Analysis of Bolt Torquing

by Clement Rajendra, PE
Progress Energy, Southport, NC 28461


Introduction:

During maintenance activities in a power plant environment, the plant engineer is often called upon to
make decisions concerning bolts in bolted connections in a variety of situations. Most of these bolts are
torqued to achieve a pre-load rather than being tensioned with a tensioner. Examples include:
increasing bolt torque beyond vendor manual recommended values to stop leaks, vendor
recommendations for torquing are not available, bolt holes need to be enlarged to install replacement
components, bolts may require trimming to accommodate replacement component, lack of thread
engagement, etc. The ability to perform a component level analysis on a bolt will provide the plant
engineer an engineering tool to make the correct technical decision.

Calculate Tension in bolt when subject to a known torque
Calculate max stress in bolt when subject to a pre-load and determine its acceptability
Calculate factor of safety against stripping failure for a known thread engagement
Determine whether a torque retention device is required
Calculate nut rotation for a given bolt torque

Definitions:

The major diameter is the largest diameter of a screw thread. It is also the nominal size of the bolt.
The minor diameter is the smallest diameter of a screw thread. (Also referred to as the root diameter.)
The lead is the distance the nut moves parallel to the screw axis when the nut is given one turn. For a
single start thread used in bolts, screws, nuts, etc., the lead is the same as the pitch and is the inverse
of number of threads per inch.
The pitch diameter is the diameter of an imaginary coaxial cylinder cutting the threads at a height where
the width of the thread and groove are equal. The average of major and minor diameters is
approximately equal to the pitch diameter.
The stress area is the effective cross-sectional area of the bolt that resists bolt fracture.
The thread angle is the included angle between the flanks of a screw thread.
S
m
is the design stress intensity for the bolt material per the ASME B & PV Code.



The following table gives bolt geometry and thread engagement data for UNC bolts from 1/4" diameter
to 1 1/4" diameter. First row gives the major diameter, second row gives the minor diameter, third row
gives the number of threads per inch, and the fourth row gives the distance between nut flats for hex
nuts (1/4" to 5/8" sizes), and heavy hex nuts (3/4" to 1 1/4" sizes). The last two rows give the thread
stripping areas per inch for external and internal threads respectively. This information is obtained from
References 1 & 2.
bolt
1
4
0.189
20
7
16
0.368
0.539
3
8
0.298
16
9
16
0.576
0.828
1
2
0.406
13
3
4
0.779
1.12
5
8
0.514
11
15
16
0.998
1.42
3
4
0.627
10
5
4
1.21
1.72
7
8
0.739
9
23
16
1.43
2.03
1
0.847
8
13
8
1.66
2.33
1.125
0.950
7
29
16
1.88
2.65
1.25
1.075
7
2
2.11
2.94
1.5
1.296
6
19
8
2.58
3.57

:=

Set the parameter, i, according to the size of the bolt.

i 3 :=

for 1/2" bolt with hex nut as the turning element


Note: The following calculations are based on 1/2" dia. bolt

Determine Torque vs. Tension Relationship

major_diameter bolt
1 i ,
in :=
psi
lb
in in

ksi psi 1000


minor_diameter bolt
2 i ,
in :=
d
m
is the effective contact diameter for the threads and is the average of major and minor diameters; It
is also approximately equal to the pitch diameter.
TPI is threads per inch.
l is lead.
d
c
is the effective contact diameter between the nut and joint surface and is the average of major
diameter and the distance between parallel nut flats for a hex nut.

maj or_diameter 0.5in =


d
m
maj or_diameter minor_diameter +
2
:=
TPI
bolt
3 i ,
in
:=

Nut_OD bolt
4 i ,
in :=

this is the distance between nut flats for hex nuts
l
1
TPI
:=

d
c
maj or_diameter Nut_OD +
2
:=
30 deg :=

2 is the angle of the thread and is 60 degrees for UNC thread

0.15 :=

is the coefficient of friction assuming non-lubricated steel bolt and is assumed to
be the same for friction between threads and between nut and joint surface. A more
realistic coefficient of friction for fasteners that has been in service may by 0.35-
0.40 rather than 0.15.

Given an applied torque, T, the preload force F in the bolt is given by

T=F x Factor where:

Factor
d
m
2
l d
m
sec
( )
+
d
m
l sec
( )

d
c

2
+ :=

See Reference 3; "long formula"
This expression can be mathematically simplified as
l
2
d
m

2 cos
( )

+
d
c

2
+ such that

the first term represents the amount of torque to stretch the bolt and compress the joint
the second term represents the amount of torque required to overcome the friction between
the nut and bolt threads
the third term represents the amount of torque required to overcome the friction on the face
of nut when multiplied by the preload F.

From this expression, it can be seen that bolt and thread geometry and the coefficient of friction
significantly influence the relationship between torque and preload. If the above expressions are
evaluated it will be seen that only about 10% of the applied torque works to achieve the preload and the
remainder works to overcome friction.

Further, it should be noted that only the torques represented by the first two terms will create a twist in
the body of the bolt. Evaluating the above expression,

Factor 0.099in =

Suppose we apply a torque of 20 ft.lb.(240 in.lbs)

T 240 in lb :=
F
T
Factor
:=
F 2428.287lb =


There is a simple empirical formula ("short formula") that is widely used in the industry to calculate the
relationship between Torque and Tension. It is given by:

Factor Nut_factor maj or_diameter := where Nut_factor 0.20 :=

for unlubricated NEW steel
fasteners

Factor 0.1in =

Nut factors are determined empirically. For values of Nut factor for various
lubricated fasteners. See Reference 4.
F
T
Factor
:=


F 2400lb =


This short formula gives results which compares well with the results of the long formula. However, it is
important for the Nut factor to be selected carefully, since it significantly affects the results.






Calculate maximum stress on the bolt during the torquing process:


We can either use the results of the long or short formula for the value of F for this analysis.

F 2400lb :=


Tensile stress will be calculated using the stress area (d
s
is the diameter based on stress area):
A
s
0.7854 maj or_diameter
0.9743
TPI

2
:=
Tensile_stress
F
A
s
:=

A
s
0.142in
2
=

d
s
4 A
s

:=


Tensile_stress 16.913ksi =


Allowable Tensile Stress:

There is no clear guidance for the maximum allowable average tensile stress for preload. For ASME
components, ASME III NB-3230 could be used. Provided differential thermal expansion does not create
additional stresses, the maximum allowable average tensile stress could be considered as 2 x S
m
since
internal pressure would not increase the bolt loading. For ASTM A193 B7 at a service temperature of
200 deg. it would be 2 x 32.6 ksi and about 60% of yield.

Structural bolts such as ASTM A325 bolts are pre-loaded to 70% of ultimate tensile strength or about
90% of yield strength for slip critical connections and would yield during the torquing process. Hence,
they should not be re-used since cumulative deformations would lead to bolt rupture.

Thread_torque T
d
c
F
2
:=

Note: The full applied torque is not experienced by the cross-section of the bolt since some of this
torque goes to overcome friction under the nut head.

Shear_stress
16 Thread_torque
d
s
3

:=
The shear stress is the thread torque divided by the polar section modulus. Thus,


Shear_stress 8.456ksi =

The shear stress is the highest at the periphery of the bolt cross-section which is also subject to an axial
tensile stress. For ASME components, the rules of NB-3232.2 could be used to determine the maximum
allowable stress. This requires calculating the stress intensity which is defined as twice the maximum
shear stress or the difference between the principal stresses.

Thus,
Stress_intensity Tensile_stress ( )
2
4 Shear_stress ( )
2
+ :=

Stress_intensity 23.918ksi =

For an ASTM A93, Gr. B7 bolt, the allowable stress intensity would be 3 S
m
, i.e. 3 x 35 ksi =105 ksi and
has not been exceeded.

However, Code Interpretation III-1-91-15 states that Section NB-3232 does not apply to this situation.
Thus, we could instead use Von Mises stress for combining tensile stress with shear and check against
yield for ASME or non-ASME components

Von Mises stress is given by combining tensile stress with shear stress as follows:
Von_stress Tensile_stress ( )
2
3 Shear_stress ( )
2
+ :=

See Reference 6.

Von_stress 22.373ksi =

If this is an ASTM A193, Gr. B7 bolt, it would not have reached the plastic range since the von Mises
stress is much less than the yield strength of the bolt (105 ksi).

The determination of the required pre-load is outside the scope of this paper since it is dependent on
the function of the joint, for eg. gasket seating, joint sealing, etc. A minimum residual pre-load stress of
20% of yield strength of the bolt is recommended by Ref. 8 for torque retention. Otherwise, torque
retention devices such as lock nuts, jam nuts, lock washers, staking of threads, locking adhesives, etc
would be required.


Thread Engagement Issue

When a bolt is fully engaged into a nut or when a screw has a depth of engagement at least equal to the
diameter of the screw, the thread engagement is adequate. Special situations arise when the bolt is not
fully engaged into the nut or when the screw is engaged into a much weaker material. Sufficient design
margin against failure by thread stripping should be provided.

Calculate Factor of Safety Against Thread Stripping with A36 body

Method I:

Thread_engagement 0.40in :=
Ultimate_tensile_strength 58 ksi :=

(Use the material property for the weaker material)
Ultimate_shear_strength 0.6 Ultimate_tensile_strength := for Carbon Steel;
for Stainless Steel use 0.55

Thread_stripping_area
d
m
Thread_engagement
3
:=

Using methodology in Reference 7.

Shear_Capacity Ultimate_shear_strength Thread_stripping_area :=

Factor_of_safety
Shear_Capacity
F
:=
Factor_of_safety 2.751 =

Method II

Thread_stripping_area bolt
5 i ,
Thread_engagement in :=
Note: External threads with
methodology in Reference 1 used.

Shear_Capacity Ultimate_shear_strength Thread_stripping_area :=
Factor_of_safety
Shear_Capacity
F
:=
Factor_of_safety 4.518 =

Calculation of Nut Rotation

Although it is theoretically possible to calculate the nut rotation as a function of the preload, it does not
correlate well with observations for preloads less than yield. If tightening to preloads beyond yield
strength is permissible, this is a cost effective and reliable method and is widely used for structural
connections when installing A325 or A490 bolts.

However, an approximate amount of nut rotation can be calculated based on Tables 3 and 4 of
Reference 9.

The bolt in this example has a preload of 2400 lbs. According to Table 4, the nut rotation for 1/2" A325
bolt would be 1/3 turn or 120 degrees for a bolt less than 4 diameters in length.
The required preload per Table 3 is 12000 lbs. Therefore, the rotation for 2400 lbs would be:

Nut_rotation
F
12000lb
120 deg :=


Nut_rotation 24deg =

i.e. Approx. 1/6 th turn

Acknowledgements:

The author wishes to thank Dr. Yinyao J iang, Dr. Peter Turula, and Bill Eccles for helping the author
understand some technical points presented in this paper.

References:

1. Fastener Standards, 6th Edition, Industrial Fasteners Institute, 1988
2. AISC Manual of Steel Construction, 8th Edition, 1980
3. Mechanical Engineering Design, J .E. Slingley & L.D. Mitchell, McGraw-Hill
4. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted J oints, by J ohn H. Bickford
5. ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, Section III, 1995 Edition
6. Development of Design Charts for Bolts Preloaded up to the Plastic Range, N. Motosh, J ournal of
Engineering for Industry, ASME Aug. 76
7. Fastener Design Manual, Richard T. Barrett, NASA Reference Publication 1228, 1990
8. Bolted J oint Maintenance and Applications Guide, TR-104213, EPRI, December 1995
9. Specification for Structural J oints Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts, AISC, 1978