MINE SUBSIDENCE BOARD

IN ASSOCIATION WITH
P U T T I N G S E R V I C E A N D T H E N E E D S O F P E O P L E F I R S T
TRANSGRID
POWER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES
DEPARTMENT OF URBAN AFFAIRS AND PLANNING
NSW MINERALS COUNCIL
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD TO THIRD EDITION............................................................... 4
FOREWORD TO SECOND EDITION........................................................... 5
FOREWORD .................................................................................................. 5
POLICY STATEMENT ................................................................................... 6
EFFECTS OF COAL MINING ON TRANSMISSION LINES ..................... 7
PROCEDURES .............................................................................................. 8
GRANT OF MINING LEASES AND APPROVALS TO EXTRACT
PILLARS/LONGWALLS ............................................................................... 8
TRANSMISSION LINE ROUTE SELECTION............................................. 8
FLOW CHART FOR GRANT OF MINING LEASE ...................................... 9
CO-ORDINATING MINING AND
TRANSMISSION LINE ACTIVITIES ........................................................ 10
CHOOSING BETWEEN TRANSMISSION LINE MODIFICATIONS
AND COAL STERILISATION..................................................................... 14
LEGISLATION............................................................................................. 16
APPENDIX A: COAL MINING AND ITS EFFECTS ................................. 17
OVERVIEW OF MINING METHODS ........................................................ 17
UNDERGROUND MINING ........................................................................ 17
FIGURE 1 - SUBSIDENCE FROM BORD AND PILLAR MINING .......... 19
SUBSIDENCE EFFECTS ............................................................................ 20
FIGURE 2 - SUBSIDENCE FROM PANEL AND PILLAR MINING ........ 21
FIGURE 3 - LONGWALL MINING ............................................................ 22
OPEN CUT OPERATIONS ......................................................................... 22
FIGURE 4 - TERMINOLOGY ASSOCIATED WITH SUBSIDENCE ........ 23
APPENDIX B: THE IMPACT OF COAL MINING ON TRANSMISSION LINES ...... 24
FIGURE 5 - TOWER DEFORMATION FROM HORIZONTAL
LEG DISPLACEMENTS ............................................................................. 25
FIGURE 6 - RIGID BODY ROTATION MODEL......................................... 25
STRUCTURE TYPES AND FUNCTIONS .................................................. 25
FIGURE 7 - TYPICAL DOUBLE CIRCUIT STEEL LATTICE TOWERS .... 26
APPENDIX C: DESIGN MEASURES TO PROVIDE FOR SUBSIDENCE .... 27
LARGE STEEL LATTICE STRUCTURES ................................................... 27
WOOD POLE AND SIMILAR TRANSMISSION LINES ......................... 28
CONDUCTOR CONTROL........................................................................... 28
SUBSTATIONS ........................................................................................... 28
APPENDIX D: CASE STUDIES ................................................................. 29
INITIAL CONTACTS FOR ENQUIRIES RELATING TO MATTERS
COVERED BY THE GUIDELINES ..............................................Back Cover
First Published August 1988
Second Edition, December 1990
Published by the Mine Subsidence Board,
117 Bull Street, Newcastle West, N.S.W. 2302
Copyright by the Mine Subsidence Board
Apart fromany fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticismor review,
as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced by any process without
the written permission of the Publisher.
ISBN O 646 34359 9
Production - Helen Duncan Communications and Media
Design & Artwork - Curzon Creative Services
Printing - NCP Printing
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FOREWORD
The preparation of this document was originally commissioned by
the Mine Subsidence Board in October 1983, following incidents
where conicts occurred between coal mining and transmission
line construction. These conicts, if not resolved, might result
in substantial damages to the transmission lines concerned, or
sterilisation of mineable coal resources. The Mine Subsidence Board
then set up a Committee, consisting of all interested parties, to draft
a much needed document. The Committee was not intended to be
a mandatory one, but would make recommendations to the Mine
Subsidence Board, which would then determine the adoption of the
Committees recommendations. Committee recommendations were
generally arrived at by consensus and this consensus process has
proven to be more exhaustive and justiably time consuming.
It was not until early 1987, after some very active participation by
members of the Committee, particularly the Electricity Commission,
that the draft document progressed signicantly to the format and
contents agreeable to all parties.
After considerable discussions, the Committee agreed that the
electrical effects of transmission lines on coal mines, which could be
hazardous, should not be dealt with by the Committee, but reference
is to be made to the Electricity Commission.
One signicant consensus arrived at by the Committee is that this
document should be endorsed by all organisations represented on
the Committee.
These organisations, as at September 1987, were:
Mine Subsidence Board NSW
Electricity Commission of NSW
Department of Mineral Resources NSW
Department of Industrial Relations NSW
Department of Environment and Planning NSW
NSW Coal Association
Endorsement was requested in February 1988, and received from all
organisations on 4th July 1988.
As a result of a change in Government in March 1988, the Chief
Inspector of Coal Mines now comes under the Department of Mineral
Resources, and not the Department of Industrial Relations. The
Department of Environment and Planning changed to the Department
of Planning. Further editorial works had to be carried out following
these changes.
Even with continuous editorial works, I have found it quite a task to
keep up with the changing environment which this document attempts
to address. Some text and statistics would have now been dated;
but it would not be benecial to delay printing of this document on
grounds of these minor deciencies.
It is intended, therefore, that this document will be reviewed and
updated by the Committee every two years. Any comments and
suggestions by users of this document are welcome. Where up to
date information is required by the user, enquiries may be directed
to relevant Departments and Authorities.
I take this opportunity to thank all Committee Members, past and
present, for their individual contributions of expertise, hard work and
perseverance to the success of this document.
Special thanks are due to Mrs J Rose, our Minute Secretary, for her
hard work and patience in typing and revising the many drafts and
manuscripts.
E M To BE, MBdgSc, FIEAust, FASCE
Chairman Committee on Transmission Lines
July 1988
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FOREWORD TO THE THIRD EDITION
The preparation of a document to examine the undermining of
transmission lines was originally commissioned by the Mine
Subsidence Board in 1983. The information in this Third Edition has
been updated to include current references, more comprehensive
details and case histories not available in previous editions. Following
the success of earlier versions of this document, a similar set of
Guidelines has been developed for Roads and Coal Mining with
Respect to Mine Subsidence.
The availability of such reference documents relevant to Australian
conditions is important to our understanding of mine subsidence and
the ability to maximise extraction of coal reserves.
As coal reserves are further developed there will be a need to
undermine an increasing number of transmission towers, whilst still
maintaining continuity of supply. The relevant agencies will continue
to liaise on such matters and investigate any new support methods
which allow transmission towers to be undermined. Accordingly, it is
intended that the Guidelines will evolve as new information becomes
available and be reviewed in the future.
I take this opportunity to thank all Committee Members, past
and present, for their valuable contribution to the Guidelines and
acknowledge the efforts of our Minute Secretary, Mrs J Rose, in
typing and revising the many drafts.
G Cole-Clark
Chairman
Committee on Transmission Lines
September 1997
FOREWORD TO SECOND EDITION
Feedback from users has indicated general acceptance of this
document as a useful and effective guideline for the industries and
departments concerned, and fullled a role in bridging the planning
gap in coal mining and electricity transmission.
Due to changes to departments and internal procedures, minor
amendments to the First Edition were considered necessary.
Furthermore, supplies of this document had diminished to a small
number of copies, and reprinting was obviously warranted.
Committee Members were requested to re-nominate and forward
suggested amendments. As a result, the Committee has three new
members, and the members organisations are:
Mine Subsidence Board NSW
Electricity Commission of NSW
Department of Minerals and Energy NSW
Department of Planning NSW
NSW Coal Association
The Electricity Commission has advised that ownership of many
transmission lines up to 132 kV have been or are being transferred
to various county councils. Users of these Guidelines should refer
to appropriate county councils in place of the Electricity Commission
in such cases.
Amendments are in Sections 2, 3.1.2, 3.2.3, 3.3.2, 3.3.3 and 3.4.2,
3.5, Appendix A, Figures 6 and 7, and Flow Charts A and B. I
carried out the nal editing of these amendments from suggestions
provided by Committee Members, to whom I am much in debt for
their contributions.

E M To CPEng
Chairman Committee on Transmission Lines
December 1990
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EFFECTS
OF COAL
MINING ON
TRANSMISSION
LINES
Underground coal mining may result in transmission towers
being subjected to vertical and horizontal displacements
and tilt. Vertical displacements may reduce clearance from
ground surface and roads, and lead to infringement of statutory
requirements for clearance of the transmission lines. Horizontal
displacement and tilt may affect the alignment and tension of
the transmission lines. Subsidence effects on a tower structure
may render it unserviceable or lead to collapse.
The effects of open cut coal mining on transmission lines are
different, in that relocation or deviation of a transmission line
is generally possible, but may involve substantial costs and a
suitable alternative route must be found. Open cut coal mines
in proximity to transmission lines may produce similar effects to
those caused by underground mines. Such ground movements
can result from relaxation of the sides of the excavations. Other
aspects of open cut mining that are not related to subsidence
can affect transmission lines, eg, vibrations from blasting, dust
contamination of insulators.
Further details of the impact of coal mining on transmission
lines are included in Appendix B.
Throughout this document the term supply authority has
been adopted to denote an organisation that manages
a transmission and distribution network and associated
infrastructure. In some cases, two or more authorities could
be involved in the various processes and they may be involved
at State or local levels.
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POLICY
STATEMENT
The extraction of coal and the supply of electricity are both
vital to the NSW economy.
The coal mining and electricity supply industries are
interdependent in that coal is the major energy source for
electricity generation and electricity is the main energy source
for coal extraction.
The coal mining companies and the power supply authority
each own and operate extensive infrastructure, which must
be maintained and developed.
There can be some conict of interests between coal mining
and siting of power transmission lines and associated
infrastructure.
Maintenance and development of infrastructure can be
achieved and conflict resolved if effective liaison and
communication exists between the power supply authority,
the collieries, and regulatory authorities.
This can be facilitated by the Department of Mineral Resources
and the Mine Subsidence Board.
It is the belief of the Mine Subsidence Board that its decision
in such cases, within the guidelines of the Mine Subsidence
Compensation Act 1961, can provide the protection so essential
to all interests.
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PROCEDURES
3.1
GRANT OF MINING LEASES AND
APPROVALS TO EXTRACT PILLARS/
LONGWALLS
3.1.1 Grant of Mining Leases
Leases to mine coal (mining leases), either for the establishment
of new coal mines or for additions to existing coal mines, are
granted pursuant to the Mining Act 1992.
Before the Minister for Mineral Resources grants a mining
lease, the Mining Act requires notices of the proposal to be
served, by the Department of Mineral Resources, on each
government agency that would be materially affected by the
grant of the lease. The Act gives the government agency,
upon whom a notice has been served, a statutory right to
object to the granting of the lease or to require conditions to
be included in the lease. Provision is made in that Act for the
resolution of any dispute. Subject to the grant of development
consent, mining leases are granted by the Minister for Mineral
Resources - Refer Flow Chart.
Under its charter, the Mine Subsidence Board is not bound to
object on grounds of damage compensation, but may advise the
Chief Inspector of Coal Mines of the risk of damage, if any.
Similarly, before inviting tenders for a mining lease, the Mining
Act requires the Minister for Mineral Resources to follow the
above procedures.
Reference: Schedule 1, Part 2, Division 1, Sections 5-10,
Mining Act 1992.
3.1.2 Approvals to Extract Pillars/Longwalls
Section 138 of the Coal Mines Regulation Act 1982, provides
that no method of mining other than the bord and pillar system
shall be used except with the approval of the Minister. Pillar
extraction and longwall mining applications are normally
approved by the Chief Inspector of Coal Mines under delegation
from the Minister for Mineral Resources and subject to such
conditions as may be imposed.
In accordance with approved practice, the Chief Inspector
of Coal Mines examines all applications for approval under
Section 138 of the Coal Mines Regulation Act and processes
them in accordance with Section 3.3.2 - Undermining Existing
Transmission Lines.
3.2
TRANSMISSION LINE ROUTE
SELECTION
3.2.1 General
The selection of a route for a transmission line involves
consideration of environmental, economic and technical
constraints. On many occasions, the various constraints
conict and it is necessary to achieve a compromise which
optimises the public interest and also recognises the legitimate
rights of all persons concerned.
FLOW CHART FOR GRANT OF MINING LEASE
1. DMR approves Conceptual Project Development Plan
2. DMR organises Planning Focus Meeting - Designed to
provide early interface between Govt. and company to as-
sist in preparation of EIS and Schedule 1,
Part 2, MA referencing
Application for Mining Lease lodged
DMR makes reference to PSA Sched-
ule 1, Part 2, Division 1,
Section 5 of MA
DMR advises applicant to apply for
Development Consent
DMR provides comments on EIS
to DUAP
Development Consent determined
by Consent Authority
PSA objects to or proposes condi-
tions to be included in the mining
lease Schedule 1, Part 2, Division 1,
Section 9 of MA
DMR follows up any objections/
proposals with Schedule 1, Part 2,
Division 1, Section 10 (1) of MA
DMR refers any unresolved
objections/proposals to Premier
Schedule 1, Part 2, Division 1,
Section 10 (1) of MA
Premier determines any
unresolved objections/proposals
Schedule 1, Part 2, Division 1,
Section 10 (2) of MA
Replies with possible requests for
special conditions
The Minister grants Mining Lease
Section 63 Mining Act
Legend
The Minister - Minister for Mineral Resources
MA - Mining Act, 1992
PSA - Power Supply Authority
DMR - Department of Mineral Resources
DUAP - Department of Urban Affairs and Planning
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The liaison meetings will consider the costs of proposed design
solutions and make recommendations to the Department of
Mineral Resources and the Mine Subsidence Board regarding
the allocation of costs, particularly when structures are
designed to make provision for future protective and mitigatory
works.
(d) Design Approvals/Parameters
The above procedure will be modied slightly depending on
whether the proposed route lies in or outside a declared Mine
Subsidence District.
(1) In a Mine Subsidence District
Once the route has been selected and the EIS process
completed, the power supply authority should submit a
formal building application to the Mine Subsidence Board for
the transmission towers and any associated infrastructure.
Any approval granted by the Mine Subsidence Board will be
subject to conditions. Typically these include the submission
of detailed engineering drawings certifying that the structures
have been designed to accommodate subsidence parameters
attached to the approval, or detailing any provision for future
mitigatory works. Normally such an application need only be
accompanied by plans showing the location and outline of the
structures. The Boards approval should be obtained prior to
any detailed design works being undertaken.
As part of the approval process, the Mine Subsidence Board
will obtain current mine subsidence parameters from the
Department of Mineral Resources and include them in the
approval conditions.
(2) Not in a Mine Subsidence District
Before detailed design is commenced, the power supply
authority should obtain formal subsidence parameters from
the Department of Mineral Resources.
The power supply authority should notify the Mine Subsidence
Board of the subsidence parameters adopted for the design,
to assist the Mine Subsidence Board with administration of
claims in the future.
To ensure that the transmission network and coal mining
operations in the area can co-exist, it is important that effective
liaison is maintained during the entire planning process.
Participants must acknowledge that considerable lead times
are involved in the various stages of the process, and must be
allowed for in any time scheduling.
3.3.2 Undermining Existing Transmission Lines
Pillar extraction and longwall mining applications are normally
approved by the Chief Inspector of Coal Mines under delegation
from the Minister for Mineral Resources under the provisions
of the Coal Mines Regulation Act 1982.
(a) Pillar/Longwall Extraction Approvals
As part of the application process for approval for pillar
or longwall extraction of coal by underground methods,
collieries are required to address issues associated with the
mining plan and its effect on the ground surface and existing
structures. They are required to identify all structures affected
by the proposed mining, and to assess the effect of resulting
subsidence on them. In this context, subsidence means all
horizontal and vertical ground movements resulting from
mining, and when major services and infrastructure are
involved, the colliery should adopt a conservative value of 35
for the angle of draw, even though subsidence calculations and
assessments may be based on lesser values.
The whole of any easement for transmission lines that falls
either partially or completely within the zone of inuence of
any proposed mining based on a 35 angle of draw, shall be
included in the identication process.
This will ensure that the owners/operators of major services
are made aware of mining in the vicinity of their installations
and will allow the effects of subsidence on them to be assessed
independently.
(b) Liaison Meetings
Collieries preparing such an application should arrange a liaison
meeting with the power supply authority, the Department of
Mineral Resources and the Mine Subsidence Board to allow:
(1) discussion of the mining plan prior to formal application
being made to the Chief Inspector of Coal Mines. The
colliery will provide the following information:
Depth of the extraction;
Thickness of the seam to be extracted;
Types of extraction (eg, pillar or longwall);
Proposed start and fnish dates;
Location of proposed starting point;
A scale drawing (1:8,000 or less) locating the
proposed mining and showing appropriate
easting and northing co-ordinates and location
of affected transmission line structures;
The maximum subsidence, strains and tilts at
each of the structures;
Details of any known geological anomalies that
may affect subsidence.
(2) the Department of Mineral Resources to assess and ratify
the collierys subsidence predictions
(3) the power supply authority to assess what, if any,
mitigatory works and/or monitoring is appropriate, and to
submit any special requirements that should be attached
to the approval to the Chief Inspector of Coal Mines
(4) the Mine Subsidence Board to determine if the affected
structures are eligible for compensation under the Mine
Subsidence Compensation Act, to assess the cost of
mitigatory works and advise the Chief Inspector of Coal
Mines if appropriate
(5) the power supply authority to negotiate with the colliery
regarding the allocation of costs that may not be
compensable under the Mine Subsidence Compensation
Act
(6) the colliery to nalise details of the application
(7) the power supply authority to submit a claim for
compensation to the Mine Subsidence Board and to obtain
3.2.2 Constraints
In general, route selection involves the determination of the
most suitable route between two nominated end points, but
from time to time, there are complicating factors such as the
desirability or necessity for the line to pass via a third locality
which may be a centre of growing demand for electricity.
The range of factors which may affect the nal selection of a
transmission line route include:
Topography
National Parks and Nature Reserves
State Forests
Mineral Prospects and Mining Operations
Airstrips
Urban and Industrial Areas
Areas of Signifcant Historical or Archaeological Interest
Scientifc Establishments
Pipelines
Railway Lines
Road Systems
Communication Networks
Irrigation Areas
Property Owner Requirements
Flood Prone Areas
Native Title
3.2.3 Consultation with Public Authorities
As a standard procedure, the power supply authority exchanges
correspondence with numerous Commonwealth, State and
Local Government authorities regarding its transmission line
proposals. The Department of Mineral Resources and the Mine
Subsidence Board are included in this process. All authorities
potentially affected are requested to comment on the proposals
and, where appropriate, to provide any information that may
be relevant to the detailed route location, line design, and
environmental assessment of the project.
Where lines are to be constructed through Mine Subsidence
Districts, this process of consultation normally leads to the
accommodation of the Boards requirements concerning the
siting and design of the transmission line structures. Formal
application and approval to construct is required under the
Mine Subsidence Compensation Act. Formal application before
detailed design will facilitate meeting the Boards requirements
without delay or change to design. Application should be made
as soon as the particular route is proposed.
3.2.4 Procedures under the Environmental Planning
and Assessment Act
Transmission lines are generally covered by the provisions of
Part V of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act,
1979, which makes the board of the authority the Determining
Authority for its transmission line projects. This requires the
authority to carry out an environmental assessment of all its
transmission line proposals.
If it is determined that a particular transmission line will have a
signicant impact on the environment, an Environmental Impact
Statement is prepared by the power supply authority, placed
on public display, and submissions from interested parties are
received and assessed.
Finally, a determination report recommending a particular
route for the line is prepared and also made public. In general,
it may be assumed that all major steel tower lines require
Environmental Impact Statements, as well as some steel,
wood and concrete pole lines, depending on their proposed
locations.
3.3
CO-ORDINATING MINING AND
TRANSMISSION LINE ACTIVITIES
3.3.1 Planning New Transmission Lines
(a) General
When the power supply authority is planning routes for
new or replacement transmission lines and/or associated
infrastructure, the Department of Mineral Resources and the
Mine Subsidence Board will be notied of the proposed route
as part of the power supply authoritys planning procedures.
The proposed route would be assessed in terms of its
interaction with proposed or existing coal mining in the area
traversed.
In order to facilitate these assessments, the power supply
authority will, in conjunction with the Department of Mineral
Resources and Mine Subsidence Board, arrange liaison
meetings where the proposed route can be considered in
relation to any mining (planned or existing). The Department
of Mineral Resources will arrange for the appropriate collieries
to attend or be represented at these liaison meetings.
(b) Liaison Meetings
The goals of the liaison meetings are to:
(1) identify coal resources and their mining status
(2) establish realistic subsidence design parameters
(3) identify the most appropriate design solution (including
deviation and relocation) for the transmission line and
structures, and the associated costs
(4) determine the type and degree of monitoring that may be
appropriate for the structures.
(c) Design Solutions
When identifying the appropriate design solution, consideration
will be given to designing towers and structures to:
(1) accommodate the predicted subsidence parameters
(2) make provisions for mitigatory or preventative works in
the future when and if appropriate.
In selecting the appropriate design solution, consideration will
be given to designs that provide the optimal economic solution
for the community.
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In order to relocate a section of an existing transmission line,
the power supply authority would generally need at least three
(3) years notice. (Note: This assumes that an Environmental
Impact Statement for the line deviation is not required.) In
general the power supply authority has agreed to deviate
transmission lines wherever an acceptable alternative route
could be obtained and agreement could be reached in respect
of costs.
Ground settlement in rehabilitated open cut mines occurs over
a long period of time and this must be addressed when routes
are selected and structures designed for rehabilitated areas.
The power supply authority will select any route in proximity
to an existing or proposed open cut mine, or crossing an
area formerly mined, in the light of appropriate geotechnical
reports, with a view to ensuring that the transmission line is
not damaged by mine subsidence precipitated by the mining.
Where the settled route is in a Mine Subsidence District, the
Mine Subsidence Boards approval will be explicitly obtained
in the usual way.
Where operations of an open cut mine are being planned to
take place adjacent to an existing transmission line, typical
conditions that the supply authority may request the Minister
for Mineral Resouces to attach to any approval are:
(1) prohibition of excavation within the transmission line
easement
(2) provision of appropriate geotechnical report detailing
estimated ground movements. The geotechnical report
should also include a stability analysis of the high wall and
take into consideration any adverse effects on the slope
stability due to blasting of the overburden
(3) requirement to perform inclinometer and survey monitoring
of the ground movement at appropriate intervals
(4) requirement that areas of open cut mines adjacent to
existing transmission lines be backlled as soon as mining
in the vicinity of the affected structures is complete
3.3.5 Forward Mining Plans
The Mine Subsidence Board has current programmes to monitor
mining under major structures subject to potential subsidence
damage. Transmission lines and associated infrastructure are
recognised as major structures within these programmes.
Under these programmes, annual liaison meetings are
convened between the Department of Mineral Resources, the
Mine Subsidence Board and collieries. Coal mining companies
table forward mining plans at these meetings. There is a
requirement under the Mine Subsidence Compensation Act for
coal mining companies to provide such planning information
when requested. The Board examines the forward mining plans
and undertakes to notify the power supply authority promptly
on becoming aware of a plan affecting any of the power supply
authoritys structures.
3.3.6 Mine Subsidence Board Approval Process
The Board approves building applications received from the
power supply authority for proposed transmission lines in Mine
Subsidence Districts, subject to conditions.
The approval process has been designed so that developers can
submit building applications at the planning stage, including
conceptual plans with their application. This allows subsidence
design parameters to be determined prior to detailed design
and planning being commenced.
Typically, conditions of approval may require that:
(a) Final engineering drawings are submitted to the Board
prior to the commencement of construction.
(b) Final drawings are certied by an appropriately qualied
engineer that improvements constructed in accordance
with the specifications and drawings will be safe,
serviceable and repairable, taking into account specic
mine subsidence parameters for the site(s) involved. (Site
specic parameters would normally be specied as part of
the approval.)
c) If appropriate other special conditions are to be complied
with, eg:
- A geotechnical report for the site be supplied
- Work as executed drawings be submitted on
completion
- Special features be catered for or provided for in the
design (eg, provision of platforms and access for
relevelling jacks)
- Progress reports or specic events to be reported to
the Board (eg, notice of concrete pours, etc)
- Specied design oor level to be adopted in ood
prone areas
- Undertake geotechnical exploration to dene limits
and extent of old workings
Improvements constructed in a Mine Subsidence District that
do not satisfy the conditions of approval, are not eligible for
compensation under the Mine Subsidence Compensation
Act.
Typically, the following subsidence parameters would be
specied in the conditions of approval:
Vertical Subsidence x mm
Compressive Strains y mm/m
Tensile Strains z mm/m
Tilts w mm/m
Radius of Curvature v km
The Board requires the designer to certify on the drawings
that improvements covered by the approval will remain safe,
serviceable and repairable in the event of the structures being
subjected to the specied subsidence. The designer is to
state on the drawings the subsidence parameters that were
included in the design. This would normally be included with
statements detailing design loads (ie, dead, wind, live and
any special loads).
their approval for any design and mitigatory works that may
be necessary when the application is approved by the Chief
Inspector of Coal Mines
(c) Lead Times
The existence of considerable lead times that can be involved
in mitigatory works must be acknowledged by all concerned
parties. As the power supply authority has limitations placed
upon it regarding the number and duration of outages that
it can impose on transmission lines at certain times of the
year, access to lines and towers to carry out mitigatory works
is restricted. Some details of the type of works that may be
required and the times involved are given in Section 3.3.3.
(d) Monitoring
It should also be noted that survey and visual monitoring may
be required in cases where no physical mitigatory works are
necessary. It will need to commence prior to mining affecting
structures and to continue until, for practical purposes, mine
subsidence has ceased.
3.3.3 Typical Protective Measures
(a) Lines Constructed to Normal Design Standards
For transmission lines which have not been designed to
withstand ground subsidence, the power supply authority
would generally require at least 12 months notice to be able
to organise the carrying out of any necessary precautionary
measures to mitigate the subsidence effect on the affected
structures and to enable suitable outages to be arranged to
allow such work to take place.
If the expected ground subsidence effects are so severe
that the transmission line structures and/or foundations are
inadequate, then major redesigning or relocation of the line
may be required. Alternatively, restriction of the undermining
to partial extraction may be considered if that is the less costly
option. In this regard, tension structures are far more sensitive
to ground subsidence effects, and far more difcult to protect
from them, than are suspension structures.
If a section of transmission line needs to be relocated, the
power supply authority would generally need at least three
(3) years notice. (Note: It is assumed that an Environmental
Impact Statement for the line deviation is not required.)
Steel, wood and concrete pole transmission lines are more
tolerant of ground movement than steel tower lines. However,
preparatory work and, in some cases, relocation, may still be
necessary and the lead time required is only a little shorter
than for steel tower lines.
(b) Lines Constructed to Withstand Subsidence
If the transmission line which is to be undermined has been
designed to withstand the effects of a predetermined amount
of ground subsidence, the liaison committee would consider the
proposal referred to it bearing in mind the design parameters
which have been incorporated in the design of the transmission
line structures, and the predicted subsidence parameters for
the proposed mining.
Although a transmission line has been designed for ground
subsidence effects, it may still be necessary to do some work
on the line, such as survey monitoring and unloading the
towers by placing the conductors and overhead earthwires
in sheaves. This work would require outages of the line and
arrangements would have to be made to have the line taken
out of service at a time when system operating conditions are
favourable. In such circumstances, the power supply authority
would generally require at least 12 months notice before the
undermining was to take place.
(c) General
Notwithstanding any other modications or design features,
it may also be necessary to take a line out of service during
the actual period of undermining. At the very least, sufcient
system back up would need to be available in case the line
was damaged during undermining. In addition, the power
supply authority would probably arrange for its own survey
monitoring of the line before, during, and after the undermining
of the line structures. Again, the power supply authority
would generally require considerable lead time before the
undermining is to take place.
All costs of mitigatory works, adjustments, repairs, etc
approved by the Mine Subsidence Board will be paid by
the Board subject to the provisions of the Mine Subsidence
Compensation Act.
3.3.4 Open Cut Mining
It is not possible for transmission line structures to remain
within open cut mining sites. It is therefore a basic requirement
in route selection that transmission line routes be located
away from areas where there are rm plans to mine by open
cut, and where suitable alternatives are available, away from
areas likely to be mined by open cut within the life of the
transmission line.
Particularly where prospective open cut mining areas are
large and mining plans are not rm, it may not be possible to
avoid such areas altogether. In such a case the power supply
authority will acquire the most practical route having regard to
all constraints including the possible future mining.
Open cut mining operations are matters which will be approved
or refused by the Minister for Mineral Resources under the
provisions of the Mining Act and the conditions of coal leases
granted thereunder.
When planned or currently operating open cut coal mines
affect an existing transmission line, the matter of selection of a
satisfactory deviation for the line shall be subject to negotiation
between the power supply authority and the mining company
concerned, having regard to the legal rights of both parties.
Generally, a similar liaison process is to be followed as outlined
for approval of extraction by underground mines. The Mine
Subsidence Board is not normally involved, except that its
approval (with design requirements) would be necessary for
any new structures, that are in a Mine Subsidence District.
In cases where open cut mines operate in proximity to
transmission lines, adverse effects may result from ground
movements near the highwall, vibrations from blasting and
excessive dust pollution on the insulators of the line.
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As well as coal being sterilised directly by subsidence
restrictions, a further quantity is likely to be lost due to the
geometric constraints placed on the mine layout. For example,
if a line of transmission towers cuts across one end of a
proposed longwall panel at an oblique angle, the whole panel,
and possibly an adjacent one also, may be sterilised because
of the practical inability to rotate panels or to extract irregular
pockets of coal by modern, high production longwalls.
As a typical longwall panel can contain in excess of 1,000,000
tonnes of coal, the quantity lost due to indirect sterilisation
can quickly become very signicant.
Once the total quantity of coal to be sterilised, both directly
and indirectly, has been determined, the next step is to
assign a value to it. For the purposes of these guidelines, the
value per tonne of coal sterilised will be taken as being the
difference between the market price (at the mine gate) and the
incremental cost per tonne of winning the coal. This value of
coal might be higher if other factors have stronger inuences,
such as export demands, etc. Users should check this value
at time of estimate.
From the communitys viewpoint, it is desirable that non-
renewable resources such as coal be exploited to the fullest
extent possible. Similarly, from the viewpoint of mining
communities, it is desirable to extend the life of each mine
for as long as possible by ensuring that the greatest possible
percentage of the coal is mined. However, as with the
community cost of transmission line works, it is not possible
to dene a simple approach to the assignment of value to this
factor. Nevertheless, when evaluating a proposal which will
involve sterilisation of coal, every effort should be made to
determine whether the community cost is signicant enough
to warrant departure from a purely economic evaluation.
3.4.4 Procedural Matters
In order to afford the maximum exibility in modifying mine
layouts, transmission line locations and tower designs, it is
important that consultation and the assessment of the relative
merits of coal sterilisation and transmission line modication
be carried out at the earliest possible time.
Accordingly, as soon as it becomes apparent that a coal
mining proposal is affected by an existing transmission line,
or a transmission line proposal is affected by an existing
coal mining operation, consultation should commence. This
will be initiated by any of the involved parties depending
on circumstances, eg, by the Board when the transmission
line is in a Mine Subsidence District; by the Department of
Mineral Resources when the transmission line is not in a Mine
Subsidence District; by the power supply authority when a
transmission line is involved; by the mining company when
required by condition of approval of the particular extraction.
Once a course of action has been determined in accordance
with the principles outlined in 3.3.1, 3.3.2 and 3.3.3, it is likely
that compensation or reimbursement will be payable by one
or other party. For new transmission line construction, the
matter of compensation for sterilised coal and/or the cost of
transmission line modications shall be negotiated between
the power supply authority and the mining company at the
time.
Where an existing transmission line is involved, the costs
associated with precautionary and/or remedial measures
by the power supply authority, including the cost of survey
monitoring, will be reimbursed by the Mine Subsidence Board
subject to the provisions of the Mine Subsidence Compensation
Act.
Where a condition of approval requires certication of plans
by designer:
- After subsidence, any damage will be repaired under
the provisions of the Mine Subsidence Compensation
Act, but the damage is expected to be consistent with
design requirements.
- Serviceable means that the improvement must be
able to continue to be used for the purpose for which
it was designed.
- Safe means that occupants and users of the
improvement must not be at risk from loss or
reduction of asset integrity.
- Repairable means that materials and their method
of utilisation allows damage after subsidence to be
repaired/replaced economically.
3.4
CHOOSING BETWEEN TRANSMISSION
LINE MODIFICATIONS AND COAL
STERILISATION
3.4.1 The Least Community Cost Principle
It is anticipated that, from time to time, situations will arise
where, as a result of a transmission line being affected by a
mining proposal, it is necessary to choose between sterilising
coal reserves and relocating or modifying the transmission line.
Whilst it is not practicable to quantify in general terms the
relative economic merits of sterilising amounts of coal against
relocating or modifying specic transmission line structures,
it is possible to assess all situations in terms of an agreed
guiding principle.
On this basis, it is agreed that each individual situation will
be assessed on its own merits and the course of action which
represents the least cost to the community will be adopted.
That is, if the cost to the community of coal sterilisation is less
than the cost of modifying or relocating specic transmission
line structures, then the coal will be sterilised. If the cost to
the community of coal sterilisation is greater than the cost
of transmission line modication, then the transmission line
will be modied.
3.4.2 Transmission Costs
In determining the cost of any transmission line modications
which may be necessary to allow undermining to proceed,
three factors need to be considered:
(a) Actual Direct Cost of Modications or Precautionary
Measures
The actual cost of any particular proposal is readily denable in
that the power supply authority can provide budget estimates
for the various types of line construction. If necessary, these
estimates can be veried by the calling of tenders for the
work involved. As discussed in previous sections, these
costs will normally be borne by the Mine Subsidence Board
for undermining of existing transmission lines or by the mine
owner for other cases.
(b) Cost of Non-optimal Operating Conditions
The NSW electricity transmission system operates as a
competitive market, with all generators bidding in prices on a
half-hourly basis. The cheapest units then supply the electrical
demand at the time, and all are paid the price bid by the most
expensive of these.
When taking a transmission line out of service for modication
or reconstruction, the resultant changes to system operating
conditions may limit the output available from cheaper
generators, requiring more expensive generators to be used.
This may raise the price paid by all customers and may also
expose the transmission authority to commercial sanctions
for limiting the market access for the cheaper generator(s).
The actual cost of these effects depends on the nature of the
line and the generation and load conditions at the time and
estimates may be obtained from the authority. Taking a line
out of service also results in higher electrical loads on other
lines, which normally increases overall electrical losses (due to
line heating) on the network. The incremental cost of system
losses for a typical 330 kV line outage in the Hunter Valley
would be $300 per hour based on the cost of coal into the power
station boilers. However, such costs vary widely with system
conditions and the line involved and should be obtained from
the power supply authority for particular cases.
In addition, if, as a result of having an important interconnector
out of service, additional system disturbances were to result
in load shedding, the cost of an unplanned loss of supply to
the community is much greater than the supply tariff. There
is a great deal of variation in this cost, which includes loss
of production, spoilage of goods, and disruption of essential
services. This cost may be signicant and should be obtained
from the authority in the rst instance.
(c) Community Costs
The environmental considerations associated with the
modication or relocation of a transmission line can vary
and each case must be assessed on its own merits. Some
of the factors which merit consideration are visual impact,
affectation of natural amenity and the availability/desirability
of alternative routes.
3.4.3 Coal Mining Sterilisation Costs
In determining the cost of sterilisation of coal due to the
need to protect surface structures, three factors need to be
considered.
(a) The value of coal directly sterilised;
(b) The value of coal indirectly sterilised due to
subsidence restrictions;
(c) The community cost arising from the loss of a non-
renewable resource and the shortening of mine
life.
Coal is sterilised directly when it is left in place in order to
support a surface structure. The two normal methods used to
provide such support are total sterilisation within a nominated
angle of draw or the use of a method that provides some control
of subsidence, such as panel and pillar which may reduce the
percentage of coal recovered from 90% to less than 50%.
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COAL MINING
AND ITS
EFFECTS
A1
OVERVIEW OF MINING METHODS
In 1982-83, nearly 70% of coal in NSW was won by
underground mining methods and the remaining 30% by open
cut methods; longwall mining provided approximately 12% of
the underground coal production. In 1995-96, 51% of coal was
won by underground mining methods, 69% of which was by
longwall. The total production in NSW has increased from 67
million tonnes in 1982-83 to 92 million tonnes in 1995-96. More
recent gures are available from Joint Coal Board publications,
Australian Black Coal Statistics and NSW Coal Year Book.
Underground extraction of coal in NSW is generally carried out
at present at depths of mostly less than 500 metres. Nearly
50% of total coal production in 1982-83 was at depths less
than 200 metres. Mining at depths greater than 200 metres
is increasing, especially in longwalls.
For coal mineable by underground methods, a practical
minimum seam thickness is 1 metre. The seams mined in the
past mostly fall within the thickness range of 2.5 to 3.5 metres
and most underground coal production was derived from seams
within this range.
Open cut coal extraction in NSW is generally conned to linear
overburden to coal ratios not greater than 10:1 and a maximum
mining depth of 200 metres. In practice, however, coal by open
cut methods is mined currently at much shallower depths.
During 1982-83 the greatest depth worked was 88.5 metres
and the weighted average overburden to coal ratio was 4.6:1.
These gures have not changed signicantly.
A2
UNDERGROUND MINING
Underground mining practices followed in NSW fall into three
main categories: bord and pillar mining (rst workings), partial
extraction, and total extraction.
Development Headings are roadways (tunnels) that are
driven to provide access to areas of virgin coal. Normally driven
in groups of up to four roadways with cut-throughs between
them, they form a development panel and are used to block
out large areas of coal that will be extracted by longwall or
pillar extraction methods.
Bord and Pillar methods of mining are well established
and vary in detail. They comprise a network of underground
roadways (tunnels), interconnected as shown in Figure 1,
leaving blocks of coal, generally square or rectangular in plan
view. These are termed pillars. Historically, the sizes of pillars
and roadways formed in this system of mining have been
specied in mining lease conditions and under the provisions
of the Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1982. In more recent years,
pillars have been required to be designed with long term
stability to ensure mine safety.
LEGISLATION
Legislation referred to in the Guidelines includes:
Electricity Transmission Authority Act 1994 - under
which the Electricity Transmission Authority (trading
as TransGrid) is responsible for the transmission of
bulk electricity throughout NSW.
Electricity Act 1945 Electricity (Overhead Line Safety)
Regulation 1991 - which species the conditions
under which overhead lines may be designed,
constructed, operated and maintained.
Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979
- which embodies the general provisions relating
to land use planning, zoning, preparation and
exhibition of environmental planning instruments,
local environment plans, and environmental impact
statements.
Public Works Act 1912 - under which TransGrid
is empowered to resume land for its various
undertakings.
Mining Act 1992 - covering the issue of titles to mine
for and/or prospect for minerals and coal, and also
includes provisions for including in the Register of
Colliery Holdings new Colliery Holdings or making
amendments to existing Holdings. Approvals for
open cut coal mining activities are dealt with under
this Act.
Coal Mines Regulation Act 1982 - which controls,
for example, pillar extraction and longwall methods
of mining in underground coal mines. This Act also
provides for the preparation of mine plans and record
tracings showing coal mine workings.
Mine Subsidence Compensation Act 1961 -
under which the Mine Subsidence Board controls
the establishment of improvements, including
transmission lines in Mine Subsidence Districts and
considers claims for compensation for damages
to improvements as a result of underground coal
mining.
Other legislation which can affect the siting of transmission
lines includes various Acts covering the operation of other
public authorities such as:
National Parks and Wildlife Service
State Forests of NSW
Heritage Council of NSW
National Trust of Australia (NSW)
Sydney Water Corporation
Hunter Water Corporation
Department of Public Works and Services
Department of Land and Water Conservation
Telstra
Department of Transport NSW
State Rail Authority of NSW
Roads and Trafc Authority NSW
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FIGURE 1
SUBSIDENCE FROM BORD AND PILLAR MINING
ZONE OF INFLUENCE
WORKED AREA
SMALL SUBSIDENCE
ORIGINAL SURFACE
COAL SEAM COAL SEAM
SECTION
A. Bords or Rooms
B. Pillars
A
B
(Not to scale. Diagrammatic only)
CUTAWAY VIEW OF TYPICAL
MODERN COLLIERY
Longwall
mining unit
Bord and pillar
development
1 Drift for men and materials access
2 Shaft winder house
3 Bathhouse and administration building
4 Workshops
5 Coal preparation plant
6 Coal storage bins
7 Gas drainage system
8 Longwall mining unit
9 Coal seam
10 Continuous miner
11 Coal pillar
12 Underground coal bin
13 Main roadway
14 Coal skips bring coal to the surface
(Not to scale. Diagrammatic only)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
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FIGURE 2
SUBSIDENCE FROM PANEL AND PILLAR MINING
ZONE OF INFLUENCE
WORKED AREA
SUBSIDENCE IF CRITICAL EXTRACTION OCCURRED
ORIGINAL SURFACE
COAL SEAM COAL SEAM
RESULTING SUBSIDENCE:*
PANELS 1+2
PANEL 1 PANEL 2
Subsidence from extracting Panel 1
Subsidence from extracting Panel 2
Amount of resulting subsidence will depend on stability of pillars
SECTION
A. Panel 1
B. Panel 2
C. Standing Pillars
B
A
C
Pillar sizes and the number of roadways in any particular panel
(mining region) vary considerably depending on the purpose of
the panel. Any extraction system (discussed below) requires
access to the coal to be extracted, and so bord and pillar
workings are used as the means of blocking out the coal for
this purpose. In this sense, the bord and pillar workings are
also referred to as rst workings, or development workings.
When bord and pillar workings are developed, they cause
negligible surface subsidence and consequently no mining-
induced ground strain (see Section in Figure 1).
Partial Extraction can take various forms depending on
mining conditions, production requirements and constraints
such as subsidence control. Essentially, partial extraction
refers to any mining method where, within a block of coal,
large quantities of coal are removed, but some remains. This
may take the form of partial pillar extraction, or pillar splitting,
within a panel of bord and pillar workings, or it may be on a
larger scale where alternate panels are fully extracted while
the intervening blocks of coal are left intact.
This latter method, sometimes referred to as panel and pillar
mining (Figure 2), is a variation of selective partial pillar
extraction methods and is used to prevent or control surface
subsidence. In this method, panels are separated by long
barrier pillars of sufcient width to support the overlying
strata, even if the immediate roof over the extracted panels
sags considerably or fails (caves). By careful selection of the
panel and pillar geometry relative to mining height, depth of
workings and strata conditions, surface subsidence can be
controlled successfully and the level of differential subsidence
or lateral strain affecting surface features or structures, can
be restricted.
Total Extraction is an extension of partial extraction whereby
as much coal as can safely and economically be mined is
removed from each panel, leaving only small remnant pillars
or narrow barrier pillars and pillar regions. These often crush
out as the major overlying roof strata settle and the surface
subsides. Total extraction is achieved either by large scale pillar
extraction from bord and pillar workings over a large area, or
by mining of wide blocks of coal between narrow development
panels using the longwall method (see Figure 3).
Total extraction is the favoured mining method where
subsidence is not restricted, as it leads to maximum coal
recovery, and minimum sterilisation of resources. Where the
coal can be totally extracted prior to construction of surface
structures, they can be built on stable ground which has already
undergone complete subsidence. Total extraction results in
more predictable and uniform strains and subsidences which
simplies the control of surface development.
A3
SUBSIDENCE EFFECTS
A3.1 General
A subsidence basin forms on the surface when coal is extracted
over a wide area. The amount and extent of subsidence
depends on many factors which include the geometry of the
extracted area, the layout of unmined pillars, the number of
seams mined, the coal recovery from each seam, the nature of
the superincumbent strata and other geological factors.
When development headings are driven, no significant
subsidence occurs. Generally, for bord and pillar workings,
subsidence can be around 20 mm. Over a large area of pillar
or longwall extraction where the critical extraction width is
exceeded, subsidence can be up to 65% of seam thickness.
The main elements of a subsidence prole are the vertical
displacement (subsidence), the change in ground slope and the
curvature of the ground surface which determines the amount
of surface strain. These elements can be calculated from eld
observations of level of, and distance between, monitoring
points using standard survey techniques. Proles of subsidence
and associated characteristics are derived from the eld data.
Some of the terminology used in dening surface subsidence
is shown in Figure 4.
In the case of longwall mining, most of the subsidence generally
takes place soon after mining. In a virgin area, up to 10% of
maximum subsidence can occur as delayed subsidence. In
the case of pillar extraction with standing unmined pillars in
the goaf, subsidence can continue for a long time due to the
collapse or gradual failure of any unmined pillars over time.
Dykes or fault planes can affect subsidence and strain proles.
They can provide a plane of weakness in the strata which
under certain circumstances could facilitate subsidence
movements. Surface cracking need not necessarily occur
when such geological features are present. The occurrence
of surface cracking and its extent, generally depends on the
amount of strain.
The effects of ground movements are important in areas
when there are structures or surface features which require
protection. Different types of structures have different
tolerances to subsidence.
Construction of new structures can be deferred until mining has
taken place and subsidence is complete. It may be possible
to modify existing structures to enable them to withstand
anticipated subsidence. Proposed structures can be built with
allowances for subsidence. Whether subsidence movements
occur or are allowed to occur under structures or surface
features depends on several factors. The importance of the
structure and any socio-economic consequences of damage
will need to be carefully considered in relation to the coal
which could otherwise be sterilised.
A3.2 Underground Extraction
(a) Bord and Pillar Mining (First Workings)
Studies in NSW have observed subsidence values over bord
and pillar workings without pillar extraction of approximately
20 mm.
Determining values of mine subsidence for values of this
magnitude is complicated by other factors. Standards and
tolerances of surveys have to be considered and it must be
remembered that changes in the ground surface level resulting
from natural groundwater movement or swelling/contraction
of surface soils/clays in excess of 50 mm are not uncommon.
This ground movement occurs quite independently of any
mining inuence.
Undetected geological anomalies or poor mining practice may
lead to unusual subsidence.
Limits can be placed with reasonable condence on surface
(Not to scale. Diagrammatic only)
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the slope. In clayey material, the movements are presumed to
result from elastic recovery following lateral and vertical stress
relief. In the coal measures, the movements are frequently
traced to shear failure along discontinuities such as bedding
planes.
Displacements after backlling are due to the consolidation of
the backll material and are a function of the type of material,
the depth of the ll and the backlling process. Observations
have been made over a period of between three (3) and six
(6) years when backll material was placed in an open cut.
The maximum consolidation of 40 metres of overburden was
FIGURE 4
(Source: National Coal Board 1975)
TERMINOLOGY ASSOCIATED WITH SUBSIDENCE
CRITICAL WIDTH (W)
SURFACE
COAL SEAM
SUPER CRITICAL WIDTH
Mining
depth
s
s
m
STRAIN CURVE FOR
CRITICAL WIDTH OF
EXTRACTION
WORKINGS
SUBSIDENCE
PROFILES
20mm
SUBSIDENCE
LIMIT
(M)
ANGLE
OF
DRAW
ANGLE OF DRAW - Angle between vertical at edge of workings
and line joining edge of workings to 20mm
subsidence point at surface
s
m MAXIMUM SUBSIDENCE - Occurs at the centre of the panel when work-
ings reach critical width and length
E STRAIN - Lengthening or shortening in subsidence
trough per unit length
M SEAM THICKNESS
W WIDTH OF WORKINGS
(or Limit Angle)
(extracted)
observed to be 200 mm in this case. The consolidation was
also found to be irregular, reecting variations in the type of
material and the degree of compaction.
Further work is required to predict subsidence in rehabilitated
areas of open cut operations. Structures in the vicinity of open
cut mines could suffer damage if these are located within
the zone of inuence of the workings. The development of
rehabilitated lands should take account of ground movements
due to the consolidation of the backll for a number of years.
movements due to mining as empirical and mathematical
methods have been proved reliable.
In summary, given good mining design and practice, bord
and pillar (rst) workings should cause no damaging surface
subsidence.
(b) Partial Extraction
The subsidence effects of irregular partial extraction methods
can be quite significant on the surface in terms of both
vertical displacement and strain. Where the partial extraction
involves pillar splitting or extensive pillar extraction there
can be a signicant time delay in the development of total
subsidence.
In a panel and pillar extraction operation, it is possible to
carefully control and limit the amount of surface subsidence.
This can be achieved by designing the widths of both panels to
be extracted and the barrier pillars between them to suit strata
conditions and depth. Of more importance, the differential
subsidence over pillars and panels can be carefully evened out
so that the surface strains are negligible, thereby protecting
any sensitive surface features.
(c) Total Extraction
Total extraction generally results in 80%-90%recovery, by plan, of the
coal seam. In NSW strata conditions, maximum surface subsidence
can amount to approximately 65% of the extracted seam thickness
once the total extraction area exceeds a critical width.
Over the extremities of the extracted area, peak strains occur
at the surface (see Figure 4). The magnitude of these strains is
dependent on depth and strata conditions. The angle of draw
dening the limiting lateral extent of subsidence is also very
dependent on strata conditions and can vary from 0 to 35.
In total extraction, as with all mining methods, given a
combination of empirical guidelines based on measured
subsidence data, structural and geotechnical strata properties
and modern numerical design techniques, it is possible to
design mining layouts to predict and hence control surface
subsidence with a reasonable degree of reliability.
A3.3
OPEN CUT OPERATIONS
Ground movements can occur both during the mining operation
and after rehabilitation due to the consolidation of the backll.
Very little published information is available in Australia on
the ground movements associated with the consolidation and
settlement of backlled areas of open cut mines.
The area of inuence behind the crest of a deep excavation
slope depends upon the type of coal measures. Movements
have been observed for a distance of 2.5 and 3.0 times
the height of the slope behind the crest of clayey soils. In
excavations in the stronger coal measures, it is generally
believed that this distance reduces to less than the height of
FIGURE 3
LONGWALL MINING
A
E
A. Longwall Panel Extraction Completed
B. Longwall Panel Extraction in Progress
C. Small Remnant Pillar between Longwall Panels
D. Main Headings
E. Development Headings to create next Longwall Panel
C
B
D
(Not to scale. Diagrammatic only)
(Not to scale. Diagrammatic only)
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Deformation can readily cause failure of conventional steel
towers. Horizontal relative displacements of pairs of adjacent
legs tend to cause the tower to deform as indicated in Figures
5 and 6. Diagonal spread throws the legs on one diagonal
into severe compression, while the legs on the other diagonal
are put into tension. In this mode of deformation, which is
also produced by ground curvature on the diagonal, the tower
may be quickly brought to failure once the slippage of bolted
splices and joints is exhausted. Rotation of the footings and
secondary effects of tilt or displacement can add signicantly
to the tower loadings. For severe deformations of this type
it is not practicable to reinforce existing towers to withstand
the loads involved.
TransGrid is currently giving attention to the development of
new tower and foundation designs which are less vulnerable
to deformation.
Single pole structures without guy wires are not subject to the
large deformations applicable to lattice towers whose legs may
be 10 to 15 metres apart on each face. Two-pole structures
linked by a crossarm are deformed by ground curvature or
relative displacements. However, pole exibility may relieve
the seriousness of both primary and secondary effects.
Major transmission lines supplying electrical loads greater than
about 100 MW (100,000 kW) are normally constructed with
steel lattice towers. Current designs for self-supporting steel
pole and reinforced concrete pole structures cannot carry the
loads associated with large angles or terminations of major
transmission lines.
THE IMPACT
OF COAL
MINING ON
TRANSMISSION
LINES
B1
GENERAL
The primary effects of mining on transmission line structures
are loss of height due to vertical subsidence, displacement
due to ground strain and tilt and deformation of structures
or footings.
The principal secondary effect is alteration of tower
loadings due to movement of conductor attachment points.
Such movements follow mainly from tower tilt or lateral
displacements and can cause major changes of conductor
tensions.
Loss of height due to subsidence applies equally to all structure
types and functions. Transmission lines are required to
maintain statutory clearance over ground, roads, etc. Where
the effects of subsidence reduce the clearance to less than
the statutory limit, it will be necessary to restore the clearance
by reconstruction or structure extension. The acceptability of
extension of structures will depend on the capacity of existing
structures to resist the increased moments associated with the
height increase. New structures can of course be designed
with additional ground clearance to provide for reasonable
difference of subsidence between structures and points of
low conductor-to-ground clearance.
The severity of the other aspects depends not only on the
subsidence parameters, but also on the structure type,
structure function, and proximity of adjacent structures.
Ground strains and curvature associated with substantial
subsidence can deform conventional steel lattice transmission
structures sufciently to cause failure and collapse. Even
without deformations, substantial tower tilt can alter conductor
tensions sufciently to cause tower overloads or complete
failure. In some circumstances the collapse of one tower could
throw excessive loading on to adjacent structures causing the
cascade failure of several spans of the transmission line.
Pole structures are more exible than lattice towers and may
accept tilt more readily. They also have a unitary foundation
and may be relatively unaffected by ground strain. However,
where guys are fitted, structures can be dramatically
overloaded by movement of the guy foundation relative to the
pole. Accordingly, it is unwise to assume that any transmission
line structure can be safely undermined. Even if the structure
has been designed in anticipation of future undermining, it
may be necessary to alter conductor tensions and modify
attachments prior to the event and, in any case, the provisions
made must be checked for the ground movements associated
with the specic pattern of coal extraction proposed.
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FIGURE 6
DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW
RIDGID BODY ROTATION MODEL
DISPLACED
SHAPE
ORIGINAL
SHAPE
(A) SQUARE WAVEFRONT (B) DIAGONAL WAVEFRONT
Horizontal Displacement
Vertical Reactions
FIGURE 5
DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW
TOWER DEFORMATION FROM
HORIZONTAL LEG DISPLACEMENTS
B2
STRUCTURE TYPES AND FUNCTIONS
Transmission line structures may be divided into two functional
groups, tension structures and suspension structures, both of
which are illustrated in Figure 7.
The usual functions of a tension tower include:
- separating sections of transmission lines which have
differing tensions under various service conditions;
- accepting the longitudinal loading of at least one phase
terminated on the tower, to facilitate conductor stringing
and maintenance;
- accepting deviation angles or uplift loads withou infringing
electrical clearances of conductors to tower.
The heaviest tension towers accept termination of all phases
on the tower at a small to medium line angle OR accept the
most extreme deviation angles likely to be required on the
route. They cannot generally carry both simultaneously.
At a tension tower, conductors are cut and dead ended,
terminating on the tower, with the insulation carrying full
conductor tension. A slack jumper makes the electrical
connection between the conductors on either side of the
tower.
The usual function of a suspension tower is to support the
conductor, which is continuous at the structure, and to restrain
its transverse movement under wind loading. As the normal
loads are wind loads and weight loads, suspension towers are
usually designed for much greater transverse strength than
longitudinal (along the direction of the transmission line route).
These towers are therefore vulnerable to forces associated
with longitudinal tilt.
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Modern helical suspension units used to grip the conductors
do not allow conductor slip under longitudinal load. However,
it is feasible to place the conductors into sheaves temporarily
to prevent large longitudinal loads being applied to suspension
towers during a subsidence event.
The effect on conductor tension of the displacement of a
support clamp or tower attachment is also highly dependent
on the proximity and types of adjacent structures.
For two adjacent tension towers with conductors strung at
normal tension, a longitudinal displacement of about 0.8
metres will double the conductor tension of a 350 metre span,
but for a 200 metre span the corresponding displacement is
only 0.3 metres.
Doubling of normal tensions would bring the towers to a
state where they would not be safe to work on to reduce the
tensions.
Where a tension tower is separated from the next tension
tower by several spans in each direction, often only the
overhead earthwires would need to be placed into sheaves
(because of their short suspension linkages) in order to reduce
the conductor control problems to an acceptable level. When
this is not the case, the phase conductors themselves may
need to be placed into sheaves and conductors pre-slackened
to extend the tolerable tilt.
Tower top movements of up to one metre on suspension
towers will normally be manageable utilising such techniques
provided that the towers are also designed for the deformations
involved. In rare cases such tower top movements may be
tolerable even at tension towers.
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FIGURE 7
DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW
TYPICAL DOUBLE CIRCUIT STEEL
LATTICE TOWERS
SHORT SUSPENSION LINKAGE OR RIGID
CLAMP ATTACHMENT OF OVERHEAD
EARTHWIRES
STRAIN
ATTACHMENT
OF
CONDUCTORS
SUSPENSION
ATTACHMENT
OF CONDUCTOR
(A) SUSPENSION TOWER (B) TENSION TOWER
SOIL
ROCK
SOIL
ROCK
SHORT SUSPENSION LINKAGE OR RIGID
CLAMP ATTACHMENT OF OVERHEAD
EARTHWIRES
DESIGN
MEASURES TO
PROVIDE FOR
SUBSIDENCE
C1
LARGE STEEL LATTICE STRUCTURES
(a) Resisting or Avoiding Deformation
In some cases, it may be preferable to use large pole-type
structures or narrow based steel lattice structures with a
single foundation, in lieu of standard steel lattice structures,
to minimise the effects of subsidence.
For conventional steel lattice towers, it is possible to construct
a single foundation in the form of a reinforced concrete cross-
beam to prevent tower deformation by ground movements. The
cost of such reinforced concrete beam foundations is several
times greater than the combined cost of the structure and its
normal foundation.
Studies have shown that if a steel lattice suspension tower
is initially loaded at significantly less than full capacity,
it may survive substantial deformations without further
reinforcement, particularly for certain bracing arrangements
and where the tower leg extensions are longer. Each tower
has to be separately studied to evaluate its response to
deformation and to determine the best measures to cope with
subsidence. Such studies are being carried out by the authority
for cases of undermining of existing towers not designed for
subsidence. In some cases a temporary reduction of the ability
of a tower to resist high winds may be acceptable having
regard to the low probability over a short period of the reduced
ultimate wind capacity being exceeded. This evaluation must
also take into consideration safety and the impact or cost to
the community as a consequence of a tower failure on the
particular transmission line.
(b) Innovative Design
As the above design measures involve high initial costs,
alternative designs or procedures are being investigated by
TransGrid to reduce the cost of providing for subsidence.
These investigations will ultimately cover the development
of innovative structure designs including designs for tension
towers, which might accept much larger deformations without
losing their ability to perform their design functions in the
transmission line.
Design modications to conventional towers (including existing
towers) are under investigation with a view to enabling them
also to accept much larger deformations.
Because of the potential for successful development of such
modications, in the medium term, it is unwise to invest large
sums of money in constructing lines to resist future subsidence
using existing techniques. Much cheaper techniques may be
available before subsidence occurs.
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1. Transmission Tower
- Cruciform footing installed prior to subsidence
- Tower A11, Eraring-Kemps Creek 500 kV
- Cooranbong Colliery
2. Transmission Tower
- Tower dismantled prior to subsidence
- Tower 227, Liddell-Tomago 330 kV, SCN 82
- Cumnock Colliery
3. Transmission Tower
- Conductors placed in sheaves
- Tower 11, Newcastle-Tomago 330 kV, SCN 94/95N
- West Wallsend Colliery
4. Wood Pole Structure
- No preventative work prior to subsidence
- Wood pole structures, 132 kV, T/L 950
- Stockton Borehole Colliery
5. Wood Pole Structure
- Preventative work prior to subsidence
- Wood pole structures, 132 kV, T/L 95A
- Newstan Colliery
6. Electricity Substation
- Preventative work prior to subsidence
- Vales Road Substation
- Wyee Colliery
CASE STUDIES
The attached case studies have been included in the Guidelines
to illustrate the types of transmission lines that have been
undermined and the type and extent of mitigatory works and
monitoring that have been adopted.
The examples have been selected to illustrate the range of
works that have been undertaken to date when underground
mining has produced surface subsidence with the potential to
affect transmission lines.
As a result of the work undertaken, the transmission lines
have remained in service and underlying coal resources have
been recovered.
(c) Interim Measures Against Future Subsidence
The proven method of making steel lattice transmission
towers safe against severe subsidence is to prevent tower
deformation by installing large reinforced concrete cross-beam
foundations. However this is not required to be implemented
until the subsidence is imminent. In order to comply with the
requirements of the Mine Subsidence Board, TransGrid has
agreed to make provision for future installation of such beams
at certain towers by installing longer standard type footing
shafts and forming parts of the shafts so that the beams can
be cased around them at a future time. Such provisions add
5% to 20% to the cost of the structures and foundations,
and have been made on the Eraring to Newcastle 330 kV
transmission line.
It is hoped that it will soon be possible to limit such
provisions to zones of extremely severe future subsidence.
The development of tower modications for which advance
provision is not required, is expected to be possible for the
majority of cases.
C2
WOOD POLE AND SIMILAR TRANSMISSION LINES
The main design measure for transmission lines on pole type
structures is to provide a margin of conductor height sufcient
to make it unlikely that subsidence will cause an infringement
of statutory clearances.
In addition, the structure foundation design must allow for the
ground disturbance associated with subsidence and, where
multi-pole structures are involved, the structure design should
provide for the relative movement of the poles due to changing
ground strains and tilts. It may be necessary to restrict the
application of guys or bracing or to provide special load limited
designs to reduce structure loads to acceptable values.
In the case of tall tension poles, it may be necessary to provide
for counter-measures to excessive tilt so that conductor
tensions can be alleviated in the manner discussed below.
Prior to the subsidence it may be necessary to place overhead
earthwires and conductors into sheaves and to adjust
conductor tensions in anticipation of the predicted pattern of
structure movements.
After the subsidence is substantially completed at a structure,
it may be necessary to straighten the poles, to re-adjust
conductor tensions, and to restore any damaged access
tracks.
C3
CONDUCTOR CONTROL
The problems of conductor control under subsidence conditions
are very different at suspension and tension towers. This is
well illustrated by examining the consequences of tower tilts
which for shallow seams (say less than 100 metres) can exceed
1 in 10. While the massive impacts of ground strain can be
overcome by appropriate tower and/or tower footing designs,
it is not possible to eliminate tower tilt. Extra high voltage
double circuit towers are of the order of 40 to 50 metres in
height and a maximum tilt of 1 in 10 can result in a tower top
movement of up to 5 metres.
On a tension tower, conductor attachment points move with the
tower when it tilts. When the overhead earthwire attachments
at the tower top move by 5 metres, the phase conductor
attachments (at crossarms lower on the tower) would be
displaced by between 2.5 and 4.2 metres (on a typical 330
kV double circuit tension tower). Longitudinal displacements
in excess of about 0.5 metres have a dramatic impact on
conductor tensions and can readily result in overloading of
the towers.
On suspension towers, the conductor clamps or suspension
units are attached to the tower by suspension insulator strings,
which can swing freely in all directions (330 kV towers) or in
the longitudinal direction only (500 kV Vee strings). The
movement of the conductor clamp is less than the movement
of the tower attachment by an amount depending on the
length and resulting inclination of the insulation or earthwire
suspension linkage. The effect of tilt on tower load is therefore
less for a suspension tower than for a tension tower. In
addition, the ability to place the conductors and overhead
earthwires back into sheaves means that conductor control
is more readily manageable for suspension towers than for
tension towers.
C4
SUBSTATIONS
The main design measure with large substation structures
and their associated outdoor switchyards is to ensure ground
disturbance due to subsidence is allowed for and to provide for
the relative movement of the transformers and busbar supports
due to the changing ground strain and tilts.
It will be necessary in most installations to ensure that
expansion joints are tted to busbars and connections to
alleviate excessive tensions and bending moments to bushings
and support insulators.
Prior to subsidence, it may be necessary to t expansion joints
to the:
High voltage and low voltage busbars;
Busbar connection to the high voltage and low voltage
transformer bushings;
Busbar connections to the circuit breakers;
Cable sealing end connections to the busbar.
After the subsidence is substantially completed at the
substation, it may be necessary to re-tension the
landing spans and to straighten any pole structures
within or adjoining the substation.
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4.
Wood Pole Structure - No Work
Transmission Line Affected: 132 kV, T/L 950 Wood Pole Structures
Type of Mining: Longwall (Stockton Borehole Colliery)
Seam Depth: 300 metres
Structure Affected: 7 wood pole structures
Subsidence Predictions: Subsidence 550 mm
Tensile Strain 1 mm/m
Compressive Strain 1 mm/m
Tilt 10 mm/m
Action Taken: Survey monitoring during subsidence
Visual inspection
Subsidence Results: Subsidence 750 mm
Tensile Strain 2 mm/m
Compressive Strain 2 mm/m
Tilt 5 mm/m
Cost: Estimated cost - $5,000
Remarks: Conductors not placed in sheaves.
No clearance adjustment necessary.
5.
Wood Pole Structure - Preventative Work Carried Out
Transmission Line Affected: 132 kV, T/L 95A Wood Pole Structures
Type of Mining: Longwall and Pillar Extraction (Newstan Colliery)
Seam Depth: 50 to 100 metres
Structure Affected: 10 wood pole structures
Subsidence Predictions: Subsidence )
Tensile Strain ) No predictions
Compressive Strain ) available
Tilt )
Action Taken: Conductors and earthwires placed in sheaves
Some poles guyed
Earthing structures installed under lower spans
Set line to non-auto reclose
Survey monitoring during subsidence period
Subsidence Results: Subsidence 2400 mm
Tensile Strain 15 mm/m
Compressive Strain 15 mm/m
Tilt 83 mm/m
Cost: Cost incurred by MSB - $37,750
Remarks: Following completion of subsidence, some poles were reset plumb and conductors were re-clipped
in place.
6.
Electricity Substation with Preventative Work Carried Out
Transmission Line Affected: Vales Point 33/11 kV Substation Vales Road Mannering Park
Type of Mining: Longwall (Wyee Colliery)
Seam Depth: 170 metres
Structure Affected: 33/11 kV substation
Subsidence Predictions: Subsidence 1700 mm
Tensile Strain 3 mm/m
Compressive Strain 4 mm/m
Tilt 13 mm/m
Action Taken: Installation of exible connections between switchyard equipment
Survey monitoring and visual inspections during the subsidence period
Subsidence Results: Subsidence 1540 mm
Tensile Strain 5 mm/m
Compressive Strain 4 mm/m
Tilt Not available
Cost: Cost incurred by MSB - $41,914
Remarks: Work carried out by supply authority
1.
Transmission Tower with Cruciform Footing Installed Prior to Subsidence
Transmission Line Affected: Eraring to Kemps Creek 500 kV Double Circuit Steel Towers
Type of Mining: Longwall (Cooranbong Colliery)
Seam Depth: 66 metres
Structure Affected: Tower A11 - steel suspension tower
Subsidence Predictions: Subsidence 1500 mm
Tensile Strain 15 mm/m
Compressive Strain 15 mm/m
Tilt 16 mm/m
Action Taken: Design and construct a reinforced concrete cruciform footing to the base of existing tower
Earthwires were placed in roller sheaves prior to subsidence occurring
Subsidence, strain and tilt surveys undertaken before, during, and after the subsidence phase
Subsidence Results: Subsidence 1875 mm
Tensile Strain 9 mm/m
Compressive Strain 12 mm/m
Tilt 37 mm/m
Cost: Cost incurred by MSB - $126,857
Remarks: Structure has no signicant permanent tilt and requires no remedial work.
2.
Transmission Tower Dismantled Prior to Subsidence
Transmission Line Affected: Liddell to Tomago 330 kV SCN 82 Single Circuit Steel Towers
Type of Mining: Longwall (Cumnock No 1 Colliery)
Seam Depth: 48 metres
Structure Affected: Tower 227 - steel suspension tower
Subsidence Predictions: Subsidence 2000 mm
Tensile Strain 30 mm/m
Compressive Strain 20 mm/m
Tilt 75 mm/m
Action Taken: Steel tower dismantled
Two temporary wood pole structures erected to carry the conductors
Survey monitoring and visual inspections during the course of subsidence
Subsidence Results: Subsidence 2056 mm
Tensile Strain 31 mm/m
Compressive Strain 16 mm/m
Tilt 44 mm/m
Cost: Cost incurred by MSB to date - $180,713 Estimated total cost - $246,000
Remarks: Following subsidence, new footings will be installed for the steel tower following the movement of
the original footings due to subsidence. The steel tower will then be re-erected and the wood pole
structures dismantled.
3.
Transmission Tower with Conductors Placed in Sheaves
Transmission Line Affected: Newcastle to Tomago, 330 kV, SCN 94/95N Single Circuit Steel Towers
Type of Mining: Longwall (West Wallsend Colliery)
Seam Depth: 200 metres
Structure Affected: Tower 11 - steel suspension tower
Subsidence Predictions: Subsidence 570 mm
Tensile Strain )
Compressive Strain ) Not available
Tilt 5 mm/m
Action Taken: Conductors and earthwires placed in sheaves prior to subsidence occurring
Survey monitoring and visual inspections during the subsidence phase
Subsidence Results: Subsidence 615 mm
Tensile Strain <1 mm/m
Compressive Strain 1.2 mm/m
Tilt 8 mm/m
Note: Strain values are from nearby longwall subsidence monitoring line
Cost: Cost incurred by MSB - $20,861
Remarks: Sheaves were removed following completion of subsidence.
INITIAL CONTACTS FOR ENQUIRIES
RELATING TO MATTERS COVERED BY THE GUIDELINES
Mine Subsidence Board
Chief Executive Ofcer
District Supervisor - District Ofces at Newcastle, Wyong, Speers Point, Picton and Singleton
Department of Mineral Resources
Coal Mining Inspectorate and Engineering Services - Ofces at St Leonards, Cardiff,
Wollongong, Lithgow and Singleton
Colliery
Superintendent/Manager of Colliery involved
TransGrid
Area ofces at Newcastle, Wallgrove (Sydney), Orange, Wagga Wagga, Yass and Tamworth
Supply Authorities
Regional Planning Engineer for area of concern