Topics to be Covered

Elements of Step-Growth Polymerization

Branching Network Formation
Chapters 1 & 2 in CD (Polymer Science and Engineering)
Dawn of Understanding
"I am inclined to think that the
development of polymerization
is perhaps the biggest thing that
chemistry has done, where it has
had the biggest effect on
everyday life
Lord Todd,1980
Ethylene Polyethylene
CH
2
=CH
2
[-CH
2
-CH
2
-]
n
Magic ?
Staudinger
My dear chap, give up your ideas on
big molecules. There are no organic
molecules with a molecular weight of
more than 5000. Just clean up your
products and they will crystallize and
reveal themselves as low-molecular-
weight compounds.

CH
2
CH CH
2
CH CH
2
CH CH
2
CH CH
2
CH CH
2
CH CH
2
CH
CH
CH
2
CH
2
CH C
CH
2
CH
2
C
CH
3
CH
3
A cyclic isoprene dimer
Timeline
1920 STAUDINGER;
The macromolecular hypothesis.
1926 CHARLES STINE;
Initiates a program of fundamental
research at du Pont.
LATE 1920's CAROTHERS;
Set out to prove the existence of
macromolecules by systematically
building them from small molecules
using well known chemistry.
Condensation Reactions
Acetic Acid Ethyl Alcohol
or Ethanol
Reversible
Reaction!
Ethyl Acetate
If you dont
know what this
is you should
be castigated
unmercifully
Ester linkage
CH
3
- C - OH + CH
3
- CH
2
- OH CH
3
- C - O - CH
2
- CH
3
+ H
2
O
O O
Why do Molecules React ?
CH
3
- C - OH
O
HO - CH
2
- CH
3
Acetic Acid
kersplat!
Ethyl Alcohol
or Ethanol
Why do Molecules React ?
H:O - CH
2
- CH
3
CH
3
- C:OH
O
HO
.
+
.
H HO:H ~ H
2
O
CH
3
- C
.
+
.
O - CH
2
- CH
3
CH
3
- C:O - CH
2
- CH
3
OO O
This isnt what really happens, but shows you
how the valency electrons get rearranged
Making a Polymer
Acetic Acid Ethyl Alcohol
or Ethanol
Reversible
Reaction!
Ethyl Acetate
Ester linkage
CH
3
- C - OH + CH
3
- CH
2
- OH CH
3
- C - O - CH
2
- CH
3
+ H
2
O
O O
If we heat acetic acid and ethanol up to just over 100
0
C,
to get the reaction going and drive off water, why dont
we form polymer?
Making a Polymer
The molecules are monofunctional;
To make linear chains we need bifunctional molecules;
Except the reaction doesnt happen all in one go, like
this, but in a step- growth fashion.
+
O O
HO - C - (CH
2
)
n
- C - O - (CH
2
)
m
- OH + H
2
O
O O
Making a Polyester
HO - C - (CH
2
)
n
- C - OH + HO - (CH
2
)
m
- OH
Dimer
Monomers
Making a Polyester
HO - C - (CH
2
)
n
- C - OH
O O
HO - C - (CH
2
)
n
- C - O - (CH
2
)
m
- OH +
O O
HO - C - (CH
2
)
n
- C - O - (CH
2
)
m
- O - C - (CH
2
)
n
- C - OH
O O O O
- H
2
O
Trimer
M
1
+ M
1
M
2
M
2
+ M
1
M
3
M
2
+ M
2
M
4
M
3
+ M
1
M
4
M
4
+ M
1
M
5
M
3
+ M
2
M
5
M
5
+ M
1
M
6
Etc.
Note, reacting a diacid and
a dialcohol will give you a
polyester!
The Invention of Nylon
1927 - Stine offers Carothers
a job.
1929 - Carothers and his
group succeed in
making low molecular
weight aliphatic
polyesters
The molecular still and the
shift to polyamides
Nylons
H
2
N - (CH
2
)
6
- NH
2
+ HO - C - (CH
2
)
4
- C - OH
O
H
2
N - (CH
2
)
6
- N - C - (CH
2
)
4
- C - OH + H
2
O
O O
O
Adipic Acid Hexamethylene Diamine
Amide Group
H
Nylon 6,6
- N - (CH
2
)
6
- N - C - (CH
2
)
4
- C -
O O
n
6 6
HH
Julian Hill
reenacting the
discovery of
Nylon
Ad. from N.Y.
Herald Tribune,
Oct. 30 1938
1938
I am making the
announcement of a brand
new chemical textile fiber -
--derivable from coal, air
and water -- and
characterized by extreme
toughness and strength --
Charles Stine V.P. for
research, Du Pont, 1938
Demonstration of knitting nylon stockings at the N.Y.
Worlds Fair, 1939
Stockings!
Marie Wilsons Leg, 2 ton 35 ft
cast, N.Y. Worlds Fair1939
DuPont did a masterly job in two areas;
Advertising
Technical Service
Golden Gate Exposition, 1939
As skirts got shorter after the end of
WWI, shocking expanses of leg were
being revealed and the appearance and
"feel" of stockings became a pressing
fashion concern. And, there was money
to be made! At that time nothing could
compare with silk for sheerness. Wool
was thick and scratchy; cotton was,
well, cotton, not very exciting; rayon
also was not sheer enough and tended to
droop and bag at the ankles. But, silk
was expensive and not very durable
(silk stockings would "run" at the
slightest provocation). Nevertheless,
about 1.6 million pairs of silk stockings
were being a day in the U.S. alone!
Why Stockings?
Wilmington gets the
first nylon stockings,
1939
May 15 1940 - Nylon Day .
Four Million pairs go on sale
throughout the U.S. Supply
exhausted in 4 days.
Nylon Parachute
WWII
Betty Grable auctions
her stockings for the
war effort.
Post WWII stocking
sale, NYC.
She couldnt wait!
Post WWII stocking sale, San Francisco.
Sold Out!
A Tragic End
Carothers in happier times.
Polymer Synthesis - Classification
Carothers suggested that most
polymers could be classified into two
broad categories according to the
mechanism of polymerization;
Condensation
Addition
As you will see, a better classification
may be;
Step-growth
Chain
Types of Reactions
Condensation
Addition
Ring opening
CH
2
= CH
2
N
C
O
H
H
2
N - (CH
2
)
6
- NH
2
+ HO - C - (CH
2
)
4
- C - OH
O O
Nylon 6,6
Polyethylene
Nylon 6
Nylon 6,6
- N - (CH
2
)
6
- N - C - (CH
2
)
4
- C -
O O
n
6 6
HH
Nylon 6,10
- N - (CH
2
)
6
- N - C - (CH
2
)
10
- C -
O O
n
What would nylon 6,10 look like?
A
- N - (CH
2
)
10
- N - C - (CH
2
)
6
- C -
O O
n
- N - (CH
2
)
6
- N - C - (CH
2
)
8
- C -
O O
n
B
C
HH
HH
HH
More on Nylons
Applications
Carpet Fibers
Clothes
Gear wheels
Etc.
Back to Condensation
O
H
2
N - (CH
2
)
6
- N - C - (CH
2
)
4
- C - OH + HCl
O O
O
Adipoyl Chloride Hexamethylene Diamine
Amide Group
Is a molecule of water always split out?
H
2
N - (CH
2
)
6
- NH
2
+ Cl - C - (CH
2
)
4
- C - Cl
H
Hexamethylene diamine
in water
Adipoyl chloride
in chloroform
Nylon 6,6 formed
at the interface
Nylon "skin"
carefully drawn off
to form fiber or rope
The Nylon Rope Trick
The Nylon
Rope Trick
Polyurethanes
A reaction that does not involve the splitting out of a
small molecule;
O = C = N - (CH
2
)
6
- N = C = O + HO - (CH
2
)
2
- OH
O = C = N - (CH
2
)
6
- N - C - O - (CH
2
)
2
- OH
O
Hexamethylene Diisocyanate Ethylene Glycol
Urethane Linkage
H
Network Formation
How would you make chains that branch and then perhaps
interconnect to form networks?
A. Use a mixture of bifunctional and monofunctional
units
B. Get a tube of Molecular Super Glue and stick a bunch
of chains together
C. Use multifunctional (f>2) monomers
Network Formation
OH
CH
2
OH
OH
CH
2
OH
CH
2
CH
2
OH
CH
2
OH
OH
OH
CH
2
CH
2
OH
+ CH
2
O
*
*
*
*
The hydrogens in the ortho and para positions to
the OH group, which by convention are not
usually shown but here are indicated by a ,can
react with fomaldehyde to form (initially)
oligomers.
OH
H
H
H
H H
OH
H
H
H
H H
H
H
O
H H
O
OH
H
H
H
H H
Another Condensation Reaction
OH
CH
2
O
H
2
C
CH
2
HO
OH
CH
2
CH
2
OH
CH
2
HO
CH
2
OH
CH
2
CH
2
O
OH
CH
2
CH
2
OH
O
CH
2
HO
CH
2
CH
2
OH
CH
2
CH
2
OH
HO
CH
2
HO
CH
2 CH
2
H
2
C
HO
Network Formation
Step-Growth Polymerization ;
Summary
x
n
=
1
(1 p)
Conversion and Molecular Weight
in Step-Growth Polymerizations
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0
0
100
200
Conversion, p
1
( 1 - p)
Note; you only get high
molecular weight polymer
at high degrees of
conversion.
Some Important Step Growth
Polymers
Nylons
Polyesters
Polyurethanes
Polycarbonate
Epoxies
Phenolics