-ferrous materials but
requiring expensive shielding gases. Shielded metal arc welding was developed
during the 1950s, using a flux-coated consumable electrode, and it quickly became
the most popular metal arc welding process. In 1957, the flux-cored arc welding
process debuted, in which the self-shielded wire electrode could be used with
automatic equipment, resulting in greatly increased welding speeds, and that same
year, plasma arc welding was invented. Electroslag welding was introduced in
1958, and it was followed by its cousin, electrogas welding, in 1961. In 1953 the
Soviet scientist N. F. Kazakov proposed the diffusion bonding method.
Other recent developments in welding include the 1958 breakthrough of electron
beam welding, making deep and narrow welding possible through the concentrated
heat source. Following the invention of the laser in 1960, laser beam welding
debuted several decades later, and has proved to be especially useful in high-speed,
automated welding. Electromagnetic pulse welding is industrially used since 1967.
Friction stir welding was invented in 1991 by Wayne Thomas at The Welding
Institute (TWI, UK) and found high-quality applications all over the world. All of
these four new processes continue to be quite expensive due the high cost of the
necessary equipment, and this has limited their applications.
Costs and trends
As an industrial process, the cost of welding plays a crucial role in manufacturing
decisions. Many different variables affect the total cost, including equipment cost,
labor cost, material cost, and energy cost.
[48]
Depending on the process, equipment
cost can vary, from inexpensive for methods like shielded metal arc welding and
oxyfuel welding, to extremely expensive for methods like laser beam welding and
electron beam welding. Because of their high cost, they are only used in high
production operations. Similarly, because automation and robots increase
equipment costs, they are only implemented when high production is necessary.
Labor cost depends on the deposition rate (the rate of welding), the hourly wage,
and the total operation time, including both time welding and handling the part.
The cost of materials includes the cost of the base and filler material, and the cost
of shielding gases. Finally, energy cost depends on arc time and welding power
demand.
For manual welding methods, labor costs generally make up the vast majority of
the total cost. As a result, many cost-saving measures are focused on minimizing
operation time. To do this, welding procedures with high deposition rates can be
selected, and weld parameters can be fine-tuned to increase welding speed.
Mechanization and automation are often implemented to reduce labor costs, but
this frequently increases the cost of equipment and creates additional setup time.
Material costs tend to increase when special properties are necessary, and energy
costs normally do not amount to more than several percent of the total welding
cost.
In recent years, in order to minimize labor costs in high production manufacturing,
industrial welding has become increasingly more automated, most notably with the
use of robots in resistance spot welding (especially in the automotive industry) and
in arc welding. In robot welding, mechanized devices both hold the material and
perform the weld and at first, spot welding was its most common application, but
robotic arc welding increases in popularity as technology advances. Other key
areas of research and development include the welding of dissimilar materials
(such as steel and aluminum, for example) and new welding processes, such as
friction stir, magnetic pulse, conductive heat seam, and laser-hybrid welding.
Furthermore, progress is desired in making more specialized methods like laser
beam welding practical for more applications, such as in the aerospace and
automotive industries. Researchers also hope to better understand the often
unpredictable properties of welds, especially microstructure, residual stresses, and
a weld's tendency to crack or deform.
The trend of accelerating the speed at which welds are performed in the steel
erection industry comes at a risk to the integrity of the connection. Without proper
fusion to the base materials provided by sufficient arc time on the weld, a project
inspector cannot ensure the effective diameter of the puddle weld therefore he or
she cannot guarantee the published load capacities unless they witness the actual
installation. This method of puddle welding is common in the United States and
Canada for attaching steel sheets to bar joist and structural steel members.
Regional agencies are responsible for ensuring the proper installation of puddle
welding on steel construction sites. Currently there is no standard or weld
procedure which can ensure the published holding capacity of any unwitnessed
connection, but this is under review by the American Welding Society.
Glass and plastic welding
Glasses and certain types of plastics are commonly welded materials. Unlike
metals, which have a specific melting point, glasses and plastics have a melting
range, called the glass transition. When heating the solid material into this range, it
will generally become softer and more pliable. When it crosses through the glass
transition, it will become a very thick, sluggish, viscous liquid. Typically, this
viscous liquid will have very little surface tension, becoming a sticky, honey-like
consistency, so welding can usually take place by simply pressing two melted
surfaces together. The two liquids will generally mix and join as one. Upon cooling
through the glass transition, the welded piece will solidify as one solid piece of
amorphous material.
Glass welding
Glass welding is a common practice during glassblowing. It is used very often in
the construction of lighting, neon signs, flashtubes, scientific equipment, and the
manufacture of dishes and other glassware. Welding glass is accomplished by
heating the glass through the glass transition, turning it into a thick, formable,
liquid mass. Heating is usually done with a gas or oxy-gas torch, or a furnace,
because the temperatures for melting glass are often quite high. This temperature
may vary, depending on the type of glass. For example, lead glass becomes a
weldable liquid at around 1,600 F (870 C), whereas quartz glass (fused silica)
must be heated to over 3,000 F (1,650 C). Sometimes a tube may be attached to
the glass, allowing it to be blown into various shapes, such as bulbs, bottles, or
tubes. When two pieces of liquid glass are pressed together, they will usually weld
very readily. Welding a handle onto a pitcher can usually be done with relative
ease. However, when welding a tube to another tube, a combination of blowing
and suction, and pressing and pulling is used to ensure a good seal, and to shape
the glass. Sometimes a filler rod may be used, but usually not.
Because glass is very brittle in its solid state, it is often prone to cracking upon
heating and cooling, especially if the heating and cooling are uneven. This is
because the brittleness of the glass does not allow for uneven thermal expansion.
Glass that has been welded will usually need to be cooled very slowly and evenly
through the glass transition, in a process called annealing, to relieve any internal
stresses created by a temperature gradient.
There are many types of glass, and it is most common to weld using the same
types. Different glasses often have different rates of thermal expansion, which can
cause them to crack upon cooling when they contract differently. For instance,
quartz has very low thermal expansion, while soda-lime glass has very high
thermal expansion. When welding different glasses to each other, it is usually
important to closely match their coefficients of thermal expansion, to ensure that
cracking does not occur. Also, some glasses will simply not mix with others, so
welding between certain types may not be possible.
Glass can also be welded to metals and ceramics, although with metals the process
is usually more adhesion to the surface of the metal rather than a commingling of
the two materials. However, certain glasses will typically bond only to certain
metals. For example, lead glass bonds readily to copper or molybdenum, but not to
aluminum. Tungsten electrodes, which are often used in lighting, will not bond to
quartz glass, so the tungsten is often wetted with molten borosilicate, which will
bond to both the tungsten and the quartz. However, care must be taken to ensure
that all materials have similar coefficients of thermal expansion to prevent cracking
both when the object cools and when it is heated again. Special alloys are often
used for this purpose, ensuring that the coefficients of expansion match, and
sometimes thin, metallic coatings may be applied to a metal to create a good bond
with the glass.
Plastic welding
Plastics are generally divided into two categories, which are "thermosets" and
"thermoplastics." A thermoset is a plastic in which a chemical reaction sets the
molecular bonds after first forming the plastic, and then the bonds cannot be
broken again without degrading the plastic. Thermosets cannot be melted,
therefore, once a thermoset has set it is impossible to weld it. Examples of
thermosets include epoxies, silicone, rubber, polyester, and polyurethane.
Thermoplastics, by contrast, form long molecular chains, which are often coiled or
intertwined, forming an amorphous structure without any long-range, crystalline
order. Some thermoplastics may be fully amorphous, while others have a partially
crystalline/partially amorphous structure. Both amorphous and semicrystalline
thermoplastics have a glass transition, above which welding can occur, but
semicrystallines also have a specific melting point which is above the glass
transition. Above this melting point, the viscous liquid will become a free-flowing
liquid. Examples of thermoplastics include polyethylene, polypropylene,
polystyrene, polyvinylchloride (PVC), and fluoroplastics.
Welding thermoplastics is very similar to welding glass. The plastic first must be
cleaned and then heated through the glass transition, turning the weld-interface into
a thick, viscous liquid. Two heated interfaces can then be pressed together,
allowing the molecules to mix through intermolecular diffusion, joining them as
one. Then the plastic is cooled through the glass transition, allowing the weld to
solidify. A filler rod may often be used for certain types of joints. The main
differences between welding glass and plastics are the types of heating methods,
the much lower melting temperatures, and the fact that plastics will burn if
overheated. Many different methods have been devised for heating plastic to a
weldable temperature without burning it. Ovens or electric heating tools can be
used to melt the plastic. Ultrasonic, laser, or friction heating are other methods.
Resistive metals may be implanted in the plastic, which respond to induction
heating. Some plastics will begin to burn at temperatures lower than their glass
transition, so welding can be performed by blowing a heated, inert gas onto the
plastic, melting it while, at the same tme, shielding it from oxygen.