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MODERNITY & SOCIAL CHANGES IN
EUROPE & EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY


Sociology is a scientific attempt to study society. The origin of sociology
dates back to early 19
th
& late 18
th
century. Reasons can be understood by looking into
conditions in which sociology emerged. It emerged in Western & Central Europe.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR RISE OF SOCIOLOGY

1. Europe was undergoing a process of transformation, i.e. modernization. These
changes created a situation of hope & despair- hope of a new era of progress but
creating despair & disharmony. Sociology emerged as an attempt to understand
these changes.
2. With the growth of science such beliefs like god created world were collapsed. The
new world was being created by human enterprise. To make sense of this newly
emerging world, sociology emerged as a discipline.
3. Problems of emerging capitalist society created the need for the rise of this discipline.
4. Intellectual developments alongside the socio-economic changes provided the means
for the development of sociology. Confluence of social & intellectual conditions
produced sociology.

Changes that were taking place

1. Traditional society of medieval Europe was referred to as dark ages. It was a feudal
society. It emerged around 7th-8th century A.D, after collapse of Roman Empire.
Various warriors conquered territories & they were parceled to their follower in view
of loyalty & in return of land they rendered service. They worked on lords estate &
rendered military service when called upon. It was a subsistence agrarian economy.
Primary objective was to satisfy needs of those dependent on it.
2. Politically, It was decentralized system. Feudal lord enjoyed all powers in estate i.e.
was autonomous & the biggest feudal lord was king who addressed to residuary
matters.
3. Socially, It was a rigidly stratified society in form of estates. Each estate was
governed by its own laws. The produce was very little for trade. Neither was there
enough trade nor were the conditions fertile for trade.

By the start of 14
th
century, this system was on decline because of

1. International Contradictions: Decentralization resulted in feuds among feudal
lords e.g. England witnessed 100 years war. These feuds were detrimental to trade
as the Victorious army plundered merchants.
In order to win these feuds they started having permanent soldiers to have an
efficient army and so, they had to be paid in cash. Earlier it wasnt so. With cash,
bought things from market & market economy started declining.
2. Black Death: Plague broke out & half of the population died. Feudal lords had to
entice people from outside to work on their land by offering cash.
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3. Trade route to east discovered by Marco Polo: Knowledge of new technology
from China had reached England mariners compass, gunpowder, knowledge of
printing & paper. And this facilitated ship building activity & weaving, leading to
discovery of America. Gold & silver was discovered in Latin America. European
markets were flooded with goods. It led to centralisation of authority & establishment
of absolute monarchy. It was encouraged by merchant class so that effective law &
order could be established. Growing trade led to increased interaction in new
languages. These communities governed by single ruler gave rise to sovereign north
states. These wealthy merchants looked to reinvest surplus profits & they did so in
land, & they used it for sheep rearing & scientific farming. They would take away
common lands of the village Enclosure movement in Europe. It led to capitalist
agrarian economy.

Capitalism is system of production which is essentially geared towards
creation of profit. There was expansion of banking companies to provide credit facilities
to merchants, making it easy for them to run business. It uprooted large number of
small farmers. Tradition of village community had its own equilibrium of artisan &
peasants. When peasants got uprooted, artisans also left. Some migrated to nearby
cities and others to Americas to have stable life in new land. Growth of trade led to
transformation of rural economy.
These migrant poor peasants & artisans became cheap labour as they
were at mercy of their employers. Merchants started looking for new means for investing
wealth. They would buy lot of raw material & give it to the workers to work upon
Putting Out System (Early form of factory system).
With emergence of steam engine textile factories were set up Factory
System developed. They were made to work for long hours with low wages. This forced
women & children to work in extremely unhygienic conditions which led to diseases like
tuberculosis.
As trade & commerce expanded, new kind of business organisations like
regulated companies, joint stock companies and chartered companies, came up.
Though it created unprecedented wealth & prosperity for land
owner & merchants it also created unprecedented poverty for the majority. So,
social differences increased. There was no community support in cities. There was
increase in crime & violence. There were class wars & uprisings. So 19
th
century is called
Century of Revolutions. Benefits accrued to only a small section of population.
As the capitalist system developed, the locus of economic power
shifted from land & landholder, who also enjoyed political power-to the bourgeoisie
(wealthy merchants).
They also wanted political power to further promote their interest. Earlier
they supported rise of absolute monarchy and now, they wanted to change it from the
notion of subject to citizens who have inalienable rights which cannot be taken away by
the kings. They started questioning the authority of king. Divine right theory came to be
challenged.
There was a confrontation between the rising bourgeoisie & the
monarchy. Monarchy was supported by church as church legitimized the ancient
regime. Various philosophers vocalized the idea of bourgeoisie. French revolution
triggered the process of destruction of monarchy in Europe as the rise of Napoleon
resulted in defeat of divinely ordained kings. Prestige of monarchy in England came
down. In England, democracy emerged gradually but it was not so all over Europe. Like
Napoleon himself declared himself as emperor and a new dynasty was established once
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again. The same was overthrown and again a new dynasty was established by his
nephew & again it was overthrown. So there were continuous political upheavals.
Simultaneously, there was a massive growth of urban centers. The new
problems which emerged could not be resolved by customary methods. So
people were looking for methods to resolve them as this raised confidence in Human
problems can be solved by human endeavour. So, social conditions in wake of
rising industrial society created a need for new knowledge for the emergence of better
society.
New thinking emerged which led to reformation and it led to
enlightenment. It can be traced back to renaissance meaning rebirth i.e. revival of
ideas of ancient Greece. It reached Italy & then other parts of Western Europe. These
ideas were appealing to rising merchant class unlike catholic belief that man is born
because of sin. New thinking said man is the finest creation of god. Christian belief said
truth is acquired by gifted individuals prophets. Renaissance said truth is acquired
through experience. God is not the creator of world but god is experienced in laws of
nature. To glorify god, discover laws of nature. Experience developed into
experimentation. Change in Christian belief as a protest against Roman Catholic Church.
Protestants wanted no priest between man & God. Man has been given a life for purpose
i.e. to demonstrate glory of God by unraveling the mysteries of nature. Knowledge
acquired by reasoning was to be used for human welfare. This technology was used for
Industrial production. Faith developed in efficacy of science to help in solving human
problems.
In late 17, 18, 19
th
century, thinkers were reflecting on these changes.
They held certain ideas in common & are called as enlightenment philosophers. Their
ideas are referred to as philosophy of history i.e. to inquire into the true nature of
changes that were taking place.

BELIEFS THAT WERE ADOPTED BY THESE ENLIGHTENED PHILOSOPHERS

1. Man is progressing & this is taking human society towards perfection. Initial Christian
belief was society will remain as it is.
2. They raised question whether changes occurred in random spurts or followed a
regular pattern. They responded by presuming that changes take place in an orderly
fashion. Laws governing them can be discovered. (Law represents a recurrent
pattern in reality i.e. changes follow a regular fashion, so laws governing change can
be discovered.)
3. They redefined notion of society as before political society of state was co-terminus
with society as a whole. New concept of civil society emerged. (Earlier history
was concerned only with kings & courtiers, later art, architecture, religion also
became part of history writing). Society came to be considered larger than State & it
was considered that parts of society are inter-related.
4. Laws were discovered to gain better control over physical world. In the same way, if
we apply reason & research, then, we can discover laws about society as well i.e. if
scientific method is used to discover society, we can develop laws, and rules which
can be used for creating perfect human society.
5. There emerged a consensus that human society is also amenable to observation &
laws governing it can be discovered. Some of the enlightenment thinkers said that
not only rational but perfect human society can be developed, as said by Marx,
through revolution.
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6. There was also an opposing current of thought: conservative reaction
particularly by Roman Catholic Church.

Louis de Bonald and Joseph De Maistre- French conservative thinkers
condemned the changes Edmund Burke: Moderate conservative in England.

French society witnessed greatest convulsions in the course of this
century. Political instability & economic disparities were highest. Almost every family lost
one able bodied person in civil war or Napoleon wars. So thinkers prayed for stability &
order. French thinkers described these changes as society in decay. They created
awareness for need of stability & harmony. The conservative reaction provided
goals for sociology Peace, harmony & order.
Later day thinkers strived for order in industrial society in order to do so,
they adopted enlightenment ideas. It is possible to discover the laws governing society
through scientific method and make use of these laws to create harmonious society.
So, means for creation of society were enlightenment & growth in
natural sciences. Enlightenment glorified science: science is panacea to all human
problems. August Comte said To know is to predict, to predict is to control. It
reflects the above logic. So, social & Intellectual conditions together gave birth to
sociology.
Circumstances of origin shaped its characteristics. Sociology, particularly
in France, in the beginning was considered similar to physics and biology. August Comte
called it social physics.

INFLUENCES AFFECTING EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

1. A scientific Approach to the study of society dates back to the tradition of the
Enlightenment.
2. They upheld reason as a measure to judge social institutions and their suitability for
human nature.
3. Human beings are capable of attaining perfection.
Apart from these, other intellectual influences owing in the post-Enlightenment
period influenced the emergence of sociology in Europe. They can be identified as:
1) The philosophy of history.
2) the biological theories of evolution; and
3) The Surveys of social conditions.

The basic assumption of this philosophy was that society must have
progressed through a series of steps from a simple of complex stage. The contributions
of the philosophy of history to sociology as having been:

On the philosophical side: the notions of development and progress.
On the scientific side: it has given the concepts of historical periods and social types.
The social thinkers, who developed the philosophy of history such as, Abbe
Saint Pierre and Giambattista, were concerned with the whole of society and not merely
the political, or the economic, or the cultural aspects.
Sociology moved towards an evolutionary approach, seeking to identify
and account for the principal stages in social evolution.
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1. The growing conviction that the methods of the natural sciences should and could be
extended to the study of human affair; that human phenomenon could be classified
and measured.
2. The concern with poverty, following the recognition that poverty was not natural but
social. The basic assumption which underlines this method is that, through the
knowledge of the social conditions one can arrive at solutions to solve the social
problems found in society.
3. The background to the new approach was the series of sweeping changes associated
with the Enlightenment, the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution.
4. The shattering of traditional ways of life prompted them to develop a new
understanding of both the social and the natural worlds, just as natural scientists
sought to explain the mysteries of life and nature.

To begin with the very beginning we shall start with August Comte
(1798-1857) commonly regarded as the founder of Sociology. It was he who coined
the name sociology. Comte was born in 1798 during the ferment of the French
revolution, that vast complex of events, which heralded the birth of the modern world.

AUGUST COMTE (1798-1857)

A French sociologist was born at Montpellier France to Catholic royalist
parents. In 1814 he was admitted to one of the most prestigious educational institutions
of France at that time, called the Ecole Polytechnique. Here most of the professors were
scholars in mathematics and physics.
At the Ecole Polytechnique, he came under the influence of such
traditionalist social philosophers as L. G Bonald and Joseph de Maistre. It was from
them that he borrowed the notion of an order governing the evolution of human society.
From Condorcet, another major Philosopher of France, who was beheaded later, he got
the idea that this evolution occurs along with progress in human societies. In 1824, he
became a secretary to Saint-Simon an aristocrat by birth but an utopian socialist in
ideas. Comtes major ambition was the political reorganization of human society.
According to him such reorganization will have to depend upon the
spiritual and moral unification of society.
In the book Cours de philosophie positive he wrote the law of three
stages and developed his conception of a science of society. While working on this book,
he discovered the principle of cerebral hygiene. This meant that in order to keep his
mind uncontaminated he stopped reading other peoples works.
August Comte lived in the aftermath of the French Revolution. His
fundamental and lifelong preoccupation was how to replace disorder by order; how to
bring about a total reconstruction of society. He saw the French Revolution as a crucial
turning-point in the history of human affairs.
Saint-Simon was a French aristocrat; he believed that the problems of
his society could be best solved by reorganizing economic production. Saint-Simon and
Comte wrote about the law of three stages through which each branch of knowledge
must pass through. They said that the object of social physics, the positive science of
society later renamed as sociology is to discover the natural and immutable laws
of progress
According to Comte, sociology is the abstract theoretical science of social
phenomena. He had initially called it Social Physics but later he reluctantly changed this
name. He changed it because he found that a Belgian scientist, Adolph Quetelet, had
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used this term to describe simple statistics. Thus, Comte was compelled to use the word
sociology, a combination of a Latin and a Greek word which denotes the study of
society on a highly generalized or abstract level.
Comte was not only talking about sociology as a science of society, but
also believed that it must be used for reorganizing society. He wanted to develop a
naturalistic science of society. This science would be able to, both explain the past
development of mankind as well as predict its future course.
Comte also maintained that the new science of society must rely on
reasoning and observation instead of depending on the authority of tradition.
Every scientific theory must also be based on observed facts and vice versa. Comte also
introduced the historical method. Historical method (different from the one used by
historians):-
1. A healthy advance in sociology.
2. Compares societies throughout the time in which they have evolved.
3. This method is at the core of sociological inquiry since historical evolution is the very
crux of sociology.
According to Comte nothing is absolute. Every knowledge is true in a
relative sense and does not enjoy everlasting validity. Thus, science has a self-corrective
character and whatever does not hold true is rejected.
The term, Positive Science (To highlight this new mode of thinking), was
used by August Comte. Initially he called it positive philosophy. But distinguished it from
earlier philosophical thinking in that earlier philosophical thinking said how things ought
to be. It means you are negating the way things actually are.
Observation is used to arrive at pattern of generalization. Positive science
means that starting knowledge through observation & through repeated observation,
discover a pattern & then help in prediction of future.

CONCLUSION

In order to appreciate fully the emphasis of a sociological perspective, it is
important to realize that Sociology as a discipline arose within distinct historical,
intellectual and social contexts, and that it is the product of a particular era in particular
societies.
Major questions about the individual and society have preoccupied
thinkers in all periods of history: The philosophers of Ancient Greece and Rome reflected
upon the way society operated and/or should operate, and for centuries afterwards
social and political theorists and philosophers applied themselves to similar questions.
But these philosophical analyses of society were essentially based on
speculation, on dubious and untested assumptions about the motives of human beings in
their behaviour, and on undisciplined theorizing. And they lacked systematic analysis of
the structure and workings of societies. Philosophers and thinkers frequently constructed
grand models and schemes about humans and their societies without looking at how
societies actually worked.
However, from the eighteenth century onwards in Western Europe,
important changes took place in perspectives on understanding of society and the
individuals place in it. Many considerable advances were taking place in scientific
discovery with regard to the structure and composition of the physical world surrounding
human beings themselves.
The natural sciences, though essentially in their infancy, were beginning to
develop systematic methods for studying the physical world and the individuals certain
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knowledge. Could such scientific, rational approach also be applied to the analysis of
humans social worlds, their relationships, experiences and behaviour within it?

WHAT PRECIPITATED THE EMERGENCE?

1. Alongside these developments there were also extensive social, economic and
political changes that had and were to have profound effects on societies in Western
Europe and elsewhere.
2. Scientific and technological advances laid the foundations for the transformation
from a predominantly rural, agricultural manual way of life to an urban, industrial,
mechanized pattern of living.
3. New inventions and developments in methods of production, transport, etc. changed
the scale and location of production and work, from the land and small enterprise to
the town and city and large-scale enterprises like factories.
4. A greater variety of occupations emerged.

These extensive changes were integral to the process of industrialization
involved. Moreover, a major paradox, was that they brought a new society with
great productive potential and more sophisticated and complex ways of living,
while at the same time generating extensive disruptions in traditional patterns
of life and relationships as well as creating new problems of overcrowded and
unpleasant urban conditions, poverty and unemployment.
Sociology as a distinct discipline emerged against the background of
these intellectual and material changes in the second half of the nineteenth
century. The early sociologists were greatly influenced by the changes in a pattern of
life which they saw going on around them as industrialization proceeded, and they were
often deeply disturbed by what they saw. It is important to stress at this point that these
early sociologists were not intensely radical individuals, but rather could frequently be
more accurately labeled as conservatives made uneasy by the changes they were
observing in the society.
Nevertheless, they were greatly concerned with the idea of obtaining exact
knowledge of the workings of society. Thus, from the very beginning, there was a great
emphasis on the need to analyse social life scientifically. August Comte, the so called
founder of Sociology, who stressed the adoption of a scientific method of analyzing
society so that we might improve society through a thorough understanding of it,
summed up in his famous phrase To know, to predict, to control.
This early emphasizes on the scientific analysis of social life was to have
(and still has) considerable implications for the subsequent development of the
discipline.
Although we have located the beginnings of Sociology in Western Europe
in the second half of the nineteenth century, its development and acceptance as an
academic discipline was not uniform and in Britain, British universities for a long time
were relatively much more interested in the anthropological investigation of so called
primitive societies in the more remote area of the world, and British Sociology
constituted a relatively minor discipline, centered mainly on the London School of
Economics.
The early classical works in Sociology of the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries were produced in France and Germany, with Emile Durkheim in
France and Karl Marx and Max Weber in Germany as the outstanding figures. The work
of these classical sociologists still occupies a position of profound importance in
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contemporary theoretical debates. Sociology developed markedly till early in this
century. And the ideal sociological material was a rapidly expanding and industrializing,
cosmopolitan, immigrant-based society that was experiencing a wide range of social
changes.
Sociology in the USA was, therefore, understandably characterized by
detailed empirical studies of a variety of area (particularly the more seamy sides) of
American social life of delinquent gangs and neighborhoods, of particular ethnic
minorities etc. though other works, led by Talcott Parsons, involved theorizing in the
traditional manner.
As an established discipline, however, Sociology is a relatively new
arrival on the academic scene, and the real expansion in its popularity has occurred in
the post-War period. We can point to some factors that have influenced this expansion:-
1. In the Post-war period there has developed a rather more critical awareness of
how societies operate: fewer people simply back it and accept their societies
unthinking. They see that alongside the many technological and social advances that
have been made there still exist problem areas like overpopulation, poverty & crime.
2. Alongside this, there has developed an increasing concern with social reform
and the reordering of society, accompanied by the belief that in order to make
such reforms effective and soundly based, knowledge about society and its members
is needed.
3. There has also developed an increasing awareness of other societies & ways
of life, because of better systems of communications in travel and the mass media.
4. Increasingly, it has been claimed the people who work in government, industry, the
social services etc. ought to have some sort of specialist knowledge of society on the
ground that they will be better equipped to meet the demands of their work.
5. Emergence of New nation states undergoing rapid modernization. Therefore
increasing awareness among these societies, of the need to understand social life
scientifically in order to ease the process of nation building.

As result, during and since the 1960s, Sociology degree courses have
increased considerably, Sociology has found its way into schools, sociologist have been
increasingly recognized and consulted by various organizations, from national
government downwards, in research programmes, policy, planning etc. and some
sociologist have also found fame in the national media.

EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

Plato studied society in the systematic way for the first time and he considered man as a
social animal and talked about ordered society. But sociology as a separate discipline
arose in turbulent times of socio-economic and political upheavals in Europe preceded by
renaissance. Intellectual thought got redeemed once again during this period.

Renaissance was the period of new discoveries and inventions. Mythological thinking got
transformed into a rational thinking. All these scientific achievements were accompanied
by spectacular rise in trade and commerce and internalization of modern technology is
the production processes. Various groups of thinkers, intellectuals talked about the
inevitability of progress.

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The intellectual revolution of renaissance was accompanied by changes in the eco-
political organization manifested by Industrial and French Revolution.

Industrial revolution was the epochal event which represented the changing economic
conditions followed by several social changes. It had some political implications as
feudalistic set-up started crumbling with the rise of commercial and industrial revolution.
Industrial revolution changed the existing system by:

1) Liberation of labor from land
2) Rapid urbanization accompanying industrialization
3) Development of new, innovative technology
4) Expansion of markets and trade due to increased production and need for raw
materials. This eventually led to colonialism.
5) Erosion of authority of religious institutions.
6) Changed family structure and organization. Extended families got converted into
nucleus families.

All these transformations led to some new problems which were unknown before:--
1) Development of slums in new habituated areas thus living conditions got bad.
(Cities became Repositories of History)
2) Working conditions were inhuman
3) Emergence of absolute poverty
4) Rise in crimes
5) Widespread structural changes happened where relations got contractual.
6) Property divided into 2 major Classes

The result was a total social disorder and intellectuals were compelled to think about
restoring social order and to study the changes which occurred. The conditions were ripe
for development of sociology (a new discipline) as all existing disciplines was considered
incapable of dealing or analyzing these changes in society.

The changes which occurred as the result of modernity and revolutions enlarged their
scope as the initial economic changes and later gave way to political changes. These
changes in the political system were manifested in the form of FR.
1) Death of feudalism led to the dawn of democracy and ideals of liberty, equality
and fraternity.
2) French Revolution was followed by turmoil in the society leading to the social
disorder.

The turbulent conditions in France compelled the intellectuals to develop a scientific
discipline which could predict changes and restore social order. Thus sociology was one
of the intellectual products of French Revolution. These economic and political
revolutions led to intellectual changes which proved to be the bedrock for sociology.
Thinkers gave sociology its methodology (survey), perspectives (evolution) and source
(Historical data) to study society and rational understanding of the society became the
slogan of the day. The sociology was thus the intellectual product of the modernism and
the industrial and French Revolutions. The economic and political revolutions provided
the need and intellectuals provided the base for the emergence of sociology and it got its
birth in 1838 with Auguste Comte finally conceiving it.

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SCIENCE, SCIENTIFIC METHOD & CRITIQUE
MAJOR THEORETICAL STRANDS


SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

Sociology as a distinct discipline emerged during early 19
th
Century under
the challenges posed by modernity in Europe. Due to the prevalent scientific
temperament, the orientation of early sociologists was to develop it on lines similar to
natural sciences.
The obsession with Darwins theory of biological evolution and Newtonian
physics generated an idea, that similar developments could take place for the society
also. This idea echoes, in the writings of initial sociologists.e.g. Saint Simon initially
called it social Physics, Comte gave laws of social organisation & Durkheim frequently
used terms as organic mechanical, densities etc denoting a preference for establishing
sociology as a natural science. With this a controversy was generated that whether
sociology can be a natural science or whether sociology is a science at all?
The term Science became particularly popular during the Renaissance
period. During the 19
th
Century, Science was understood as a body of knowledge which
is based on empiricism, experimental testability, objectivity and generation of
universal theories. This understanding of science only referred to only natural science as
sciences, as only these fulfilled the criteria.
Inductivism: Method of theory building,Facts Perspectives Theories. These were
inductive theories.Inductive theory is based on testing of generalisation drawn of
facts.
Deductivism Theory is formed first them it is tested.Deductive theory is based on
firstly developing a theory then checking its validity through facts.
But later on science was interpreted more widely by using it as a method rather than a
body of knowledge.

According to this understanding, if any body of knowledge is pursued in a
systematic and rational manner based on evidence and reason, it is science. Apart from
this, some standard elements of science were drawn.
(1) Inter subjective reliability: It means that concept drawn in any body of knowledge
should have same meaning for different people. It means that concepts should be
defined precisely.
(2) Objectivity: It should be possible that people pursuing science should remove their
personal preconceptions and biases. This involves objectivity in terms of observation,
analysis, and theory building.
(3) Quantifiability: It should be possible to observe the things in a quantifiable manner
or a concretes manner. It involves precise reconstruction of phenomenon under
consideration.
(4) Theoretical Orientation: The body of knowledge should be capable of generating
some theories. Mere collection of facts cannot be called as science. The facts should
give rise to some generalisation which can be converted into theories.


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Arguments in favour of Sociology being a Science

(1) Firstly, there is a considerable inters objective reliability in the concept framed in
sociology e.g. meaning of concept like family, political system, urbanisation carry
the same meaning for all.
(2) Secondly, although absolute objectivity is not possible as social phenomenon may
generate biases but, objectivity can be ensured by use of proper training and
scientific methodology in the investigation.
e.g. Durkheim, an advocate of objectivity suggests the use of statistical
techniques, comparative methods, etc. in sociology. He himself exhibits such use
in his theory of suicide.
e.g. Weber proposes proper training of investigation even before he uses the
methods.
(3) Different aspects fo the phenomenon can be observed concretely. There are
definite limits of quantifiability but phenomenon is understood completely in
terms of their consequence rather than simple empiricism.
e.g. Durkheim has tried to quantify the extreme abstract forms through his
method of social facts.
(4) Fourthly, sociology has tried to develop theories which have considerable
applicability in no. of situations. But there is a limitation in universal applicability
of all theories. It is important to mention here that even in natural sciences, the
theories which were understood applicable in the past are considered not correct
today.
(5) Although, experimentation is not possible in sociology but the whole society is a
testing ground for sociology and sociology uses methods like questionairres,
interviews, etc. to test the results.
More recently, clinical sociology has emerged which studies the group beharious
in different situations. At the same time mathematical sociology, socio-metry
etc., employ techniques to generate theories in a logical and reasonable manner.
It is relevant here that various natural sciences like astronomy cannot use
experimental techniques.

Limitation of Sociology as a Science

From a classical point of view, there are certain limitations on sociology for being a
natural science as empirical testability, universal theories and absolute objectivity is
not always possible.
As mentioned earlier, there are limits of quantifiability and universal laws.
In this context Weber outlines the difference between the subject matter of sociology
on one hand and natural sciences on the other.
Natural sciences study matter which is not having consciousness and its behaviour
can be predicted.
On the other hand sociology, studies human being who are having consciousness and
the behaviour of human beings cannot be predicted. Therefore according to Weber
Sociology may not be a natural science but it is a social science.
Finally Karl Popper opines science is not a body of knowledge but a method of
approaching or studying a phenomenon. It involves identifying problem, collecting
information and eventually offering explanation for it and all this is done as
systematically as possible. Therefore it is appropriate to call sociology as a science.

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WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC STUDY

Science is a systematic body of certified and changing knowledge based
on observable facts & the methods used to acquire this knowledge i.e. Science refers to
both knowledge & methodology of acquiring it.
Knowledge is based on observable facts, so it is changing. As new facts
come to light, in light of these facts existing knowledge is modified. Basis of knowledge
is certification of knowledge by observable facts. It is systematic because it uses
particular methodology.

Elements of scientific method

1) PERSPECTIVE: It means a set of internally consistent assumptions about the reality.
Assumptions are certain beliefs which are held to be true. So certain prior knowledge
of reality is must to assume e.g. For doing business, you need money & it earns
more money. Observable facts are acquired in the interconnectedness, i.e. which fact
can be linked to which fact.
Internally consistent: assumptions should be mutually compatible & not
contradicting. In certain sciences when assumptions are held to be universally valid
such a set of assumptions is called paradigm.
Normal Science|: Most scientific research falls under it. It tends to validate,
prove, justify existing paradigm.
Revolutionary Science: In the course of research, a new breakthrough is
achieved which questions the existing paradigm leading to modification of paradigm
& it is called as paradigmatic shift. Revolutionary Science is a rare phenomenon.

Where do you get assumptions from?

Either common sense assumptions are adopted or assumptions may be
acquired from other sister sciences in which they have been proved true. The
assumptions supported by observable facts are retained.
Early sociologists had assumptions about what society is like. They
adopted assumptions from biology especially about the nature of social reality e.g.
organism analogy term 1
st
used by Spencer though idea was present in Comtes
writings as well, reflects the role of biology-
a) Society is compared to an organism.
b) Enlightenment philosophers speculated that human society moves through
definite shapes & follows definite pattern & thus the society changes.

2) CONCEPTS: They have same role in science as language has in day to day life.
Human mind cannot comprehend reality directly. It has to be converted into symbols
i.e. phonetics for defining it. Concepts are nothing but what scientific language is
made of. They are symbols through which we communicate reality. Concepts tend to
be defined in a more precise way so that theres no ambiguity regarding their
meaning whereas day to day language is not so precise & is ambiguous. As concepts
in sociology are taken from day to day, so there is a little confusion in concepts of
sociology.

3) OBSERVATION: We must have an arrangement for gathering information

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Fact: Any aspect of reality which has an independent existence of its own &
consequently is observable & verifiable. It is also called as an objective fact.
Subjective facts are not independent of the observer e.g. beauty lies in the eyes
of beholder. Science is rooted in objective facts. Generally, the method used is
observation. .Observation may be carried out under
Controlled conditions (experimentation)
Uncontrolled conditions.

Reality may have any number of variables. Specific aspect observation
requires exclusion of certain variables & only limited variables are taken into account. So
while reality is open system, experimentation is a closed system which delimits the
variables.
In science, there is no random & isolated observation of facts as it would
not contribute to meaningfulness. When facts are observed meaningfully, it gives rise to
knowledge. Observation gives meaning to facts by meaningful interconnectedness & this
is done with the help of hypothesis. Hypothesis: Hypothesis is a tentative statement,
which formulates a precise & definite relation between 2 or more variables.

How do we arrive at a hypothesis?

Hypothesis is always deduced from existing knowledge, common sense ideas,
assumptions in paradigm, existing knowledge available in a particular field.
Hypothesis should be such that it is reasonable to have interconnectedness between
2 or more variables. e.g. how mere observation of facts can produce a patently
absurd conclusion e.g. import bill of perfumes jumped very high & number of
marriages registered also jumped up.

Conclusion: perfumes led to attraction & marriages. Common sense tells that they
cannot be interlinked. 3
rd
variable i.e. populations income rose, was ignored & so they
bought more perfumes & also wanted to settle down.
Hypothesis is an educated guess that tells what to interlink e.g.
Durkheim in his study of suicide, concluded that rate of suicide is inversely proportional
to degree of solidarity. Isolated individuals are more likely to commit suicide.
Suicide is an example of psychic morbidity. Existing knowledge of
Durkheim can be rephrased as rate of psychic morbidity is inversely proportional to
solidarity. It broadened the scope of Schizophrenia is also a cause. So it is a new
educative guess. So interlinking results in explanation of phenomena with help of others.
Hypothesis guides our search for facts. We dont prove hypothesis in
scientific research but test it i.e. just see, if hypothesis is supported by observable facts
or not.

Prerequisites for framing a hypothesis

Hypothesis should be as simple, as precise & as unambiguous as possible.
Its testing lies in its potential falsifiability. Only a falsifiable hypothesis can be tested.
It should be so constructed, that it is possible to falsify it.

For example, in England, human beings were sacrificed to please sun god
in winter months. By trying to falsify it, we can test hypothesis i.e. by not performing
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sacrifice one year & see if sun returns or not. In the course of testing, a hypothesis may
be proved or disproved.
Hypothesis is derived from the existing knowledge.
Hypothesis delimits scope of observation what is to be observed and what not.

Generalization: A statement which holds true for the whole class of
phenomena is called as generalization. Scientific generalizations are not merely
descriptive but explanatory in character. They try to explain one phenomena by linking it
with the other, explaining one as a cause and the other as a consequence(Cause: When
Phenomena is both necessary & sufficient for happening of other phenomena).

In social science, it is not possible to identify causes because controlled
experimentation is not possible. So, we settle down for correlation. Number of factors
may be responsible rather than 1 factor. e.g. high consumption of perfume & marriage
are correlated but not causally related. So in sociology, most generalizations establish
correlation.

Why do we seek generalizations?

1. They make the knowledge useful

Generalization represents a pattern & on the basis, you can make a prediction. If you
can predict, you can control. So it is mans control over his environment.
They also contribute to the growth of scientific knowledge, as from existing
generalizations new hypothesis can be deduced.

By observing regularities in observation, generalizations can proliferate.
Arriving at generalizations requires a creative leap of abstraction. By raising level of
abstraction, it is possible to deduce a new hypothesis, so they help in proliferation of
research & theory building
2. They make the knowledge manageable

Generalizations explain all Past, Present and future events. So science tries to arrive
at generalizations .Thesis, Theory & law difference in degree of generality .

If Hypothesis is disapproved, then it leads to modification of existing
knowledge. This kind of scientific method is called as positive science approach. It basis
its knowledge on observation & through repeated observation, tries to arrive at
generalization.

SOCIOLOGY AS A POSITIVE SCIENCE & AN INTERPRETATIVE DISCIPLINE

How should sociology as a discipline be modeled?

It is a methodological debate whether it is a positive science or that it can
never be a science & be limited as an interpretative discipline. This originated in the 2
nd

half of the 19
th
century in Germany & has persisted since.
Positive Science is a systematic body of knowledge based on observable
facts. Positive science relies on observable & verifiable facts.
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It tries to arrive at generalizations. Generalizations make knowledge useful, meaningful
& manageable

Basic assumptions behind positive science

1. If reality can be wholly known by observation alone, it is a positive science.
2. Reality tends to be recurrent & patterned, so that patterns of generalization are
discovered through patterns of interconnection by observation.
Social behaviour can be known through outside observation & has recurrent pattern.
So it is called a positive science.

Sociology was influenced by physical & biological sciences, especially
physics & biology. Early sociologists conceived it as a positive science.

August Comte, Herbert Spencer, Durkheim viewed sociology as positive
science

The functionalist tradition has continued to view sociology as a positive science.

Conflict tradition The Marxist approach goes beyond mere empiricism where data is
subjected to method of historical materialism. But in 2 basic assumptions it resembles
positivists.

In practice, the positivist tradition has to encounter numerous problems:
Experimentation
Quantification
Generalization
Objectivity

Experimentation

It is the hallmark of positive science because it enables observation under
controlled conditions. Therefore, it facilitates scientists to discover causal
interconnections. Experimental studies are rarely possible in sociology. There are other
sciences also in which experimentation is not possible. Even in Astronomy,
experimentation is not possible. In Population genetics, experimentation is possible only
upto lower animals. But they are well established positive sciences. So experimentation
is a method dependent on nature of subject matter, but it is not a necessary pre-
requisite for positive science

Quantification

Not all aspects of social reality can be expressed quantitatively. Precise
measurement is not possible. Social science lacks exactitude of physical sciences.

Generalization

Human behaviour does not follow such recurrent pattern as physical
objects do because of role of volition. Patterns in context of human behaviour are of
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limited generality. Precise causal interconnections cannot be discovered because of lack
of experimentation. At best, correlations can be discovered.

Objectivity

Unlike physical & natural sciences, personal prejudices have greater
influence on collection of data in social sciences because of their very subject matter e.g.
Webers personal life had strong influence on his sociology. Sociology has not been
wholly successful as a positive science, as pioneers like Weber, pointed out clearly that if
strategies of social research are based on positive science alone, it would be a serious
mistake, though he did not out right by reject positive science approach.

Neo Kantians: Reject Idea of sociology ever being a positive science. It can only be an
interpretative discipline. This anti-positivist stance continues to be reflected in
symbolic interactionism & ethnomethodism. Social life is fundamentally different
from physical & natural reality. Difference lies in presence of gist.
Human behavior is influenced by consciousness.
This fact is reflected in meanings.
Meanings are unique & variable.
Meanings cannot be understood by observation alone.
They need interpretation.
So, sociology cannot be a positive science.

These 2 view points are not mutually exclusive, rather they complement
each other. Sociology can fruitfully use methods of positive science (Macro
sociology).Interpretative discipline (Micro sociology)
Depending upon nature of sub matter, both can be used. Even in other
disciplines like physics, microphysics cannot be subjected to the same degree of
certitude as macrophysics e.g. Heisenbergs uncertainty principle, Broglis wave particle
theorem. Same is true for micro & macro sociology.

PROBLEM OF OBJECTIVITY & VALUE NEUTRALITY

Objectivity refers to a frame of mind-set on the part of social
scientist, so that the personal prejudices & predilections do not contaminate
the process of collection & analysis of data. Sociological investigations should be
free from prejudices of race, colour, religion, gender or ideology. Objectivity in this sense
is desirable.
According to Durkheim, social facts should be treated as things.
Radcliff Brown sociological research should be free from egocentric & ethnocentric
bias.
Malinowski advocated cultural relativism as a stance to serve as a corrective to
ethnocentrism.
Weber advocated value neutrality, because values are chief source of bias which
contaminates our perception.
Values should be restricted to area of technical competence like:

Selection of topic of research.
Interpreting meanings from various texts.
Which data is significant?
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Objectivity is a broader term including value neutrality.

Value Neutrality

Sociologists should exclude ideological assumptions while
conducting sociology research. If such assumptions cannot be avoided, sociologist
should be value frank for making his value preference explicit.
Sociologist should not propagate/advocate any particular value.
He should avoid evaluative judgment on fact
He should remain indifferent to moral implications of research. Research should not
be tailored to suit a particular kind of public morality.

Sociologists have appreciated need for objectivity & value neutrality, but it
remains an elusive goal. Gunnar Myrdal argued that total value neutrality is a myth.
Facts and data become meaningful only when looked from a certain viewpoint.
Selection of topic of research is guided by prejudice.
Formulation of hypothesis is influenced by ideological factors and thus brings value
contamination.

For example, Jajmani system was studied by W. Weiser (Functionalist) and
Oscar Lewis (Marxist). W. Weiser concluded that it represents organic division of labour.
Oscar Lewis concluded that it represents politico-economic dependence & so it is
exploitative.
No technique of data collection is fool proof. There are field limitations e.g.
questionnaire: Return rate is barely 25 %. In interview there is double dose of
subjectivity.
Answer what you think is being questioned.
Interpreted as per interviewer.

We can minimize subjectivity by
Being value frank.
Using trained research workers.

One more view point criticizes idea of total objectivity. e.g. David
Horowitiz, C.W. Mills & A. Gouldner. They say excessive value neutrality reduces
sociologist to level of a spectator. This is absurd. Knowledge is for social sake. So
universal ethics must be adhered to & moral stance adopted.

Q. Discuss the problem of objectives in sociology. How objectivity can be
ensured?

Renaissance period in Europe witnessed an obsession for science which
permeated not only in all spheres of life but the academic disciplines too. Contrary to the
orthodox beliefs; science stressed on a reasoned and logical pursuit of knowledge. The
scientific pursuit involved above all an objectives research objectivity came to be
understood in the overall context of modernity.
Initial sociologist tried to develop sociology not only in an objectives manner but also on
the lines similar to natural sciences.
Objectivity means freedom from personal biases in the sociological
investigations. The source of personal biases is various identities like race, caste,
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language, religion, culture, etc. These biases exist in the form of values in the society
and certain values are preferred by persons thereby creating biases.
Therefore, value freedom becomes essential for removing such biases.
This is also known as value neutrality. Thus, objectivity also implies value neutrality and
both are interrelated and draw from each other.
Sociology as a body of knowledge involves accumulation of facts,
interpretation of facts and finally generating theories based on these facts. The very fact
that sociology deals with human beings generates some problems of objectivity at
various levels.

Problem in accumulation of facts: Sociology uses various scientific methods like
observation, interviews, schedules and questionnaires etc. for the purpose of data
collection. All these methods face problems of objectivity.
(a) E.g. Interview method faces the problem of values of both interviews and interviewee
thereby generating incorrect data.
(b) Further the method of observation suffers from the values of observer. E.g. a very
famous quote by W. White illustrate this point, I started as participant observer, but
ended up as participant non observer.
(c) Durkheim in his famous study of suicide is often accused of collecting data in such a
way which satisfies his own viewpoint.
(d) Similarly Webers method of Ideal Types is often accused of involving subjectivity of
the observer.

Problem of objectivity in Interpretation of facts: Interpretation can also be
coloured by various values/ viewpoints e.g. Robert Redfield and Oscar Lowis studied the
some village in Mexico at approximately same time. But the contrasting results of both
the studies established beyond doubt the influence of ideological biases in interpretation
of facts. Redfield made a functional interpretation whereas Louis made a conflict
interpretation. Similarly caste system in India is understood in different ways and
sociologists are affected by their own biases.

Theory BuildingGeneration of theory: Value loaded interpretation of facts generates
theories and is one sided and give a partial view of the total phenomenon e.g. Durkheim
gave only functional theory of religion whereas in reality we see people do fight in the
name of religion. Whereas Marx considers religion as opium of masses but it is also true
that religion controls individual thereby ensuring conformity. In this way sociology faces
the problem of objectivity at various levels of research. Apart from this subjectivity also
occur in terms of choice of an area of subject, choice of a method.

Steps taken to ensure objectivity

Right from the beginning sociologists have tried to suggest measures for
ensuring objectivity. Auguste Comte advocated absolute objectivity, Durkheim
suggested scientific methodology for ensuring objectivity later on also, attempts were
made in different ways to ensure objectivity.

The various steps suggested are

(1) Few sociologist went to the extent of arguing that sociology should refrain from
studying what ought to be and concentrate on what is
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(2) Objectivity can be maximized by proper training of the investigator. Weber, as early
as early 1890s suggested training for sociologists.
(3) The investigator should confine himself to his own area of competence. Atleast the
researcher will be aware of his own personal biases in his own area.
(4) Research must be taken in a transparent and open manner and should be subject to
critique so that possible biases may be pointed out.
(5) A sociologist should not advocate a particular value as it may colour all his
investigations.
The issue of objectivity can further be scrutinized in the light of another
school of thought who refrains from considering objectivity as a desirable goal. Here the
importance of different viewpoints/ ideologies is stressed e.g. Gunnar Myrdal in this
context made a very famous statement, Chaos cannot organise itself into cosmos, we
need view point.
Similarly, the reformative agenda of sociology (what ought to be) is
considered desirable as ignoring this will mean falsifying its own history e.g. C.W. Mills
argued that over emphasis on objectivity will compromise reformist agenda.
It is a well known fact that social problems can be understood within a
particular cultural context and the ignorance of this context may generate problems e.g.
Lynd studied social strain within a specific cultural context and argues the understanding
of values in this context.
Therefore absolute objectivity is neither a goal nor a desire in sociology.
The nature or scope of sociology is such that subjectivity to some extent is upto an end
both inevitable as well as desirable e.g. Max Weber argues that subject matter of social
sciences is human beings which is having consciousness and understanding his
subjectivity is the task of sociology.
But, at the same time it is cautioned that excessive subjectivity will render
the research meaningless. Therefore, objectivity is proposed in terms of methods,
whereas various viewpoints can be used for the interpretation of facts and generation of
theories. Elwin Gouldner summed up the debate through his famous quote, Value
neutrality is an elusive goal in sociology, absolute objectivity cannot be established.

CONCLUSION

The basic premise that underlies the positivist approach is:

1. The facts or data to be collected are fully amenable to sensory observation. Thus, all
social behaviour is viewed as observable from without.
2. Internal meanings and motives underlying the behaviour of a person are supposed to
be shaped by forces outside him namely, the society. (Durkehims methodological
prescription, namely, Treat Social facts as things and his explanation of suicide in
terms of social factors are examples par excellence of this premise).
3. Society can shape the behaviour of its members almost completely through
socialization.

However, there is another section of sociologist who regards the above view
as an over- socialized conception of man. They do not accept the belief that an
individual is simply the society writ small.

1. According to them each individuals personality carries an imprint of his
unique experience along with the socially transmitted world view
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2. They draw attention to the mercurial nature of man.
3. They see in the positivistic approach an attempt to reduce man to a passive robot.
4. They have not altogether rejected the positivist approach rather they find it
inadequate and seek to supplement it with new approaches which look for new data
and adopt new methods.
5. These sociologists see their discipline as somewhat akin to literature than to natural
sciences in the sense that they seek to reflect the pattern of meaning in a set of
observation they have made.

However, there is not a total consensus among these critics of positivist
approach. One aspect they share in common is that they all emphasise on the
importance of underlying meanings in order to understand social behaviour.
These critics of positivism differ significantly among themselves. On extreme, there
exists anti-positivist approach like that of ethno methodologists and on the other side
there are moderate critics of positivism like Max Weber whose approach tries to
build a bridge between positivist approach and extreme form of interactionism.

According of Weber

Social reality is characterized by the presence of geist or consciousness.
Due to the presence of consciousness people ascribe meanings to the situation
around them which include other people too.
These meanings influence the subsequent behaviour. Consequently any attempt to
understand social reality must take into account these meanings and motives.
These meanings are ascribed by the individual actors.
An attempt to understand social behaviour should not stop simply at observation
from without; instead it should involve interpretation of the underlying meanings and
motives.
This requires the use of new method through which an empathetic liaison can be
established between the observer and the actor. Empathetic liaison means that the
observer tries to place himself imaginatively in the actors position.
Having established empathetic liaison, the sociologist should try to figure out
meanings and motives given by the actor.
In terms of these meanings and motives, he then tries to rationally explain the
actors behaviour.

This is the essence of verstehen approach advocated by Max Weber.

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

Other interpretative sociologists, those identified as symbolic
interactionists are content to operate with a relatively simple set of assumption about
how we come to know about social phenomena.
They accept the meaning that the actors attribute to social
phenomena at the face value and proceed to erect their systematic
interpretations on these foundations. The term symbolic interactionist was used
because it is through the symbols that meanings, motives and attributes are
conveyed.
Thus, an understanding of symbols can help in understanding the
meanings conveyed by actors involved in the interacting situation. For example, a cross
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(x) may symbolize a barbarian method of execution or a religious movement. A Red
Light symbolizes a brothel or an indication that traffic should come to a halt.
Therefore, for a proper understanding of the meanings conveyed in the
course of interaction one should know what the symbols are; including the phonetic
symbols. Also one should be able to appreciate how and an in what manner, in each
interactive situation, the actors are using these symbols. The assumptions underlying
symbolic interactionism are:

Symbol are man made & not to intense nature of objects & events but to the ways in
which men perceive them.
The individual and the society are regarded as inseparable, for the individual can
become a human being only in a social context.
Human beings are viewed as acting on the basis of meaning which they give to the
objects and events rather than simply reacting either to external stimuli such as
social forces or internal stimuli such as organic drives. (Symbolic interactionism
therefore rejects both societal and biological determinism).
Meanings arise from the process of interaction rather than being simply present at
the outset. To some degree meanings are created, modified, developed and changed
within interactive situation rather than being fixed and preformed. Thus, in the
process of interaction, actors do not slavishly follow preset norms or mechanically act
out established rules.
Meanings are the result of interpretive procedures employed by actors. Within the
context of interactions by taking the role of others; actors interpret the meanings
and intentions of others.
By means of the mechanism of self-interaction, individuals modify or change
definitions of their situation, rehearse alternative course of interactions and consider
their possible consequences.
These meanings that guide actions arise in the context of interaction, via, a series of
complex interpretive procedures.

The methodology of symbolic interactionism, as advocated by Herbert
Blumer demands that, the sociologist must immerse himself in the area of life that he
seeks to investigate. Rather than attempting to fill data into predefined categories, he
must attempt to grasp the actors view of social reality.
This involves Feeling ones way inside the experience of the actor. Since
action is directed by the actor, meanings the sociologists must catch the process of
interpretation through which the actors construct their action. This means, he must take
the role of the acting unit whose behaviour he studies.
One of the important works of sociological research carried out in the
tradition of symbolic interactionism is a study of physically handicapped by Fred
Davis. Another approach belonging to social Anthropology which can also be categorized
as an interpretive approach starts with:
A description of commonly accepted meanings that people attribute to social
phenomena. Mere description of such meanings would simply amount to an
ethnographic study of the people an account of their culture. But these
sociologists are interested in understanding social phenomena in general terms.
They must move beyond to find meaning of the phenomena, and try to discover
patterns and regularities in these meanings, which they can represent as cultural
themes
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Further patterns and regularities running through themes may in turn be
represented as configuration of themes, which taken together may be held to
characterize the essential characteristics of a culture.

In this way the social Anthropologist, Ruth Benedict, characterizes the
cultures of some American Indian peoples as Dionysian, that is, given to extreme and
frenzied state of being and other as Apollonian, that is always seeking moderation in
behaviour and cultural expressions. She achieved this by tracing these features through
wide range of their manifestation in the cultures of the people she examined.

These interpretations of meanings at different levels of abstractions are all
informed and guided by the ultimate motive of establishing concepts, that provide
sociologists with a general way of understanding human activities and beliefs.

There is yet another set of sociologists those identified as Ethno
methodologists who try to analyse the commonsense nature of social
interactions.
The accumulated commonsense of generation results in pattern of behavioural
topicalities.
Social order is dependent upon people behaving in a commonsense way.
Social interaction must be interpreted in terms of these commonsense meanings,
however, for ethno methodologist; the basic problem of Sociology goes even further
than this.

They begin with the assumption that society exists. It is the main study of
methods used by public. Only in so far as members perceive its existence; So members
view of social reality must be understood. But sociologists must also be concerned with
processes by which people come to establish meanings in social phenomena. They say
that the aim of Sociology should not be simply to identify and record the
meanings that people have ascribed to a situation, but to understand the ways
in which they generate those meanings in the first place.

The idea is that it is important to understand how the world looks, to
those who live in it. The same idea has been approved by these sociologists. They argue
that the final emphasis should be on the ways in which the members of society come to
see their world in the ways they do.

Harold Garfinkel and Circourel are some of the important Ethno
methodologists. Another example of this account of study is, Cicourels study of
Juvenile Delinquency in which he traces the way in which young people come to be
categorized as Juvenile Delinquents by the Police, Probationary Officers, the Courts
and so on.
The account of information which interpretive sociologists require
to substantiate their analysis is quite different from the information needed by
positivistic sociologists. Therefore, new sources of information are made use of.
However, quite often even those methods of data collection, which are used by positivist
sociologist, are also made use of by interpretive sociologist. A few are:

Weber relied on official statistical records and historical documents in his study of
The Protestant Ethics and Spirit of Capitalism.
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Direct observation is also frequently used, accompanied by extensive verbative
recording of conversational exchange among the actors involved.
More recently, Tape-Recording and even Video-Tape-recording have also been
increasingly used, so that the sociologist may have the opportunity of analyzing not
only the details of wording of exchanges and the intonations of voices, but also
gestures and facial expressions which may provide important clues to the way in
which the meanings are interacted.
Sometimes more normal laboratory techniques have also been used as in the well-
known experiment by Garfinkel, 30 students were asked to take part on an
experiment with Psycho-therapeutic procedures.

Besides the use of such innovative techniques, the other methods of data
collection, used by interpretive sociologists include: the case studies and use of life
histories, personal diaries and correspondence and other biographical records to provide
insights into the subjective dimension of the social behaviour.

Research Designs

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for the collection and
analysis of data in manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose and
economize on procedure. The research design is the conceptual structure, within which
research is conducted; which constitutes the blue print for collection, measurement and
analysis of data. Following are the steps involved in the formulation of the research
problem:
1) Defining the research problem;
2) Identifying the purpose of research;
3) Defining the universe of study, like the study of a tribal village or of criminals;
4) Defining the subject of research, like the study of kinship relations, nature of case
relations or the nature of hierarchy in the organizational structure etc;
5) Formulation of hypotheses;
6) Identifying the type of data required:
7) Identifying the techniques of data collection, keeping in view the availability of time,
and other resources;
8) Identification of the methods of analyzing data;
9) Clear and operational definitions of the concept involved; and
10) Statement of the manner in which the report will be prepared.
Based on the purpose of research, research designs can be classified into
three categories:
Exploratory Research Design
Descriptive Research Design
Experimental Research Design

Exploratory Research Design

The main purpose of exploratory research design is to acquire preliminary
information about the universe of study so that a more precise investigation can be
carried on or a working hypothesis can be developed.
The need for exploratory research design arises because not much
information is available in the initial stages about the universe of study. The major
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emphasis in such studies is that, they must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for
considering different aspects of problem under study.
Depending upon the nature of the universe of study and the problem
of research, exploratory research design may start with:
A survey of the concerned literature.
The field experience survey of the analysis of insight stimulating examples.

Where sufficient Literature is already available, it may prove to be a
simple and fruitful method for gaining a detailed insight for developing a hypothesis.
However the existing literature may not be always adequate or may not be available at
all. In such cases a survey of people who had practical experience with the problem to
be studied can be of help. The object of such a survey is:
Obtain an insight into the relationship between variables.
Acquire new ideas relating to the research problem.

For such a survey, people who are competent and can contribute new
ideas may be carefully selected as respondents, to ensure representation of different
types of experience. The respondent so selected are then interviewed.
The interviewer must ensure sufficient flexibility so that the respondents
have the freedom to raise issues and questions which the researcher has not previously
conceived. In those areas, where neither adequate literature is available nor is there
enough experience to serve as a guide to the researcher, then he may rely upon an
analysis of insight stimulating examples.
For this purpose the researcher may make use of unstructured interview.
In case the universe of study happens to be such that the verbal interaction alone is not
enough to gain an insight into the problem, then the researcher may resort to participant
observation as the techniques of data collection.

Descriptive Research Design

Is used if the researcher is studying a community
With which he is already familiar.
if the purpose of research is to present an accurate description of the characteristics
of a particular institution group or an event in the community;
if the research aims at testing a given hypothesis under non-controlled conditions

Then, the appropriate design of research is called descriptive research
design. Sometimes, descriptive design forms the second step of the research; the first
step being exploratory design. Here, exploratory research design is used to help
formulate the hypotheses while descriptive research design is used to test the
hypotheses. Since the purpose is to obtain complete and accurate information:
The procedure to be used must be carefully planned.
The research design in other stages must be well defined.
To obtain error free data closely supervise the staff of field workers as they collect
and record information.
As the data is collected, it should be examined for completeness, comprehensiveness
consistency and reliability.

The descriptive and exploratory designs can be compared in a tabulated
manner as follows:
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EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Objective

Formulate a problem for precise
investigation
Carries out a detailed and
accurate analysis of a particular
community.
Why

Relatively speaking, one does not
know much about the universe of
study before starting the research.
Relative speaking, one knows
quite a bit about the area since
the area is unexplored.
What

Helps in the development of
hypothesis which could be tested
further whether in a form of
descriptive or experimental research
designs.
May be oriented towards testing a
set of hypothesis.



The comparative assessment indicates that both exploratory and
descriptive designs can be placed on a continuum. The exploratory research clarified the
concepts, formulated hypothesis, and increased familiarity with the area. Once this
ground work is done, the descriptive design can be formed. The latter is feasible only
after preliminary pilot-survey has been completed. This is how we can establish the
relationship between exploratory and descriptive designs. Both are complementary and
supplement each other.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design which is used to test a hypothesis of a causal
relationship under a controlled situation is called experimental research design. The
essence of the experimental design (in sociology) lies in its testing of hypothesis derived
from theory. The experimental research design in sociology observes the following
aspects:-
The investigator controls or manipulates an independent variable of stimulus. (X)
observes the effects on the dependent variable (Y)
The effect of the independent variable on the dependent variables is observed by
minimizing the effects of extraneous variables which might confound the result.
These propositions are tested on a sample generally called experimental sample (E)
The theoretical propositions of the experimental research design can be analysed
from the following empirical study.

Experimentation in Sociology raised certain important questions:

Ethical question
Difficulties in forming a control sample
Retaining it over time
The difficulties encountered in controlling the extraneous environment, etc.

Realizing these problems in some of the experiments carried out by
sociologists the experimental sample is used as a control sample. It is debatable whether
the absence of Control means a non-experimental design. The theoretical
propositions followed here are the following: Experimental sample is also the
control sample.

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The experimental sample is measured in the given respects before introducing the
independent variables.
After it has been measured the stimulus for independent variable is introduced.
The experimental sample is measured after stimulus and the change is calculated.

The modification of the experimental design is generally accepted in
sociology and is called before and after research. The best example of this type of
research design is the Hawthorne study carried out by E. Mayo, F. Roethlisberger.
W. Dickson and G. Homans. In this study, the relationship between physical conditions
of work and the study of the effects of good housing upon former slum families re-
housed in Summer Field Homes of Monopolies (US) is an example of the modified
experimental design.
Chapins hypothesis is that the re-housing of slum families in a public
housing project would result in the improvement of living conditions and the social life of
these families. As per the demand of any true experimental design the families in this
context, cannot be re-housed.
Thus, Chapin studies the families which have moved out of the housing
project and compared these with those left behind in the slum conditions. The left over
families form the control sample; whereas those which have moved out constitute the
experimental group. F. Stuart Chapins analysis is a variant of the before-and-
after design, which he calls ex-post-facto research design.
The modified experimental design suits sociological research. One can
conclude from Chapins analysis that it is extremely difficult to have a control group
comparable to one which could be used in physical and biological sciences. It is true that
the before-and-after; research design does not reveal what might have happened to the
control group with no introduction of stimulus; every sociological inquiry has to work
within a set of limitations.

ISSUES OF MEASUREMENT IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

With growth of science, there has been development of what Abraham
Kaplan called as Mystique of Quantity. 19
th
century witnessed that phase when,
science grows to last place in decimal i.e. unless you have expressed a phenomenon in
numerical terms, you have not done enough..
Liebniths (Contemporary of Newton who independently developed
calculus): he said that all conflicts grow out of fact that our knowledge imprecise, with
quantification, debate would vanish.

Advantage of Quantification/ Measurement:-

It helps us to learn more about what we already know.
It gives exactitude & precision to our knowledge.
It helps in standardization by which we are assured of equivalences among objects of
diverse origin e.g. money is a quantifier of value.
It adds to efficiency. Efficiency & rationalization increase with calculability.
Quantification helps in testing & verification of hypothesis e.g. Durkheims study of
suicide.
It helps in operationalization of concepts.

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Strong proponents of the mystique of quantity go to the extent that, there
is no difference which is qualitative. All differences are quantitative only. Everything can
be seen in quantitative terms. They make a strong case of the need of measurement.

What is measurement?

Assignment of certain symbols, especially numerical symbols to a certain property of
indices or objects according to a certain rule.
Property i.e. being measured is called as magnitude.
Value of numerical symbol is called as measure.

Pre-requisites for measurement

If the object w.r.t. to the said property be arranged in an asymmetrical
transitive order, then we can devise scale to assignment value

Kinds of measurement
Fundamental
Derived

Derived measurements are based on fundamental measurements,
subjected to certain laws. There are different kinds of scales which can be created using
different rules. Sltiz for Johoda have given 4 kinds of scales.
1. Nominal scale
2. Ordinal scale
3. Interval scale
4. Ratio scale
Nominal Scale consists of 2 or more named category into which
individual or objects can be classified. The two Categories are different from each other
e.g. boys and girls.
There is no measurement of more of less. We can assign nos., or
alphabets for the categories. Nominal Scale is characteristic of exploratory research
where emphasis is on uncovering a relationship between 2 characteristics rather than on
specifying which some degree of precision, the mathematical form of relationship e.g.
classifying in terms of their personality type.
Ordinal Scale defines relative position of objects or individuals w.r.t. a
certain property with no implication as to the distinction between positions. E.g. this is
hotter than that but not how much hotter. Durkhiems solidarity can be pointed out in
ordinal scale.
Interval Scales not only are positions arranged relation to each other as
greater, equal or less, intervals of measurement are also equal e.g. 1,2,3, are
equidistant. But it does not tell us absolute zero e.g. what temperature is zero e.g. Likert
scales.
Ratio Scale fixes absolute zero as the starting point. Ratio Scale is more
advanced than Interval Scale. The various scales that we make use of are a combination
of 2 or more of these scales.




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Criticism of measurement

Measurement is perfect for natural science. But problems arise when we
use measurement in behavioural science. Abraham Kaplan says if you can measure it,
then, this isnt it i.e. you have measured something else; meaning you cannot succeed
is measuring human behaviour.
Positivist study on marital relations: subject complained that hes being
asked how often it is the only measurement of relation. In case of human affairs, a part
loses its meaning when it is separated from the whole. Kaplan called it as the mystique
of quality e.g. suicide rates- Durkheim did not quantify pain & suffering experienced
before suicide. It is reductionism. It prevents you from looking reality in its totality. It
introduces unwarranted sameness; therefore quantification is not possible.
Kaplan tries to resolve this debate by saying that, as such theres nothing
wrong in quantification as it increases efficiency, precision & accuracy; but the problem
is to decide adequate property & proper magnitude.






























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MAX WEBER


CONTEXT

Marxists: By the time, the ideas of Max Weber started floating around, a no. of German
scholars & Political thinkers had accepted Marxian ideology. Social Marxist party
accepted it as a dogma. It accepted all viewpoints partly, but rejected them as well,
while critically evaluating.

Neokantians: Neokantians like Dilthey, Rickert & Windelband, started with the
assumption that, reality is dualistic in nature. Social reality is fundamentally different
from natural reality because of presence of gist i.e. consciousness, because of this gist,
human beings respond to their environment meaningfully unlike physical objects which
respond to impersonal forces. Human behaviour cannot be understood without taking
underlying meaning & motives into consideration.

Motive: Motive is a complex of subjective meanings, which seems to the actor as an
adequate ground for his conduct - defined by Weber.

Neokantians believe that these meanings & motives cannot be known by
observation alone. These meaning & motives are highly variable; therefore no
generalization is possible. So, positive scientific approach cannot be used for study of
Social behaviour of man.

Positivism

Karl Menger: Advocated positive science approach. He advocated that sociology should
also be a positive science. Weber accepted Neokantian view about dualistic nature of
Social reality & pointed out that social science cannot be built on strategies of positive
sciences alone. While goal of positive sciences is to discover the pattern of inter-
connections through repeated observations, the goal of social science is to understand at
the level of meanings. (Thus, he tried to resolve that methodenstreit.)

Karl Berg: The fundamental assumption on which he developed his Sociology rests on
how he viewed persons in society.
Assumptions: Persons are cultural beings endowed with the capacity &
will to take a deliberate stance towards the world & to lend it meaning. Culture shapes
human beings but there is no pure cultural determinism, because they can still give
meanings & modify culture by deliberate will. Guided by these meanings, they act out
their behaviour.

Trying to synthesize positivism with Neokantianism, in Weberian sociology,
persons are genuine actors, capable of interpreting their social reality and of
initiating creative action. They do not mechanically act out their culture. Based on
their experience they modify it. In the light of life experience, they re-interpret it.

Weber There are no objective meanings that exist in history.
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(No independent spirit as Hegel talked of, Nor inevitable logic in history.
Meanings exist in the mind of the actor, though shaped by culture, but culture as
interpreted by them. Social action of individuals includes both social and subjective
meanings.

Rhine Hard Bendix: He said he was deparsonizing Weber. Action contains both
objective & subjective meaning. Sociology is a science concerning itself with
interpretative understanding of social action.

Social Action is fundamental unit of analysis. We shall speak of action in so
far as the acting individual attaches a subjective meaning to his behaviour, be it overt or
covert. Action is social in so far as its subjective meaning takes account of the behaviour
of others & is thereby oriented in its course

Meaning

Action: Human behaviour is action in so far as actor attaches subjective
meaning to his behaviour. No meaning, then, no action arrives at motives & gives
meaning. Why Social: It takes cognizance of others behaviour & is thereby oriented in
its course. Others need not be physically present; they may be present in consciousness
of actor.

Social action is a meaningful response oriented to others

Theodore Able: Clarified what Weber means. Every individual tries to arrive at meaning
of culture in its own way & arrive at behavioural maxims & these maxims guide our
behaviour.
Since Social action is determined by type of meanings, Weber developed
classification of social action based on kind of meanings involved. He invented
fourfold typology of social action based on four pure types of meanings.
1. Goal Rational/Zweck Rational Action.
2. Value Rational / Wert Rational Action.
3. Traditional Action
4. Affective Action

Distinguished in terms of kind of meanings that are involved-

1. Goal Rational Action Progressive utilization or utilization of progressively efficient
means to achieve specific & practical goal. This has pure instrumental orientation
that means are chosen to attain success in goals rationally decided upon. Goals are
specific & practical e.g. Cost benefit analysis. Means are also chosen purely because
of their efficiency. They are the best possible way of attaining those goals.
2. Value Rational Action The goals are dictated by the values which the actor
believes command him to achieve those goals .Goals are chosen because of
commitment to values but the means are rationally decided upon.
3. Traditional Action Actor chooses a course of conduct to maintain continuity with
the tradition. Meaning given is that, this is just the way it is done e.g. men in India
dont wear sarees.
4. Affective Action Sole purpose of performing the act is to express emotions e.g.
cuddling a baby, hurling abuses etc.
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They are only pure types of actions. Real meanings are infinite involving
many elements. For Weber, Sociology is interpretative understanding of social action.

Methodology

According to Weber, the cognitive aim of social science is more than
that of a natural science. Social science is not content only with discovering patterns
of inter-connection. Rather, it also tries to understand at level of meanings & motives.
An explanation in social science should be adequate at level of meanings & also at level
of casualty.
Disagreeing with Neokantians, he pointed out that all sciences try to
arrive at generalisation. So sociology is no different. But in sociology, we can have
limited generalizations i.e. only a thesis & not a theory.
Social research cannot be based on the strategies of natural sciences
alone since sociology is an interpretative study, so it has to understand underlying
meanings & motives & thus use other methods like:-

1. Verstehein (Borrowed from Neokantians)
2. Ideal types
3. Causal pluralism
4. Value neutrality

Verstehein:

Verstehein is interpretative understanding of social action, through
empathetic liaisons, in order to, trace the cause & effect of social action through a
sequence of motives.

It means, we try to interpret meanings & the underlying motives through
empathetic liaisons. Put yourself in the shoes of the actor to understand his behaviour.
Imaginatively establish a contact with the actor & then view the world from his eyes e.g.
Agatha Christies murder mysteries. Social life is a chain of interconnected action. So
there will be a sequence of motives. This sequence also has a causal significance. Relate
this to the consequences of action, so that the explanation is both meaningfully &
causally adequate.

2 Steps in Verstehein:

1. Stage of Direct Observational Understanding
2. Stage of Motivational Understanding

Direct Observational Understanding: Observe phenomena in its details & attribute
natural meanings to what we observe, like, positive science method.

Motivational Understanding: Try to find out the motive behind the action, and
interpret motives by establishing empathetic liaison.

Verstehein was already in use by Neokantians, they said that Weber did
not clarify much what he meant by Verstehein. He used it only in Protestantism study &
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not in others. Even in protestant ethics, he is taking into account the patterned meaning
of actor, the meaning that actors share in concert i.e. he is trying to explain how
Protestantism increased capitalism.
He takes Calvinism as one of the illustration of protestant sects.
Meanings dictated by Protestantism ideology were therefore shared meanings i.e.
culturally shaped. He does not look at actor as socially determined. Protestanists ended
up saying that what Weber was concerned about was actually the culturally shaped
meanings. He was not clear what he meant from Verstehein i.e. unique or collective
meanings.
Stephen Karlberg, Anthony Giddens, & later day Weber meant both. This
makes method more comprehensive & complete. His method of individualism resolves
structure v/s agency debate.

Structure- Established patterns exercising constraint & shaping behaviour. Used by
Protestanism & it considers that the Social Actor is passive.

Agency: Actor employing creativity & making conscious choice.

Individual vs. Society i.e. society shapes individual or individuals shape social reality.

Micro Sociology, Ethno-methodology & symbolic interactionism,
phenomenology--- Alfred Schutz, (founder, inspired by Weber & later on influenced
Garfinkel) inspired by Weber. So Verstehein can be applied at both macro & micro level.
While approaches of Emile Durkheim & Parsons can only be applied
for macro level analysis. Here, lies the superiority for Webers approach, as Giddens
says it is the approach of structuation -- in the course of interaction structures
constrain & are also enabling. Existing structure gets transformed & new form of
interaction emerges so it is both structure & agency in Webers approach.

Ideal type

What is it that we apply Verstehein to?
Weber Social reality is infinitely complex. Therefore human mind cannot
comprehend reality in its entirety. Selectivity is unavoidable. Only limited aspects of
reality are to be explored at a time. Selectivity is exercised by constructing ideal types.
An ideal type is formed by the one sided accentuation of one or more
points of view and by the synthesis of a great many, diffuse discrete, more or less
present & occasionally absent , concrete individual phenomena which are arranged
according to those one sided emphasized viewpoints into unified analytical construct. In
its conceptual purity, this mental construct cannot be found empirically anywhere
in reality.

Meaning: It is an analytical construct. Picture of reality consists of only
those things which are seen from that point of view. It depicts the world as it appears
from that point of view. The picture is built by us in terms of that point of view into a
unified model. It is a mental construct. In its pure form, it is never found in reality. Only
those episodes are synthesized which are in line with the point of view. It is not a true
description of reality. Karl Marxs 2 class model i.e. the Bourgeoisie & the
Proletariat, is an ideal type. Extreme forms of economic inequalities will result in the
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formation of 2 classes therefore conflict & change. Marx used only those viewpoints of
class which explained conflict & change.

No case in reality may resemble it. Most may fall within it. It is a rational
construct. It is not also an average type. It doesnt have those elements which are
occasionally found. It may have elements with may not be found. It is an ideal in the
realm of ideas. It is not an exhaustive description of reality. It is neither true nor false.
To evaluate ideal type, look out whether it successfully conveys that point of view. Ideal
type is not supposed to be a faithful & an adequate description of reality. So it can be
criticized on this ground.

Methodological utility of ideal type -

1. Selectivity is unavoidable. There is no other way to reach reality except through ideal
type. Same reality can be depicted through many ideal types.
2. It is a classificatory device e.g. actions, authority systems
3. It can also play a limited role in predicting social phenomenon. In case the social
reality approximates an ideal type, we can predict the likely consequences that will
follow, e.g., Marxs model of social change. The Naxalite movement may increase in
India because of increasing rural disparities. Age in men, drought, unemployment
resemble conditions of Marxian model. There is an increasing trend towards violent
conflict.
4. It can serve as a source for hypothesis. Hypothesis can be deduced which in turn
stimulates further research.
5. It can help in establishing logical interconnections between different social
constellations. Reality exists in cluster form i.e. different aspects exist in cluster form
e.g. capitalism, entrepreneur, technology.
6. An ideal type serves as the social science equivalent of experimentation in natural
sciences. It is a mental experiment. An experiment is a closed system; individual
selectivity of variables & then, interconnections between those variables is explored.

It can stimulate further research. So variables causing deviation of ideal
type from reality can trigger further research.

How to provide causal explanation?

Causal pluralism

Weber talks of two aspects;

1. Nature of Generalizations: Explanatory generalizations that sociology should
provide should be a thesis & not theory. Thesis is an indication of trends or
tendencies, that in social science, it cannot have precision like natural science.
2. Since each attempt to explore & explain phenomena consist of ideal type model &
not comprehensive explanation of reality, so such explanation is one of plausible
explanations. So explanation should be based on causal pluralism or multi-causal
explanation.

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So, he is Critical of Marxists in Germany, who tended to account for all
social phenomena in terms of a single economic cause or mono-causal economic
determinism.
In his later writings, Marx & Engels had conceded that super-structure also
influences the base. But, Marxist influenced by earlier Marxian writings tended to adopt
mono-causal explanation. In contrast, Weber suggested causal pluralism as a
methodological principle in social sciences.

Value Neutrality

Study of Social Phenomena should be based on value neutrality. Value
neutrality means that Weber did concede that value bias cannot be altogether
eliminated. Value should be confined to the area of technical competence i.e. the
area of value relevance e.g. you make a choice of the topic of research.
Even in course of research, which data are significant is a value based choice.
What interpretation is given to the documentary resources?

So, at the level of technical competence, values are unavoidable. But
beyond this, sociology should be value-free.

1. Sociologist should not carry any ideological assumptions during the course of his
research.
2. He should not propagate any values in the name of research.
3. Sociologist should be indifferent to moral implications of research. His job is to tell
the truth.
4. He should not pass evaluative judgment on the fact.
5. Social scientist should be value frank i.e. some values which are unavoidable & do
creep into research, then, at the end of the research, you must describe that these
values were chosen & make them explicit.

Value free science is useless, if the idea of Value Neutrality is stretched too far.

Criticism

Radical sociologists criticized the idea of Value Neutrality. In the name of
Value Neutrality, Social sciences have been decreased to the position of a
spectator, simply watching the game. By taking neutral stance, we are biased towards
dominant value. Duty of sociologist is social welfare & thus there are certain universal
values independent of any culture & sociologist must adhere to them. Sociologist
must take a moral stance while conducting research.
Standard American sociology -- moral & political neutrality, like
during Vietnam War, none took a stance that American policy was brutal & also played
havoc with the lives of American soldiers. Millions of Vietnamese were killed. Hippie
movement was an off-shoot against the war. Radical sociologist took up a moral stance
that this Value Neutrality is like delivering a lecture onboard a ship which is sinking.
Sociologists must adopt value stance.
But, it does not mean that while conducting research you become biased.
Knowledge is for social welfare, so value stance is necessary. To be neutral is to
legitimize status quo.

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PROTESTANT ETHICS & SPIRIT OF CAPITALISM

All aspects of methodology of Weber were made use of in this study.
Inter-connection between protestant religion & rise of capitalism was well established in
Webers time. Marx & Engels had explained the rise of Protestantism as legitimizing the
ideology of nascent capitalism.

Marxist explanation

1. Capitalism developed century before Protestantism which developed in Second half of
16
th
Century, while Mercantilist capitalism developed in 15
th
Century.
2. Engels pointed out that Catholicism had many tenets which were not conducive to
the growth of capitalism e.g. Catholicism condemned borrowing & lending of
money. Unlike Protestantism, that demanded from workers that their life should be
one with continuous good worth & thus, emphasized hard work & excellence in these
worldly pursuits.
Catholicism emphasized on periodic & occasional good works. Doctrine of
Predestination in Protestantism was a safeguard against the uncertainties of
business. Therefore, looking at economic system and religion in terms of base &
super-structure, Engels explains change in terms of gradual use of capital.
Rise of Protestantism as a protest against Roman cathedral was seen as the rise of a
new ideology which justified goals & life of rising bourgeoisie.

Marxist historians commenting on the Indian society said that, a similar
the trend in rise of Buddhism & Jainism, in response to rising of ancient trade &
commerce, emerged against Brahminical ideology.
Dawn Martindale has pointed out that Jainism can be compared with
quackers (one of the sect of Protestants). This may be very difficult to prove whether
Jainism or quacker facilitated rise of capitalism or vice-versa. One thing can be easily
estimated that both are co-related & both help each other. Marxists said
Protestantism was a response to early capitalism. Further proved by fact, most
protestant were either wealthy merchants or skilled workers. Even agriculturalists were
Protestants. Catholicism dominated areas were poor. However, Weber regarded this
kind of explanation a mono-causal one i.e. led by economic determinism.
Looking at economic forces as solely responsible for changes in super-structure

China

Most industrial inventions are of Chinese origin, but there was no rise of
modern capitalism i.e. an institutionalized pursuit of wealth where the whole economy
is geared towards generation of profit. Organization of production is on piece rate
system. Worker also wants to increase wages and entrepreneurs also want to increase
profits. Emphasis was on working less. System of ethics developed to regulate pursuit of
wealth. Ethics ensure that economic gains can be acquired on a sustainable basis. Only
modern capitalism is characterized by a spirit of gaining project.

Western Europe

Developed modern capitalism. Look for other causes that contributed to the rise of
capitalism in addition to economic causes. Ethos of western societies must be looked
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into. On the bases of historical records found in Germany, wealthy were Protestants &
poor were Catholics. So ethos was those of Protestants. There is an empirical evidence of
the 2 being correlated.

Application in of ideal type of & Verstehein to show change, how they are
corrected

While talking of protestism, Weber scanned through doctrines of
protestant sects- Calvinism, Methodism, Baptist, peitists. Among them were ideas which
could be logically connected to the rise of capitalism. Ideal types help in establishing
causal correlation between social constellations. Protestantism is social constellation.
Weber selected those sects of Protestants, in which case, causal link can be most easily
demonstrated i.e. ideal types.
He found that among these sects, the best demonstration is that of
Calvinist. Engels demonstrated that Calvinist was true bourgeoisie religion suited to
urban bourgeoisie rather than rural. Convenience of demonstration is the basis of
selecting Calvinists. While selecting Calvinists he selects doctrine of pre-destination as it
can be easily linked with capitalism.
He tries to establish causal chain through Verstehein. As per the doctrine
of predestination, solution for man is predestined. As per Christianity, the ultimate goal
is the salvation of man. According to Catholicism, priestly class helps people to achieve
salvation, help pray, & also helps in sin absolvement. It is against this pope & priestly
orders that Protestantism emerged. It says that no intermediaries are required between
man & god. Each man should approach god directly.
God is transcendent. Gods wish can neither be known nor changed. Those
who are select by of God, attain salvation. This issue is already decided before birth.
Priests can only act as middle man between man & god. Since gods wish cannot be
changed, so priest can do nothing. Dispensed with the role of priest, priest provided
emotional support to believers.

DOCTRINE OF PREDESTINATION

1. Taking salvation is obligatory. Start with the premise that you are bound to win.
2. Life has been given to man by god with a purpose. Man is the instrument of his will.
Purpose is to demonstrate his glory. Work that we do must be seen as a calling that
has to be pursued with utmost seriousness & sincerity. If we succeed in this world,
its a proof of being selected by God. (There is no reason to believe that god should
pursue his glory on damned.) Since this life is given to man by God with a purpose, it
should not be wasted on the pleasures of flesh.

Protestants devoted all their efforts to succeed in these worldly
pursuits. Further, evidence in writings of protestant writers like Benjamin Franklin,
Richard Baxter etc. gain spirit & and ethical regulation of conduct in the pursuit of wealth
is fully demonstrated e.g. in one of the writings that is necessary hints to those that
would be rich. Benjamin Franklin wrote to young entrepreneurs, Time is money, dont
squander it in pleasure seeking. Save the money & invest it. Dont spend it. Build trust
among friends. Have market reputation. Pay loans in time. Your hard work assures the
creditor.
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Weber arrived at the view, that Protestantism helped in fostering a
particular kind of mindset i.e. hard work, efficiency, risk talking, organizing
enterprise, frugal living, careful management of money.

These traits of mindset are called the Spirit of capitalism.
According to Weber, capitalism is a rational organization of economic conduct.
Protestants contributed in rational organization of mind set. Modern capitalism developed
in areas dominated by protestant ethos. Thus, he established a causal chain in terms of
subjective motives of Protestants.

Views of writers are an idealized version. Nobody lives the ideals fully.
Even Franklin lived luxuriously. But, such ideals do channelize your efforts. In his later
work, General Economic History, he identified the various factors with contributed to
the rise of capitalism. According to Weber, it was not only the protestant ethics leading
to rise of capitalism and thus replacing one mono-causal explanation by other. He
adhered to his principle of causal pluralism. In general economic history, he identified
various factors which can be shown in the flow-chart form as demonstrated by
Jonathan Turner.




Protest









Religion is not necessary, even secular ideology can play this role.
Weber also attempted a comparative study of many religions: China, India, Catholicism,
Islam etc. He compared them in terms of their attributes.

Religion can be either:-

Inner Worldly
World affirmation ethos e.g.
Protestantism if your succeeded here,
you will get salvation. Pursuit of wealth is
god given duty & no longer, greed.
Other Worldly
World rejection ethos e.g. Islam ultimate
goal is to prepare yourself for Qyamat.
Hinduism: World is Maya. Goal is nirvana
Religion can be characterized by
Asceticism
Man is seen as an instrument of gods
will. Mans life has to be strictly regulated
& disciplined
Mysticism
Man is like a vassal of god i.e. smaller
god. Conduct is so organized as to
acquire characteristics like divinity & so
try to be divine like.
Catholicism Lutheranism Calvinism
Baptism
Methodist
Pietist etc
Spirit of
Capitalism
Modern
Capitalism
Tech (industry) structural changes
law (calculable) wage labour
(contractual) free market
(breakdown of guilds) Joint Stock
Co. Pvt. Property accounting
produced political centralism
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They can be combined as:
Inner worldly asceticism inner worldly mysticism
Other worldly asceticism other worldly mysticism
Inner worldly asceticism: Ideology with Inner worldly asceticism is conductive to
rise of capitalism. As it results in rationalization of mindset & capitalism is rational
transformation of society.

Other worldly asceticism: Hindu sadhus have asceticism for other worldly goals.

Nationalism (Inner worldly asceticism)- In 3
rd
world countries, nationalism is
responsible for the rise of capitalism. People paid taxes. These were used for building
infrastructure & industrialization; an attempt to discipline life & divert your efforts to the
inner worldly goals.

Industries are temples of modern India. Confucianism, Hinduism & Islam lacked Inner
worldly asceticism.

CRITICISM
Webers thesis has also been criticized:

1. Tawny: According to this British Historian, Capitalism 1
st
developed in England, but
English Protestants were puritans & not Calvinists. However, this can be defended as the
criticism is based on the reading of protestant ethics & spirit of capitalism not on
methodological essays. Ideal type need not be present always.
Puritans do not believe in the doctrine of predestination. But Weber was only
constructing ideal type. Inner worldly asceticism is true of all Protestants. Only the
convenience of showing a causal link, was the basis of his using the doctrine of
predestination. All Protestants emphasized on these worldly goals. Puritans are known
for frugal life, they Re-invested profits.

2. Capitalism cannot be sustained by asceticism. If no consumer will be there, how will
capitalism sustain. Asceticism can take care of supply side, but not demand. Capitalism
is rather based on hedonistic tendencies.
It can be defended, as hedonism is characteristic of advanced capitalism.
Early entrepreneur capitalists needed asceticism for capital formation. Weber was aware
that these are unanticipated consequences of protestant ethos.

3. Werner Sombert: Accepted both Marx & Webers views. Entrepreneurial spirit was
crucial for rise of capitalism. He traced the development of capitalism in 3 stages: early
capitalism ending before Industrial revolution; high capitalism belonging to 1760; late
capitalism beginning with WW-I. He explains-
I. Entrepreneurs were drawn from all sections of society.
II. Role played by Jews: Jews were marginal men. marginal men (socially &
culturally marginalized) do well financially. As marginal men seek security in lieu
of financial success, Jews supply capital to entrepreneurs. Jews were the 1
st
to
develop banking system.
III. Precious metal: Europe lacked precious metal i.e. gold & silver. Europeans did not
have much to return to India & China. They paid in gold & silver because of
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colonialisation of Latin America. Spaniards were first to bring bullion. Inflow of
precious metals played an important role.
IV. He agreed that protestant ethics emphasized hard work while deferring
gratification.

4. Marxists like Andre Gundar, Frank Walerstein, Lenin pointed out the role of
colonial rule, that colonial rule facilitated the use of capitalism. Once colonialism was
gone, Britain decreased to the status of most developed of developing countries.
Colonies were cheap source of raw material which was invested into business.

CLASSIFICATION OF DOMINATIONS/ AUTHORITY SYSTEMS AS GIVEN Y WEBER

Weber initiated systematic study of power & authority. According to
Weber, Power refers to the chances of an individual or a group to realize its will through
Communal action even in face of resistance by other. Chances mean probability.
Power is a resource by which an individual or a group through coordinated effort is able
to realize its goals even in the face of resistance by others, this is the conflict view of
power because basic assumption is that society is characterized by conflicting interests.
One group realizes power by thwarting other groups goals or interests. Total distribution
of power in society is constant. If one gains, other loses. It is also called Zero sum
concept because Positive and negative neutralize each other & the net result is
zero.
Though in the last resort, power relies on coercion but coercion
cannot be the basis for sustained exercise of power e.g. Kashmir. Total no. of
terrorists may not be greater than 2000, security forces are nearly 5 lakhs. Terrorism
prevalent since 1988; coercion cannot to make it peaceful.
Power can be sustained & be effective only when those over whom
is in exercised, accept the exercise of power as just and rightful i.e. legitimate.
Legitimate power is authority. The manner in which legitimacy is gained is the basis of
classification of domination by Weber. The manner in which legitimacy is gained is
related to the type of social action that predominates social life.
Societies where traditional action is the most common & the dominant
type of social action are characterized by traditional authority. Where social life
corresponds more & more to goal rational action, authority system is legal rational
authority. Corresponding to affective action, authority is charismatic authority.
He was not able to suggest the type of authority correspondent to wert
rational action. So classification of authority system is only 3 fold:

Traditional authority

Commands issued by authority are deemed to be just & valid. These
commands happen to be in accordance with custom
Traditional Authority
Patriarchialism Patrimonialism
1. Authority exercised in very small
scale societies e.g. Household,
Hoarders & bands of tribes e.g.
Bushmen of Kalahari
2. Like in feudal households in Europe,
- More advanced characteristic of large scale
agrarian society e.g. medieval kingships
i.e. Sultanism (Sultan of Turkey)
- Inheritance is the basic principle of
recruitment. Administrative staff consist of
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authority acquired by inheritance or
eldest male member in the group
exercises authority.
3. Authority is exercised as joint right on
behalf of group as a whole.
4. Compliance does not depend on
formal apparatus for enforcement of
law e.g. police, courts
5. No clearly defined administrative
staff.
6. Authority of incumbent depends on
consent of group.
7. Authority is exercised in accordance
with customary norms rather than
formal enactments i.e. eternal
yesterday govern today.
8. Obedience is directly to the master or
the individual concerned, rather than
to any set of formal rules. Loyalty is
personal.
(India unevenly modern macro-
structure in traditional society e.g.
Bureaucrats with personal loyalty.
Functioning of bureaucracy is like
traditional authority )
hierarchy of the officers e.g. India earlier
congress dynasty. Now in almost every
party inheritance is according to customary
rules e.g. British monarchy
- Loyalty is personal
- Recruitment consists of favorites. Personal
trust & loyalty is the basis, not efficiency.
- No rational system of rewards given to
favorites. It does not constitute career for
them
- Commands are obeyed because they are
seen as inherent in the office.
- Deemed valid as long as they do not
contravene the customs. Thus,
arbitrariness in exercise of demand as long
as it falls within scope of customary rules.
- No clear cut demarcation of boundaries or
demands of authority limits to authority
are defined in a vague & imprecise
manner. Task specialization tends to be
minimal.
- The system resists bureaucratization
- No clear separation between sphere of
official competence & personal
competence.


Legal Rational Authority (LRA)

With the process of rationalization in social life, there is increased
predominance of goal rational action & therefore, Nature of authority system changes
towards legal rational authority.
He defines bureaucracy, which he regards as, an ideal type model of LRA
as large scale organizations are rationally designed to coordinate the activities of many
individuals in pursuit of organizational goal. Legitimacy depends upon rational laws. It is
not mindless pursuit of customs. Any conduct is chosen because it is the efficient way of
doing things.

Attributes of Bureaucracy

Tasks to be performed in the pursuit of organizational goals are
organized as offices & thus, activities to be discharged are treated as official duties. Each
official has already defined area of responsibilities. Tasks are broken into manageable
activities. These offices are arranged in hierarchy.

Hierarchy acts as a chain of command in which information flows from
bottom to top while decisions from top to bottom. Decisions are made on the basis of
abstract (general) rational values. Rules are general to any situation. Rules are
efficient & lay down fixed procedures for performance of task. Clearly define
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limits held by officials. Every decision is a case of application of general rules to a
situation. Those who issue commands are also subject to same rules.

Loyalty is to the rules. Bureaucracy is supposed to act in a way of
formalistic impersonality i.e. adhere to the form of rule & keep personal likes & dislikes
at abeyance. His actions are therefore rational & not affective. Recruitment of
incumbents is according to their competence, technical skills & efficiency. There is a
rational system of rewards. Work in bureaucracy is a full time career. There is a
clear separation between official & private life. LRA is a result of rationalization process.
It is an institutionalized form of rational action.

Limitation
Bureaucrats serve vested interests as acts in a rule bound manner value
order & resist change- Dehumanizing consequences of Bureaucracy. Only do what
he is expected to do. Tends to produce specialists without spirit. Strict control of
official is a limitation of freedom.

The process of rationalization of which bureaucracy is a part, is primarily
irrational. But unavoidable, as it is most efficient type of organisation. As society is
moving towards rationalization, so authority system has to be LRA. It is the most
efficient because recruitment is on basis of efficiency. (Act in accordance with rational
rules.) Formalistic impersonality keeps idiosyncrasies in check. We can
subordinate bureaucracy to political head. It will ensure role of bureaucracy in public
interest as political head is an elected member e.g. ancient Egypt, China, later stages of
Roman Empire.

CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY

From Greek word charisma i.e. gift of grace, an exceptional superhuman capability.

Basis of authority: Belief in charisma of leaders. Leader is seen as a
supernatural individual with exceptional qualities. Charismatic authority is a
product of crisis i.e. it develops in times of crisis when existing authority system cannot
help in achieving requisite goals. It leads to breakdown of authority system e.g.
Hindu belief of avatar. Belief in charisma of leader gives rise to obedience. Relation is
characterized by affective action. There is an un-questioned devotion to the leader,
thus extraordinary powers of the leader & the felt duty by followers form the basis of
legitimacy.

Offices in a charismatic authority system are assigned on the basis
of shared charisma. Other functionaries also have similar charismatic authority. No
formal appointments & careers. No formal rules & no well defined hierarchy. Only tasks
that are unquestioned followed. Spontaneous obedience of commands of leaders e.g.
Osama Bin Laden, Christ, Prophet Mohammad, Lenin, Mao, Gandhi.

This flexibility is because of lack of rigid hierarchy & formal rules
makes it highly adaptive & provides revolutionary are potential. Most revolutions led by
charismatic leaders. It carries the potential to bring drastic changes as it is not
bound by any rule. So it can act in a very flexible & adaptive fashion. This is another
factor responsible for change.
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There are no Charismatic leaders in the west anymore, because of no
crisis, & goals can be achieved through social institutional machinery. In 3
rd
world
society, institutions are floundering. Pre-industrial to Industrial society transition cannot
be held by institutional norms. So charismatic leaders still have an appeal in the 3
rd

world societies.

However, charismatic authority has a built in instability. It is inherently
unstable if charisma fails e.g. Bhindranwala, Hitler etc. If charismatic leader succeeds,
charismatic authority comes to an end because now authority has to stabilize & think of
day to day needs e.g. Churchill lost elections after WW-II. Castro continues to be
charismatic because of stagnant Cuban economy & continuous attacks by US on his life.
Authority system has to adapt to day to day routine i.e. routinization of charisma. This
authority Changes to LRA or TA if the leader dies or becomes too old, authority can be
acquired only by a person equally perceived as charismatic, this problem of change is
resolved by --
1. Looking for someone with similar traits.
2. Designation by the existing leader
3. Selection of new leader is made in a mystical manner i.e revelation e.g. Dalai Lama.

Charismatic authority can develop in any society. However, Bureaucracy is
indispensable for modern industrial society.
Debate: 2 Major Issues

1. Problem of control: Can bureaucracy be controlled & made responsive to the
people? Is it possible to bring bureaucracy subordinate to political head.
Empirical studies have shown that the effectiveness of controlling bureaucracy
is very limited.

Seymour Lipset studied a province in Canada which was ruled by Right wing party. But
when left wing came to power, Lipset tried to find out that to what extent leftists were
able to control bureaucracy. But Bureaucracy was unsympathetic of political ideas. They
defied political orders, so he concluded that bureaucracy is difficult to control

Selzinck: His study of Tennessee valley authority; small farmers to be administered by
agricultural departments. During training, policies in favour of vested interest are
formed.

India: Failure of land reform: How can bureaucracy be made responsible. Lack of
political will & connivance of bureaucracy with landed classes led to the failure of
reforms. Barely 1% was declared surplus that was not re-distributed. Hare Krishna
Konar Leader of land reforms. Bargadars were mobilized to reveal information about
benami holdings & CPM supported it. Bureaucracy was pressured both from below &
above. If there is lack of thrust below & lack of political will, then bureaucracy is
ineffective.

2. Bureaucratic structure that he has suggested is rule bound, rigid debate
between formal & informal structure or judicious use of both, which is the best?
Studies show that formal structure not always necessarily efficient.

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R.K. Merton: Routine regulatory tasks are efficient. Emergent Situation: Rule bound
system is not efficient. Rule is a norm based on past pattern. Formalistic
impersonality: Bureaucracy is indifferent to public grievances.

Peter Blau, Alvin Gouldner, Burn & Stalker Studied Japanese management -
Combined elements of formal & informal structure. Familial ties created within
organisation. So successful, firm acted like one extended family. Japan already has a
tradition of strong family loyalty, so this was adapted to modern needs.

Toffler: Rigid hierarchical bureaucracy is on way out & it will give way to adhocracy

Marxists: Tried to give alternative systemlike, socialism.

Lenin: Believed there would be a steady decline of bureaucracy after establishing
dictatorship of proletariat. All would be bureaucrats for a time as administrative tasks
would be simplified. No special occupational roles. But after revolution of 1917, no
dismantling of state bureaucracy. Infact, bureaucracy has been seen as organizational
principle of Soviet Union.

M Djilas- Political bureaucrats in USSR directed economy for their own benefit.

David lane: Central administration has been a major instrument in ensuring
industrialisation. This has benefited the whole society. But, undoubtedly socialism has
not resulted in dismantling of bureaucratic structure.

Mao: Cultural Revolution

Yeochi king: Mao placed control in the hands of masses by
1. Role shifting: leaders at the base of organisation to empathize with masses &
minimize status difference.
2. Group based decision making system: Workers directly participating. But it was a
short-lived experiment which waned with Maus departure.

Robert Michels: Political Parties: Study of European socialist parties & Trade Unions,
particularly German Socialist Party.
Assumption: Democracy is inconceivable without organization, because it
helps in voicing the wishes and interests of relatively powerless.
However organization sounds the death knell of democracy. Direct
participation by members in running an organization is impossible. Once representative
democracy is established, it leads to creation of bureaucracy which by its very nature is
undemocratic.
Special Division of Labour results in decision being taken by relatively
few. This produces oligarchy. The Iron law of oligarchy. States that the primary concern
of the leader is to maintain to own position. Displacement of goals results.
Masses have psychological need to be led & leaders become cultural
figures. So leaders see their own interests & the maintenance of organisation is
indistinguishable in the name of socialism, dictatorship in the hands of powerful leaders
will result.


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Union Democracy Lipset, Trow & Coleman

I.N. Typographical Union: Provides exception to the iron law of
oligarchy. It contains 2 parties which helps in keeping a constant check on the party in
power & to generate alternative policies to the existing. Frequent elections mean that
rank & file can actually determine union policy. Many decisions are put to referendum.

This ensures a high degree of partnership. The factors responsible for this organizational
structure are:
1. Strong identification with craft.
2. (Organizing social clubs which helped in developing political skills is relatively
apathetic).
3. The income of leaders & workers is almost same, so that leaders dont hesitate in
returning to the shop floor.

However, they agree that large scale organization requires
bureaucratic structure. The masses are not interested in participation in union affairs.
The higher salaries of leaders lead them to institutionalize dictatorial mechanism. Even in
representative democracies, the salaries of officials are much higher then the rank & file.
Officialdom of the union defines the choices available to the organization and its
members.

Philip Selznick: In his study of Tennessee Valley Authority: Selznick argues that
primary need of the organization is survival for which it has to cooperate with the local
power structure & in the process, the ideals for which the organisation was set up, are
lost.
As long as there are major power differences within the clientele of
organization, popular representation & participation in decisions of organization will not
be possible.
He proved this point by his study of Tennessee Valley Authority, which
aimed at local participation for ensuring proper representation of the masses. However,
the gains drained into the pockets of wealthier farmers vis, cheap supply of fertilizers,
retaining land around dam.

Lipset questions Webers assumptions that parliamentary control can be an
effective means of making the bureaucracy responsive to the ends of the people. On the
basis of his study of Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) government, in the
province of Sasketchewan in Canada, Lipset found that the entrenched bureaucracy was
successfully able to scuttle the reformist politics of this new socialist government.

AN ASSESSMENT OF WEBER

Webers contribution to modern sociology is multidimensional so much
so that, he can be considered as one of the founding fathers of modern sociology
.He contributed a new perspective on the nature of subject matter of sociology and laid
down the foundations of interpretative sociology. He carried out a penetrating analysis
of crucial features of western society like Social stratification, bureaucracy,
rationality and growth of capitalism. He devoted his efforts to building up typologies, yet
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most of his efforts were directed primarily towards building typologies and
generalizations of empirical nature.

By viewing the subject matter of sociology in terms of social action, he
highlighted the significance of subjective meanings and motives in understanding social
behaviour. This view of Weber presented an alternative and a corrective to the positivist
approach in sociology.

Another great contribution of Weber lies in enriching the methodology of social
science.
Ideal type: Given the complex and variegated nature of social reality,
Weber believed that it cannot be comprehensively understood by the human mind in a
single attempt. Therefore an attempt to study social reality must take one aspect of
social reality into account at a time.
Weber thought that methods of positive science alone are
inadequate for a comprehensive study of social behaviour and needed to be
supplemented by new methods which are characteristic of social science. However,
Weber has been criticized on this account by Alfred Schultz. According to him,
Verstehein is not a method but a particular form in which human thinking takes
cognizance of the social and cultural world, while having nothing to do with the
interpretation.
Webers study of power, authority, bureaucracy etc. have stimulated
research in political sociology and studies of political parties, political elite and
pressure groups, voting behaviour, bureaucracy and political changes in developed and
developing societies both.
Weber was one of the earliest sociologists, to try to study economic
behaviour in its social context. This approach initiated by Weber influenced many
scholars. Sombert, Schumpeter and John Strachey have attempted to deal with
economic phenomena in the context of the social structure as a whole, rather than
treating it in isolation, as had been the practice before.
A direct influence of Weber can be seen in Schumpeters work. At one
place Weber wrote that, puritans wanted work as a calling. This point has been
elaborated by Schumpeter also. He argues in his book that the decay of capitalism
(idealism will be largely caused by the rejection of bourgeoisie values and not economic
breakdown. Further, on the lines suggested by Webers work Parsons and Smelser
have attempted to show in their book Economy and Society that economic theory
is only a part of the general sociological theory. Arthur Lewis who in his book The
theory of Economic Growth has highlighted the significance of sociological factors like
the desire for goods, Attitude to work, influence of property system, social mobility, the
religious and family structures, population growth, the role of government etc. in
determining economic growth.
Weber conceded at the outset that, perfect causality is not possible
in social sciences. According to Bottomore, such statements would run like this,
whenever there are conditions, of the kind C there will be a trend of the kind T. This
approach is exemplified in Webers studies on the origin of capitalism, development of
modern bureaucracy and the economic influence of world religions. The same approach
has been followed by C.W Mills in his work White Collar workers.
Webers theory of social stratification and his views on the nature of socialism
show a greater correspondence with empirical reality as compared to those of Marx.

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Frankfurt School of thought namely Adoma, Marcuse, Habermans etc.

Although Weber appreciated the technical advantages of bureaucratic
organisation, he was also aware of its disadvantages. He saw the strict control on
human freedom and the uniform and rational procedures of bureaucratic
practice as preventing spontaneity, creativity and individual initiative. Weber
saw the danger of bureaucrats becoming preoccupied with uniformity and order, losing
sight of all else, becoming dependent on the security provided by the highly structured
niche in the bureaucratic machine. He believed that, as if they were deliberately to
become men who need order and nothing but order, they would become nervous and
cowardly and if for one moment this order wavered they would feel helpless as if they
were torn away from their total incorporation in it.
Weber was fearful to the ends to which bureaucratic organisations could
be directed. They represented the most complete and effective institutionalization of
power so far created. In Webers eyes, bureaucracy has been and is a powerful
instrument of the first order, for the one who controls the state bureaucratic
administration. He saw two main dangers if this control was left in the hands of
bureaucrats themselves. Firstly, particularly in times of crisis, bureaucratic leadership
would be ineffective. Bureaucrats are trained to follow order and conduct routine
operations rather than to make policy decisions and take initiatives in response to a
crisis. Secondly, in capitalist practices, to fit the demands of capital. Weber believed
that these dangers could only be avoided by the strong practices to fit the demands of
capital. Weber believed that these dangers could only be avoided by the strong
parliamentary control of the state bureaucracy.
Bureaucratic Structure & personality: The bureaucrat is trained to
comply strictly with the rules but, when situations arise which are not covered by the
rules this training may lead to inflexibility and timidity. The bureaucrat has not been
taught to improvise and innovate and in addition, he may well be afraid to do so. His
career incentive shushes as promotions are designed to reward conformity.
Displacement of goals: There is a tendency, for conformity to the official
regulation to become an end in itself, rather than, the means to an end. Thirdly the
emphasis on impersonality in bureaucratic procedures may lead to friction between
officials and the public.
PETER BLAU AND ALVIN GOULDNER FORMAL AND INFORMAL STRUCTURE &
degree of bureaucratization: There is over emphasis on elements of formal structure
in the ideal type.
Similarly Alvin Gouldner, on the basis of his studies of a gypsum plant in
USA shows that formal structures may not always be effective in attaining organizational
goals. In fact, the type of organizational structure depends upon the nature of goals to
be attained and the nature of environment in which goals are to be pursued.
Twenty Scottish and English firms, mainly in the electronics industry which
are formal and rigid and are termed mechanistic system by them, are suitable for
dealing with predictable familiar and routine situations. Since change is a hallmark of a
modern society, mechanistic type of bureaucratic organisation may well be
untypical of the future.
In the organic type of organisations the areas of responsibility are not
clearly defined. The rigid hierarchies and specialized division of labour of mechanistic
system tends to disappear.
Tasks are shaped by the nature of the problem rather than
instructions and decisions. Although a hierarchy exists, it tends to become blurred as
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communication travels in all directions and top management no longer has the sole
prerogative over important decisions nor is it seen to monopolize knowledge necessary
to make them.

Idea of equality & social justice what is good for sociology justice is not good for
growth?
Democratic state needs legitimacy in terms of votes. Adopt a policy
which is pro-poor & pro-growth. So, legitimation crisis is built in. More legality is not
legitimacy.

CRITICISM OF WEBER

Verstehein: There is great deal of scope for subjectivity & verification is not possible in
terms of objective criteria that they indeed were meanings & motives.
Ideal types; questioned by Parsons & Hampell. Webers ideal types are not derived
from a general theory. Ideal Types should be reduced from general theory framework of
society as a whole. They are type atomism i.e. intuitive, isolated & lack coherence. There
is a lot of subjectivity in building ideal types.

Estate System: Feudal society was divided into nobility, clergy, commoners, serfs. Each
estate governed by difference of laws.
Lloyd Warners classification: Education is one of the criteria of class differentiation.

Goldthorpe & Lockwood: they questioned the importance of technology in shaping
workers attitude & behaviour as given by Blauner. Reject Blauners positivist approach
in favour of social action perspective, closer to phenomenological approach. They Study
Lutton: Affluent worker-- sample 250 men in 3 firms which employed a range of
production techniques.

Intrinsic job satisfaction: Similar to Blauners result.
Instrumental Orientation: Similar in all workers. Work is a means to an end. Money is
the primary consideration.

Instrumental Collectivism: Join trade unions as they regard trade unions as means to
personal ends rather than seeing group solidarity as an end in it. This is because they
are more family centered, satisfy their affective needs in family; so dont look for these
needs at work. Thus, their alienation is not because of work.
Wedderburn & Crompton: The general orientation of the worker i.e.
instrumental orientation is not influenced by technology. Work related attitudes &
behaviour are influenced by production techniques.
Samuel Bowles & Herbert Gintis: The alienated characteristic of work
cannot be ascribed to modern techniques, but is a product of class & power relationship
of economic life.

Fragmentation of tasks: Justified on grounds of efficiency. It is actually a means of
control based on the Principle of divide & conquers Because, If all workers could
perform all tasks, they may band together & go into production for themselves. It would
divide the legitimacy of employers authority to control.
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Hierarchical Principle of authority & control: Large No. of studies disapprove this --
More the control of worker, more they produce. Infact hierarchical principle is the
primary instrument of control. The organisation of work is a means for maintaining the
power of ruling class.

ALIENATION

It Means to be estranged, detached or a feeling of helpless. First used by
Hegal. External world is shaped by spirit. As it is alienated from its source, it stands as
objective reality. Adopted by young Hegelians like Fuerbach - Idea of god is self-
alienation of man. It is divinized essence of man.
Marx was influenced by Fuerbachs ideas. Further developed into
socio-psychological conditions rather than meta-physical ideas. It appears in the ideas of
young Marx in his book Das Capital; he uses the word exploitation, not alienation. Uses
alienation in Paris manuscript. In this, he developed this concept systematically.
Alienation: It is a state of mind caused by Social circumstances i.e.
socio-psychological condition. According to Marx, man is alienated from nature and has
no control over it. Thus, he develops Forces of Production to control nature. In this
process, alienation reaches to the social sphere. As some kind of market exchange
develops, alienation begins. Work or labour is distinctive characteristic of human species.
Work is self affirming activity by which man affirms himself & humanity.

Objectification of labour

Labour is converted to an object. This Object is the embodiment of labour.
When fruits of production are exchanged as commodity in return of money, it leads to
alienation of labour. Through this, man expresses humanity as products are used by
others. As private property develops, social alienation grows & reaches a height in
capitalism, where labour is also treated as commodity. Worker sells his labour for wages.
1) Relationship becomes purely contractual.
2) All social relations are devoid of humanity, compassion & feeling. Man is alienated
from society.

Man is also alienated from his work because what & how it to be
produced is is decided by capitalist. Capitalist is also alienated because, mere profit
drives him. Profit rather than mutual concerns determine what is to be produced. So
capitalist is also alienated. Worker is the producer, but has no say on it. So he is
Alienated from production. So labour power is siphoned off from him. Within capital
system, more a worker works, more he loses out as his only power labour is sold to
the capitalist & in return only his animal needs are satisfied. Work instead of being an
end in itself becomes a means to survival which becomes a life worse than an animal, as
no animal is enslaved to another animal to survive. Man just gets mere subsistence. Man
gets alienated from his true self. In his leisure time, only man seeks meaning. Work is
stupefying & exhausting. As man gets alienated from his own essence, he surrenders
before god.

Religion is soul of heartless world, It is sigh of an anguished creature, It is
opium of masses. Religion benumbs his senses to misery rather than treating him.
Religion directs his attention away from looking into real reasons of misery. Man does
not think of corrective action. Religion is a false consciousness. It comes in the way of
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the rise of collective conscience. Both the worker & capitalist are alienated from their
true essence.
Here lies the flaw. Man agrees with domination over nature, he should
live in harmony. The Institution of property is a problem. Industrial society does
dehumanize man. Concern for creativity in work becomes hollow because of goal is
determined by profits, monetary rewards, etc.

Weber: Industrial society alienates man. Actually it is an inevitable process of
rationalization. Rationalization means progressive advancement in terms of formalistic
rationality. Continuous advance in terms of 4 parameters:-
1. Increased efficiency
2. Increasing calculability i.e. monetization is more calculable alternative
3. Increasing predictability
4. Increasing control

Private property is result of formalistic rationality. With Industrial society, every aspect
of life has become calculable. Money is a calculable index of success. Increasing
predictability by discovering underlying pattern. if predictability increases then control
becomes easy.

Substantive rationality: Different goals & values you are seeking should become more
& more compatible with each other. If you achieve one, it enhances your chances in
achieving other. Advance in formalistic rationality has been achieved at the cost of
Substantive rationality.

Sylvester Stallone Rich but wants stable married life. But failed on 2
nd
front. 2 goals
cannot mutually comply because of formalistic rationality.

Compulsive conformity to rational rules robs work of all its meaning. Creates
metaphysical pathos & absurdity of life. Compulsive conformity to rational rules
enhances formalistic rationality, but it is achieved at the cost of Substantive
rationality. Compatibility of diverse goals is lost. Loss of Substantive rationality
results in alienation. Private Property is the consequence of formalistic rationality.

Andregorz: Alienation at work leads the worker to seek self fulfillment in leisure. Just
the way capitalist guides his work activities, so does he guide his leisure activities. It
creates passive consumer who seeks satisfaction in consumption of these goods. Leisure
provides a means of escape to the problem than an active solution to it.
More recently Herbert Marcuse, who was form Frankfurt school in his
book One dimensional man has talked of alienation in contemporary society.
Conditions of work improved, 40 hrs/week work only; so leisure time increase so also
income. Alienatation has remained same. Work has become stupefying & meaningless.
There is Deskilling & standardization of work, and hence is creativity destroyed. Work
has ceased to have intrinsic meaning for worker. Even leisure time activities were
equally stupefying to satisfy false needs created by mass media. At best it causes short
term euphoria on foundations of unhappiness. Neither work nor leisure has any meaning,
there is misery in midst of plenty. He suggested the term Happy Consciousness which
describes false belief that the system delivers the goods; it is more than appropriate
than the Marxist phrase false class consciousness.

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C.W. Mills

Alienation has acquired a new form in advanced industrial society. With economic
development, there is an expansion in the tertiary sector. The demand for skills with
things have given way to skills with persons i.e. manipulating humans, how well you can
influence others, is the value now .They are selling other personality i.e. prostitution of
personality. Their true self is destroyed; worker ceases to be aware of his true self.
Seaman: Alienation has 5 dimensions
1. Anomie: Normlessness in case of social alienation. There are different
manifestations of alienation.
2. Self estrangement: Not at peace with oneself (I am not my kind of guy)
3. Meaninglessness
4. Loneliness
5. Helplessness

American sociologists have tried to empirically study this phenomenon.
Robert Blauner: Alienation & Freedom, Related alienation to the kind of technology,
he Selected different kind of industries & related them to alienation
Control on work process - powerlessness
Meaning & sense of purpose in work - meaninglessness
Degree of social integration in work - isolation
Degree of involvement in work - self estrangement
Printing & Craft industry There is Special division of labour. Finished product is
meaningful. High involvement in community & trade union, no Isolation due to all these
and there is no self estrangement.

Textile industry- machine work, which is supervised. There is No control over pace of
work. Work is at pace of machine lending to Powerlessness. Division of labour, little skill
involved & little contribution to the finished product, so there is Meaninglessness.
Workers have close unit communities, so no isolation. Traditional outlook & lower
aspirations & lower level of education so low self estrangement.

Automobile/assembly line industry Job predetermined by engineers, line controls
the speed of work, Strict supervision so powerlessness; standardized product, highly
fragmented work so meaningless. Worker dont feel as part of company & do not enjoy
with workmates and so feel isolated; self estrangement due to -above factors.

Processing industries More control discretion & initiative in work so no
powerlessness. There is responsibility to the worker and so no meaninglessness.
Integrated work process & co-operation so there is integration. More the standardization
of technology more is the alienation. Taken 4 indices of seaman (M,L,H,S)

Alienation in developing societies -

Haebarmas: Legitimation Crisis -Modern industrial society faced legitimating crisis
because mere legality does not ensure legitimacy. Webers view is simplistic that if you
exercise authority according to rules then there will be legitimacy. But in Modern
industrial society there is a built in contradiction
1. Goals of ever increasing growth
2. The Need help of the state in promoting growth
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RELIGION AND SOCIETY


RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES IN INDIA

India is a multi-cultural and multi-religious society. Hinduism is the largest
religion in India. Its 828 million adherents (2001) compose 80.4% of the population. The
term Hindu, originally a geographical description, derives from the Sanskrit, Sindhu,
(the historical appellation for the Indus River), and refers to a person from the land of
the river Sindhu.
Islam is a monotheistic religion centered around the belief in one God and
following the example of Muhammad. It is the largest minority religion in India.
According to the 2001 census, India is home to 138 million Muslims; they compose
13.4% of the population. Muslims represent the majority in Jammu and
Kashmir and Lakshadweep, and high concentrations in the states of Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, and Kerala. The largest denomination is Sunni
Islam, which is practised by nearly 80% of Indian Muslims.
There have been large scale changes in composition due to conversion
from one faith to other. Further, spatial pattern of distribution has undergone
large scale change especially after partition in 1947. The 1941 census reveals Hindu
population approximately to 67% while that of Muslims to 24%. The creation of Pakistan
and Bangladesh led to movement of Muslims to these territories while Hindus to India.
Thus, 1951 census had 84% Hindu population and less than 10% Muslims. However, the
percentage of Muslims has increased over time to more than 13% while Hindus declined
marginally to over 81%.
The decline among Hindus owe to their comparatively lower growth rates
and partly their conversion into other religions. Their growth rate declined from more
than 23% to about 20%, while growth rate of Muslims declined marginally from 31% to
29% in last 50 years. Their higher growth is attributed to their rejection of family
planning on religious basis. Such a high rate of growth can disturb the demographic
profile of the country in long run. Their highest percentages are concentrated in
Lakshadweep and J&K, while UP has their highest number.
Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered on the life and teachings
of Jesus as presented in the New Testament; it is the third largest religion of India,
making up 2.3% of the population. Christians comprise a majority in Nagaland and have
significant populations in North-East India, Goa and Kerala.
Buddhism is a dharmic, nontheistic religion and philosophy. Buddhists
form majority populations in the Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh, and
the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir and a large minority (40%) in Sikkim. Around
8 million Buddhists live in India, about 0.8% of the population. Buddhists are found in
Maharashtra, Karnataka, UP, West Bengal, Arunachal and Ladakh area. In Maharashtra,
it is primarily due to conversion of Harijans on advice of Dr. Ambedkar.
Jainism is a nontheistic dharmic religion and philosophical system
originating in Iron Age India. Jains compose 0.4% (around 4.2 million) of India's
population, and are concentrated in the states of Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
and Rajasthan. Jains are concentrated in western parts of the country. Their growth
rate is higher than national average. Jainism, although usually believed to be
atheistic/non-theistic, Paul Dundas writes, "While Jainism is, as we have seen. atheist in
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the limited sense of rejection of a creator god and the possibility of the intervention of
such a being in human affairs, it nonetheless must be regarded as a theist religion in the
more profound sense that it accepts the existence of a divine principle, the parmatman,
often in fact referred to as 'God' existing in potential state within all beings".
Sikhism began in sixteenth century North India with the teachings
of Nanak and nine successive human gurus. As of 2001, there were 19.2 million Sikhs in
India. Sikhs are concentrated primarily in Punjab, but distributed throughout the
country. Punjab is the spiritual home of Sikhs, and they make more than 60% of the
population of the state. There are also significant populations of Sikhs in
neighbouring New Delhi and Haryana. The rate of growth of Sikhs has declined over time
from 32% in 1961-71 to about 16% presently.
Paul Dundas writes, "However, the earliest censuses of India suggest that
many Jains and members of other religious groups saw themselves as in fact
constituting varieties of Hinduism and, according to the Census Report for the Punjab of
1921, 'in view of the unwillingness of large number of Jains and Sikhs to be classed
separately from Hindus, permission was given to record such persons as Jain-Hindus and
Sikh-Hindus".

As of the census of 2001, Parsis (followers of Zoroastrianism in India)
represent approximately 0.006% of the total population of India, with relatively high
concentrations in and around the city of Mumbai. There are several tribal religions in
India, such as Donyi-Polo and Mahima. About 2.2 million people in India follow
the Bah' Faith, thus forming the largest community of Bah's in the world. Ayyavazhi,
prevalent in South India, is officially considered a Hindu sect, and its followers are
counted as Hindus in the census.
There is today a very small community of Indian Jews. There were more
Jews in India historically, including the Cochin Jews of Kerala, the Bene
Israel of Maharashtra, and the Baghdadi Jews near Mumbai. In addition, since
independence two primarily proselyte Indian Jewish communities in India: the Bnei
Menashe of Mizoram and Manipur, and the Bene Ephraim, also called Tegulu Jews. Of
the approximately 95,000 Jews of Indian origin, fewer than 20,000 remain in India.
Some parts of India are especially popular with Israelis, however, swelling local Jewish
populations seasonally. Around 0.07% of the people did not state their religion in the
2001 census.

POPULATION OF DIFFERENT RELIGIONS IN INDIA
RELIGIOUS
GROUP
1991 2001
No. (Mn) % No. (Mn) %
Hindus 672.6 82.41 827.5 80.44
Muslims 95.2 11.67 138.2 13.42
Christians 18.9 2.32 24.1 2.33
Sikhs 16.3 1.99 19.2 1.84
Buddhists 6.3 0.77 7.9 0.68
Jains 3.4 0.41 4.2 0.38
Others 3.5 0.43 7.3 0.65
Total 816.2 100.0 1028.4 100.0

Since a very long time, people belonging to various religious communities
have been living together in this country. Not only major religious communities are
spread all over the country, but the people belonging to all religious communities reside
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in each village and town in the country. At the world level, Christians dominate the
population with approximately 2,069 mn people following the religion followed by
Muslims (1,254), Hindus (837), and Buddhists. At the bottom lie the Sikhs, Jews, Jains
and Zoroastrians in that order. At the national level, Hindus dominate the scenario
followed by Muslims, Christians, Sikhs and Buddhists. Religious minority groups in India
have been able to preserve their group identities and have also stayed in the
mainstream of national politics.

Five religious communities, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and
Zoroastrians (Parsis) are notified as minorities under the National Commission for
Minorities Act, 1992. These constitute about 18.47% of the countrys population. Hindus
are also considered as minority in some states and UTs. They are outnumbered by
Muslims in states of J&K and Lakshadweep, by Sikhs in Punjab, by Christians in north
east states of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh.

PROBLEMS OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES

The problems of minorities, who are relatively lesser in numerical strength
than the majority community, have been gaining too much importance in the politics of
many nations in the world. Both the developed and developing countries are also caught
in the problems associated with the minorities. In many third world nations, nowadays,
racial tensions, communal violence and ethnic clashes make headlines almost daily. For
instance, the ethnic conflict between the Buddhists and the Tamils is still going on in Sri
Lanka, which has put a major obstacle in the way of economic development of that
country.
There exists large no. of disparities among different groups in their socio-
economic status. There are number of problems and grievances of minorities in general
and Muslims in particular, some delicate and some complex, some real and some
perceptible. The Muslims in India constitute the largest religious minority in the country.
Though a minority in its numerical strength, it is as big as to make it the second biggest
Muslim population in the world, next to Indonesia. The Muslims constituted 13.4 per
cent of the Indian population according to the 2001 census, and form an important
segment in the social fabric of the country. But economically, Muslims are the most
backward community with the lowest employment rate. With such backward economic
status, there was hardly any incentive for a modern secular education. The Muslim
backwardness in the country can evidently be seen as they lack behind the majority
community- both educationally and economically. So while Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists
and Parsis have better social conditions, Muslims represent poor conditions of living.

Religious disparities exist in education too. Muslims have low literacy
rate and higher poverty. Christians have highest literacy rates. Literacy rate among
Muslims continues to be lower than national average. Study by NCAER showed that
Literacy Rates among Muslims is very low. Factors responsible for low literacy among
Muslims are that the loss of power as a result of British conquest led to revivalist
tradition among Muslims rather than modernization movement, except Aligarh
movement. They generally prefer sending their children to a traditional Islamic
educational institution rather than to a modern institution. Such tendencies are gradually
vanishing as enlightened Muslim or Muslim institution are engaged in developing
awareness among Muslim parents and their children towards the acquisition of education
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starting from very basic Islamic traditional schooling to the acquisition of education at
college or university level. Presently Muslims in comparison to the other communities in
the country are almost proportionally equal in the pursuit of modern education but still
Muslims lack behind in terms of the acquisition of professional and technical education.
The admission to these courses requires competition, where Muslims generally are not
up to the mark in competing with the other community. It is a matter of reality that
Muslims have far below representation proportionately in a composition for professional
and technical courses.
So, low level of education among the Muslims result in low level of
development. This resulted in increase in Hold of Ulemmas after partition and they
emphasized on religious learning. Also, majority of Muslims were driven into poverty
after independence as there was decline in demand for their skills due to
industrialization. So, percentage of BPL population increased among Muslims. The
important reason which is purely psychological in nature is the perception of Muslim that
they are being discriminated in all spheres of competitive life against their counterparts.
This psychological feeling may some times help the minority feeling which sometimes
help the minority people to excel beyond the level of their competitive counterparts but
mostly minority members get discouraged and they reluctantly come in the fray and
consequently they remain at the un important position where they can not assert or
exercise their authority and skills they have development and expansion of the nation.
The minorities claim that unlike their Hindu counterpart, they are
relatively deprived in areas like employment, politics and social facilitation. According to
them, they are poorly represented in civil services as well as in medical and engineering
colleges. The serious communal riots especially after 1960s have instilled a sense of
insecurity among the Muslims and tend to push them into their narrow communal shell.
The anti-Muslim violence in Gujarat during February-May 2002 supposedly in retaliation
to the Godhra incident has shaken not only the Indian Muslims, but all the concerned
Indian citizens. During the caste conflicts, communal violence, etc., the minority groups
seek police protection. But the government in power also finds it difficult to provide such
protection for all the members of minorities. For instance, the Modi government in
Gujarat was unable to provide protection for the Muslims after the Gujarat massacre, in
which huge numbers of Muslims were killed. Again, the then Rajiv Gandhi government at
the Centre was severely criticized for its failure to provide adequate security for the Sikh
community of Delhi because of the communal riots that broke out after the assassination
of Indira Gandhi in 1984. Now, secularism began to be used merely as a slogan of
opportunism.
Another important grievance of the Muslim community is inadequate
representation in various services under the control of govt. of India. In spite of the fact
that the constitution of India provides equal opportunities to all irrespective of any
discrimination on the basis of the religion etc., the number of Muslims recruited to
various services have never been above 5% and mostly lower around two or three
percent in the govt. service. The relative number of jobs held by Muslims in govt. and in
industrial and commercial undertakings has been a bone of contention for a long time.
There is a strong feeling among Muslims that this number has been steadily declining.
Among several reasons one important factor may be also the lack of quantitative supply
of really competent candidates from the Muslim community.
Unlike the Muslims, the Christians are the second largest and oldest
religious minority in the country. It is chiefly spread in south India, particularly in Kerala.
Consistent with the social philosophy of their religion, the Christians, in India are well
represented in the social welfare activities of the country with particular concern for the
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service of the unprivileged. Their role in the sphere of health and education is well
recognised. But recently, There is apprehension among some sections that for enlarging
its base, the Christian community is involved in converting the low caste Hindus or tribes
to its own community or religion, resulting in the killing and intense conflict between the
majority Hindus and the Christian minority. Communal conflicts witnessed large scale
attacks on the churches and Christians in Gujarat, Orissa and several other states. The
very recent attacks on Christians and churches in the Kandhamal district of Orissa has
created too much insecurity and fear among the Christian minority not only in India, but
also shook the entire Christian community of world.

Minorities problem is linked with the building up of nation-states. In a
nation-state exists a national society, whose constituents have feelings of oneness with
the land and the culture of that nation based on emotional attachment and common
beliefs, and they are always prepared to sacrifice everything for protecting the nation-
state. The national community rules over the nation-state, and the country as well as
nation are known by the name of that society. In such states there are some elements or
sections of people, who are less in number and different from the national community in
respect of language, race or religion, and they are called minorities of that nation-state.
Thus the question of minorities arises only in that nation-state, where the
majority community is regarded the nation of the state. Where no specific community
enjoys recognition in the form of the nation, the question of recognizing any other
community as minorities does not arise at all. The UN Commission on Human Rights
in 1950 had defined minorities as below:
`Only those communities other than the ruling national community can be
termed as minorities, who want to have a language, religion or race different from the
language, religion and race of the national community. It is essential for being
recognised as minorities that they should be sufficient in number and their constituents
should be faithful to the nation in which they live.'

Physical existence of majority and minority group is an outcome of the
differential treatment which the groups are experiencing; one group enjoys all or most of
the privileges whereas other enjoys a few or is deprived privileges. This differential
treatment keeps one to feel as being the member of either privileged or underprivileged
groups. Privilege group here is an indicative of majority groups and under privilege
refers to the minority groups.
As the term minority and majority groups are always perceived to be in
the relative terms and the formal is generally characterized as being weak under
privilege and victim of the later group, so the problem of minority is a universal
phenomenon irrespective of the affluent and backward states existing on the globe.
The problems of issues of Indian sub continent have been very peculiar.
Before British rule; Muslims were ruling the Indian sub continent and they were forced
out of power by British. This was followed by the division of Indian sub continent better
known as partition on the religious basis. Inspite of all that happened during the partition
of independent India experienced the beginning of the new era. India was declared a
secular state where equality to all was provided irrespective of caste creed and religion.
These rights clearly become the part of the constitution which is
mentioned in Article 29 and 30. Article 29 states, "any section of the citizen residing in
the territory of India or any part thereof, having a distinct language, script or culture of
its own, shall have the right to conserve the same" Article 30 acknowledges "the right of
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minorities based on religion or language to establish and administer educational
institution of their choice".

If these articles are put together it would appear that Indian constitution
envisages three categories of minorities- classified in terms of language, religion and
culture for which all rights are guaranteed to keep their identities intact. So far as
religious in the Indian sub continent are the Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhist, Jains
and very small minority of Persians. There is yet another minority recognized in the
constitution is of Anglo- Indians which is a combination of racial religious and linguistic
characteristics. Among all the above minorities Muslims are the largest single minority
community in India.
There are number of problems and grievances of minorities in general and
Muslims in particular, some delicate and some complex, some real and some perceptible.
The Muslim backwardness in the country can evidently see as they lack behind the
majority community- both educationally and economically. There are two commonly
prevalent explanations regarding educational backwardness among Muslims in
contemporary India. One explanation is that they have been slow to take advantage of
governmental liberal policy regarding education since independence due to their
particular attitude or cultural ethos.

The important reason which is purely psychological in nature is the
perception of Muslim that they are being discriminated in all spheres of competitive life
against their counterparts. This psychological feeling may sometimes help the minority
feeling which sometimes help the minority people to excel beyond the level of their
competitive counterparts but mostly minority members get discouraged and they
reluctantly come in the fray and consequently they remain at the un important position
where they cannot assert or exercise their authority and skills they have development
and expansion of the nation.
The important grievances of religious minorities relate, perhaps to the
operation of the state agencies of the law and order, welfare, education and health,
public services, state contracts, credits, licenses, and the judiciary. Inspite of the fact
that the constitution of India provides equal opportunities to all irrespective of any
discrimination on the basis of the religion etc, the number of Muslims recruited to
various services have never been above 5% and mostly lower around two or three
percent in the govt. service. The relative number of jobs held by Muslims in govt. and in
industrial and commercial undertakings has been a bone of contention for a long time.
There is a strong feeling among Muslims that this number has been steadily declining.
Another major problem facing the minorities is the continued eruption of
large scale communal riots from time to time. Regardless of which sites starts the riot,
the Muslim generally suffers relatives lose in terms of lives lost and property destroyed
and in conjunction of each other keeps the Muslim at the gross economic loss. This was
clearly evident from Gujarat communal riot 2002, in which several Muslims were
victimized as a result of Godhra incident. No special efforts have been made to fulfill the
need of education and training of the major portion of Muslim population which belongs
to the lower strata of society. The minorities will earn friendship and good feeling of
others if they emphasis that they are part of the whole and as such try to strengthen the
composite culture which already exist, rather than try to develop a separate culture in
the country.
Not only major religious communities are spread all over the country, but
the people belonging to all religious communities reside in each village and town in the
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country. Religious minority groups in India are chiefly the Muslims, the Christians, the
Sikhs, the Jains and the Buddhists, who have been able to preserve their group identities
and have also stayed in the mainstream of national politics.
The Muslims in India constitute the largest religious minority in the
country. Though a minority in its numerical strength, it is as big as to make it the second
biggest Muslim population in the world, next to Indonesia. The Muslims constituted 13.4
per cent of the Indian population according to the 2001 census, and form an important
segment in the social fabric of the country. But economically, Muslims are the most
backward community with the lowest employment rate. With such backward economic
status, there was hardly any incentive for a modern secular education.

Unlike the Muslims, the Christians are the second largest and oldest
religious minority in the country. It is chiefly spread in south India, particularly in Kerala.
Consistent with the social philosophy of their religion, the Christians, in India are well
represented in the social welfare activities of the country with particular concern for the
service of the unprivileged. Their role in the sphere of health and education is well
recognised.
But recently, some Christian missionaries of the country have been alleged
to be involved in conversion activities that led to communal conflicts which witnessed
large scale attacks on the churches and Christians in Gujarat, Orissa and several other
states. The very recent attacks on Christians and churches in the Kandhamal district of
Orissa shook the entire Christian community of the world.
Similarly, the early part of the 20th century witnessed the rise of
numerous Sikh sectarian organisations that emphasized the distinct Sikh identity.
Sikhism is another important religion in India which is spread in different parts of the
country, especially in Punjab, Delhi, Haryana, Bihar, etc. Claiming Punjab as their
motherland, the Sikhs have developed a very strong sub-national identity, carrying with
them the vital elements of the Punjabi culture.
The Sikhs are excellent cultivators in the rural areas; they have played a
very significant role in the Green Revolution of the country. In urban areas, most of
them earn their livelihood in the trade and commerce sectors. They have always
maintained a larger share in defence forces of the country. Like the Muslims, Sikhs and
Christians, other religious minorities of the country, such as the Jains and the Buddhists
have also stayed in the mainstream of Indian politics.
The Constitution of India has provided the minority groups with some
safeguards. The Preamble of the Constitution describes the concept of secularism which
means that the State has no religion of its own, and there is equal respect for and
protection to all religions. No one is to be discriminated on grounds of religion and
everyone is guaranteed full and equal freedom of religion. Article 30 of the Indian
Constitution states that the minorities have rights to establish and administer
educational institutions of their choice.
This includes the right to choose the medium of instruction, curricula, and
subject to be taught. Minorities can impart instructions to their children in their own
languages. The National Commission for Minorities undertakes review of the
implementation of the policies formulated by the Union and state governments with
regard to minorities. It looks into specific complaints regarding deprivation of rights and
safeguards of minorities, and conducts research and analysis on the question of
avoidance of discrimination against the minorities.
The minority communities have to face several problems in India. The
minorities are not able to integrate properly in the Hindu-dominated society. There is
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apprehension among some sections that for enlarging its base, the Christian community
is involved in converting the low caste Hindus or tribes to its own community or religion,
resulting in the killing and intense conflict between the majority Hindus and the Christian
minority. This has created too much insecurity and fear among the Christian minority in
India. The minorities claim that unlike their Hindu counterpart, they are relatively
deprived in areas like employment, politics and social facilitation.
The politicians found it easy to align a large number of multi-cultural
citizens into culturally distinct groups for the realization of their vested interests. Most of
the communal riots in the country have been the handiwork of disgruntled politicians,
anti-social elements and criminals. Demolition of the Babri Masjid in December 1992, the
Mumbai riots, and the Godhra carnage and subsequent massacres in 2002 revealed the
serious weakness and susceptibility of Indias commitments towards democracy and
secularism. Thus, the condition of religious minorities in India continues to be very
complex and critical.
In order to improve the condition of the religious minorities in India, the
government in power should make every effort to restore their confidence. It is also
necessary to create conditions in which the minorities are assured that their
constitutional and legal rights are safeguarded. The government should seriously
respond to the real needs and requirements of the poor and needy minority groups. The
government should seriously consider the Sachar Committee Report without any delay
and implement its recommendations.
People-to-people contact, social consciousness, abolition of illiteracy etc.
may prove useful confidence-building measures. The secular values must be internalized
by the people and political parties. No political party should be permitted to contest
election by exploiting the emotions of a particular community. Efforts should also be
made to promote liberal social reforms to deal effectively with communalism and the
influence of communalist leaders. The secular political class of India should campaign for
widening the base of education for Muslims. The religious minorities have to be
empowered educationally and economically. The progress of the country can be achieved
if all the religious communities in India live in perfect harmony.
Sachar committee has put a lot of analysis about the Indian Muslim with
"statistical reports" based on information from government agencies, banks, Indian
Minority Commission, different state governments and its agencies. The major points
covered in the reports are:

In the field of literacy the Committee has found that the rate among Muslims is very
much below than the national average. The gap between Muslims and the general
average is greater in urban areas and women. 25 per cent of children of Muslim
parents in the 6-14 year age group have either never attended school or have
dropped out.
Muslim parents are not averse to mainstream education or to send their children to
affordable Government schools. The access to government schools for children of
Muslim parents is limited.
Bidi workers, tailors and mechanics need to be provided with social safety nets and
social security. The participation of Muslims in the professional and managerial cadre
is low.
The average amount of bank loan disbursed to the Muslims is 2/3 of the amount
disbursed to other minorities. In some cases it is half. The Reserve Bank of Indias
efforts to extend banking and credit facilities under the Prime Ministers 15-point
programme of 1983 has mainly benefited other minorities marginalizing Muslims.
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There is a clear and significant inverse association between the proportion of the
Muslim population and the availability of educational infrastructure in small villages.
Muslim concentration villages are not well served with pucca approach roads and
local bus stops.
Substantially larger proportion of the Muslim households in urban areas, are in the
less than Rs.500 expenditure bracket.
The presence of Muslims has been found to be only 3% in the IAS, 1.8% in the IFS
and 4% in the IPS.
Muslim community has a representation of only 4.5% in Indian Railways while 98.7%
of them are positioned at lower levels. Representation of Muslims is very low in the
Universities and in Banks. Their share in police constables is only 6%, in health
4.4%, in transport 6.5%.
For the Maulana Azad Education Foundation to be effective the corpus fund needs to
be increased to 1000 crore. Total allocation in the four years 2002 to 2006 for
Madarsa Modernization Scheme is 106 crore. The information regarding the Scheme
has not adequately percolated down. Even if the share of Muslims in elected bodies is
low they and other under-represented segments can be involved in the decision
making process through innovative mechanisms.
Most of the variables indicate that Muslim-OBCs are significantly deprived in
comparison to Hindu-OBCs. The work participation rate (WPR) shows the presence of
a sharp difference between Hindu-OBCs (67%) and the Muslims. The share of
Muslim-OBCs in government/ PSU jobs is much lower than Hindu-OBCs.

WELFARE MEASURES

India was declared a secular state where equality to all was provided
irrespective of caste creed and religion. The Constitution of India has provided the
minority groups with some safeguards. The Preamble of the Constitution describes the
concept of secularism which means that the State has no religion of its own, and there is
equal respect for and protection to all religions. No one is to be discriminated on grounds
of religion and everyone is guaranteed full and equal freedom of religion. Article 30 of
the Indian Constitution states that the minorities have rights to establish and administer
educational institutions of their choice.
This includes the right to choose the medium of instruction, curricula, and
subject to be taught. Minorities can impart instructions to their children in their own
languages. The National Commission for Minorities undertakes review of the
implementation of the policies formulated by the Union and state governments with
regard to minorities. It looks into specific complaints regarding deprivation of rights and
safeguards of minorities, and conducts research and analysis on the question of
avoidance of discrimination against the minorities.

It is the constitutional responsibility of govt. to see that educational culture of any
community does not suffer from handicapped of any kind. All minorities can avail
themselves of the educational facilities available equally to all citizens in the publicly
financed none denominational institutions all over the country and at the same line
handsome grants in aid are also give to the educational institution run by different
minorities as per the right in short in the Indian constitution. There are few
universities in the country which were started by the minorities for special purpose of
promoting education among the members of their communities along with their
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cultural and religious identities. Apart from various religious schools and other
minority schools colleges, Aligarh Muslim University at Aligarh, Jamia Usmania
University at Hyderabad, Jamia Milia Islamia at New Delhi, Jamia, New Delhi,
Gurunanak Dev University at Amritsar are few Muslim and Sikh minority centers of
learning which have been playing vital role in the service of educational and socio
economical advancements of their respective communities.
Maulana Azad Education Foundation: Promoting education amongst the
educationally backward sections of the society, and minorities in particular.
15 point Programme for Welfare of Minorities was launched in 1983 with three-
pronged strategy:-
(i) To tackle the situation arising out of communal riots
(ii) Ensuring adequate representation of the minority communities in government
employment
(iii) Other measures, such as, ensuring flow of benefits to the minority communities.
National Commission For Minorities
The National Commission for Minorities (NCM) was set up as a statutory body in
1993 through the enactment of National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992.
To grant a Constitutional Status to the NCM. Government introduced
Constitution (103rd Amendment) Bill, 2004 and National Commission for
Minorities (Repeat) Bill, in the Lok Sabha in 2004.
Responsible to safeguard the interests of minorities, which broadly relates to
atrocities by the police, service matters, minority educational institutions and
disputes relating to religious places.
National Commission For Religious And Linguistic Minorities started
functioning in 2005 with following terms of reference:-
(a) To suggest criteria for identification of socially and economically backward
sections among religious and linguistic minorities.
(b) To recommend measures for welfare including reservation in education and
government employment.
(c) To suggest the necessary constitutional, legal and administrative modalities as
required for the implementation of their recommendations
The Central Wakf Council
A Wakf is a permanent dedication of movable or immovable properties
for purposes recognized by the Muslim Law as religious, pious or
charitable.
Responsibility of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
The Central Wakf Council a statutory body set up by the Central Government in
1964 and reconstituted in 2005.
Special Officer For Linguistic Minorities
Office of the Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities was created in 1957, in
pursuance of the Provision of Article 350-B of the Constitution.
The Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities of India has his Headquarters at
Allahabad.

One heartening fact about religious composition of India is that different
groups have co-existed for the last several centuries even during the troubled times.
India is the only country in the world where people belonging to different religious faiths
are co-existing in peace & harmony. In order to improve the condition of the religious
minorities in India, the government in power should make every effort to restore their
confidence. It is also necessary to create conditions in which the minorities are assured
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that their constitutional and legal rights are safeguarded. The government should
seriously respond to the real needs & requirements of poor and needy minority groups.
People-to-people contact, social consciousness, abolition of illiteracy etc.
may prove useful confidence-building measures. The secular values must be internalized
by the people and political parties. No political party should be permitted to contest
election by exploiting the emotions of a particular community. Efforts should also be
made to promote liberal social reforms to deal effectively with communalism and the
influence of communalist leaders. The religious minorities have to be empowered
educationally and economically. The progress of the country can be achieved if all the
religious communities in India live in perfect harmony.
Recently PM Manmohan Singh announced 15- Point Programme for
minority welfare which was initially mooted by late PM Indira Gandhi. A need has been
felt to review and recast the 15-Point Programme, to sharply focus action on issues
intimately linked with the social, educational and economic uplift of the minorities.
Points relating to prevention of communal riots and provision of relief to
victims of such riots continue to have an important place in the revised programme, but
additional points more closely linked with the development of backward minorities,
specifically related to provision of employment, improvement of educational
opportunities and better living conditions have been included. Based on the above, the
"Prime Minister's New 15-Point Programme for Welfare of Minorities" has been
formulated as under:
1. Equitable availability of ICDS Services: A certain percentage of the Integrated
Child Development Services (ICDS) projects and Anganwadi Centres will be
located in blocks/ villages with a substantial population of minority communities.
2. Improving access to School Education: Under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Kasturba
Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya Scheme, and other similar Government schemes, a certain
percentage of such schools are located in villages/ localities having a substantial
population of minority communities
3. Greater resources for teaching Urdu: Central assistance will be provided for
recruitment and posting of Urdu language teachers in primary and upper primary
schools that serve population in which at least 1/4
th
belongs to that language group.
4. Modernizing Madarsa Education: Central Plan Scheme of Area Intensive and
Madarsa Modernization Programme that provides basic educational infrastructure for
modernization of Madarsa will be strengthened & implemented effectively.
5. Scholarships for meritorious students from minority communities will be
formulated and implemented for pre and post-matric students.
6. Improving educational infrastructure through Maulana Azad Education
Foundation.
7. Self-Employment and Wage Employment for the poor: A certain percentage of
the physical and financial targets under Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojna (SGSY),
Urban Self-Employment Programme (USEP), Urban Wage Employment Programme
(UWEP) and Sampurna Grameen Rozgar Yojna (SGRY) will be earmarked for
beneficiaries belonging to the minority communities living below the poverty line.
8. Upgradation of skill through technical training: a certain proportion of all new
ITIs will be located in areas predominantly inhabited by minority communities and a
proportion of existing it is to be upgraded to Centres of Excellence.
9. Enhanced credit support for economic activities: National Minorities
Development & Finance Corporation was set up in 1994 with objective of promoting
economic development activities among minority communities will be strengthened.
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It will be ensured that an appropriate percentage of the priority sector lending in all
categories is targeted for the minority communities.
10. Recruitment to State and Central Services: In the recruitment of police
personnel, special consideration will be given to minorities. An exclusive scheme will
be launched to provide coaching in Government institutions as well as private
coaching institutes with credibility.
11. Equitable share in rural housing scheme: A certain percentage of the physical
and financial targets under Indira Awaas Yojna will be earmarked for poor
beneficiaries from minority communities living in rural areas.
12. Improvement in condition of slums inhabited by minority communities: It
would be ensured that the benefits of Integrated Housing & Slum Development
Programme and Jawaharlal Nahru Urban Renewal Mission flow equitable to members
of the minority communities and to cities/ slums, predominantly inhabited by
minority communities.
13. Prevention of communal incidents: In the areas, which have been identified as
communally sensitive and riot prone, districts and police officials of the highest
known efficiency, impartiality and secular record must be posted.
14. Prosecution for communal offences: Severe action should be taken against all
those who incite communal tension or take part in violence.
15. Rehabilitation of victims of communal riots: Victims of communal riots should be given immediate
relief and provided prompt and adequate financial assistance for their rehabilitation.








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INDOLOGY: G. S. GHURYE


Indology literally means a systematic study of Indian society and outline.
Indologists claimed that incuriam of Indian civilization cannot be fitted into the
framework of European society. They claimed that Indian Society could be understood
only through the concepts, theoris and framework of Indian civilization. They give more
importance to the culture of Indian Society than to the empirical structure; Indology is
an independent discipline in itself as well as an approach in Indian Sociology. Under the
influence of Indology, G. S. Ghurye and Louis Dumont have explained the culture o
Indian Society.
The reviewers of Indian Sociology generally trace its origin to the works of
several British civil servants, missionaries and Western Scholars during the l8 and l9
centuries. British administrators wanted to understand the customs, manners and
institutions of people of India to ensure the smooth running of their administration.
Christian missionaries were interested in learning local languages, folklore and culture to
carryout their activities. The origin, development and functioning of the various customs
and traditions, the Hindu systems of caste and Joint family, and the economy and polity
of the village, tribal community were some of the prominent themes of study by the
British administrators and missionaries as well as other British, European and Indian
intellectuals. Many British and European writings on Indian Society and culture used
conceptual categories which were Eurocentric it cognitive and value terms; some of
these also tended to distort history and imputed meaning to Indian reality in the abstract
as if to perpetuate colonialism concepts such as caste, tribe village community, family
and kinship were defined as segmentary entities often analogous to their socio-historical
equivalents in European society. The emphasis was on showing how each of these social
entities affirmed the principles of segmentation and autonomy rather than being parts of
an organic whole. The elements of discreteness were over emphasized and the linkages,
both social and cultural, which bound these entities into an organic system of social
structure and civilization, were neglected. The bias, which had its roots probably in the
colonial ideology of the British social anthropologists and administrators, is obvious in
their treatment of caste and tribe as discrete structural and cultural formations. G. S.
Ghurye drew attention to this way back in 1943 in his book. The Aborigince- so called
and their future. He attempted to demonstrate continuities and linkages between the
tribal and caste structure and tradition in Indian society.

Govind Sadashiv Ghurye is a towering figure in intellectual and
academic life of India for his unique contribution in the field of Indian sociology; he has
often been acclaimed as the father of Indian sociology. His persistent research
endeavor, wide ranging interest and upholding of the best of academic tradition made
him the centre of sociological creativity and research .for several generations of Indian
Sociologists. Ghuryes broad area of interest was the general process of evolution of
culture in different civilizations iii general, and in Indian (Hindu) civilization in particular.
The origin and subsequent proliferation of the different varieties of Indo European
Civilization constitute the range of Ghuryes study.
Ghurye, Kapadia, Karve the giants in the field of Indian Sociology, all of
them endeavored to explore Hindu social institutions and practices, either with reference
to religious texts or through the analysis of contemporary practices. Outstanding
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research work of these sociologists have tremendously enriched the field of Indian
sociology and helped it to stand on a firm footing. Indian society, through its long
historical process of growth presents a picture of a vast mosaic of culture held together
by religion, values and norms of Hinduism. As sociologists, Ghurye feels the imperative
of exploring this unifying and synthesizing process. In-spite of many diversions,
explorations and analysis of the process of cultural unity in Indian through ages
constitutes the major thrust of Ghuryes writing. And to establish his thesis he moves,
with perfect case- Back and forth, from the Vedic to the present day India.
In deciphering Ghurye, the entire range of Ghuryes writings is divided into
a number of broad themes and each of these items shows how Ghurye has discussed the
institutions and processes. Thus (i) Castes, (ii) Tribes, (iii) Family and Kinship (iv)
Culture and Civilization, (v) Religions institutions, (vi) Social tensions are the broad
categories of Ghuryes writings. For the present lesson only caste system as an
indological perspective has been discussed.

RESTRICTIONS ON MARRIAGE

The endogamous principle has been recognized by Ghurye as the key
factor behind caste system. Every caste forbids its members to marry persons from
outside it. The principle of strict endogamy is such a dominant aspect of caste-society
that an eminent sociologist is led to regard endogamy as the essence of the caste
system. Ghurye also considers the role of hypergamy in caste. He has mentioned that a
large no. of caste follow this principle even today. There are, however a few exceptions
to this general rule of marrying within ones own group which are due to the practice of
hypergamy. hi some parts of the Punjab, especially in the hills, a man of a higher caste
can take to wife a girl from one of the lower castes, while in Malabar, the younger son of
Nambudiri and other Brahmins consort with the Kshatriya and Nayar women, among
whom mother right prevails.
Various castes by contributing their respective services towards the
maintenance of civil life developed a sense of participation which counteracted
fissiparous tendencies and caste patriotism, Ghurye mentions the examples of
participation by Doms, Kumbhais, Mahars, and Barbers etc in various types of Hindu
rituals. Ghurye has rightly emphasized upon the ritual aspects of caste in maintaining
village solidarity.

CASTE THROUGH THE AGES

G. S. Ghurye has given a picture of Hindu Caste society as it was
functioning before modern ideas. G. S. Ghurye breaks up the Indian history into 4
periods.
1. Vedic period ending about 600 B.C. and comprises the literary data of Vedic Samhitas
and Brahmins.
2. Post Vedic period - In this period the sacred laws of the Aryans present the orthodox
and the more or less idealistic standpoint.
3. Dharma Shastras and ends with the tenth or 11th century AD. In this period many
Yajnavalkya and Vishow are the chief exponents.
4. Modern period this period brings us down to the beginning of 19
th
century.



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RIGVEDA

In the Rigveda, 3 classes are frequently mentioned. Brahman, Kshatriya
and Vaishya. The first 2 represented the 2 professions of the poet priest and warrior
chief. The third division Vis comprises of common people. It is only in one of the later
hymns that Brahman, Rajanya, Vaishya and Shudra are mentioned who have come from
the mouth. The arms, the thighs and the feet of the creator. G.S. Ghurye says that the
particular limbs associated with these divisions and the order in which they are
mentioned-probably indicate their status in the society. Ghurye holds the view that the
fact the four classes are described as of divine origin, although in a later hymn, must be
taken as a sufficient indication that they were of long duration and very well defined,
even though the exact demarcation of their function the regulations guiding their
interrelations and the extent of their flexibility may not be referred to in the main body
of the Vedic literature. These orders of class are referred. In literature as Varnas so
much so that Hindu religion has come to be defined as Vamasrana Oharma yet in the
Rigveda the word is never applied to any one of these classes.

POST VEDIC PERIOD

The Brahminic literature of the post-vedic period while reiterating that
there are only 4 varnas, mentions certain mixed castes (Sankara Jati) and also a group
of outcaste classes (Antya Vasayin). In this period the text books are analysed into 4
parts. Ashrams (four stages in individual life) and their duties; Varna-Dharma - much of
the past describes duties of the Kshatriya; the two other parts deals with Expiatory acts
& Inheritance. Though the main bulk of the law is treated under yet the Shudra does
not figure much in these texts.
Among the four Varnas, the old distinction of Arya and Sudra now appears
predominantly as Dvija and Sudra, though the old distinction is occasionally mentioned.
The first three varnas are called Dvijns (twice born) because they have to go through the
inflation ceremony which is symbolic of rebirth. This privilege is denied to the Sudra who
is therefore called Ekajati (once born). Mixture of castes is regarded to be such a great
evil that it must be combated even though the Brahmins and Vaishyas have to resort to
arms, a function which is normally sinful for them. Of the mixed castes those, that were
the outcome of hypergamous unions, were proposed to be treated in, two different ways.
Gautaua excludes from the Brahminic law only the issue of a Sudra female by males of
the first three orders. It is not clear how he would like to treat the remaining three
possible groups. Person born of unions in the inverse order of castes-technically known
as the pratiloma (reverse) caste are of course, outside the pole of the sacred law, with
the possible exception of one, viz, the suta. This period sees a great consolidation of the
position of the Brahmin class, while the degradation of the Sudras comes, out in a
marked contrast to the growing superiority of the Brahmins. Prof. Ghurye says that the
post Vedic period testifies to the rigid stratification and internal solidarity of the four
varnas. Each group -was recognised as distinct, almost complete in itself for its social
life. Endogamy was being sought to be rigorously prescribed and was followed to a large
extent. The epics contain some examples of inter caste marriages, but they illustrate the
practice prevailing among the aristocracy and the sages e.g. Dasahratha had a Sudra
female as one of his wives. But the Ramayana does not drop any hint that the children of
the union were regarded as in any way different from the Kshatriya Santnu married
Satyvati, the daughter of a fisherman. In the story of the Mahabharta no suggestions is
made that the issue would be considered lower than the Kshatriyas.
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The third period of Indian history as conceived by Prof. Ghurye is marked
by two developments in the ideals of the Hindu Dharma, which had an important bearing
on the theory and practice of caste. The glorification of gifts to Brahmins, which became
so absorbing a feature of later Hinduism, was largely the contribution of this age.
Another noteworthy development is the schematic growth of imaginary hells as
punishment for certain offenders and the progressive application of the doctrine of
rebirth. According to Maim the Brahmin is the lord of this whole creation, because he is
produced from the purest part of the Supreme Being, namely the mouth. Both the gods
and manes have to receive their offerings through them. Feeding the Brahmins is one of
the acknowledged ways of gaining us religion merits. A Brahmin is entitled to whatever
exists in the world. Infact, the whole world is his property, and others live on his charity.
Vishnu is more audacious than Manu in asserting the worth of the Brahmins. He
observes the Gods are invisible deities, the Brahmins are visible deities, A householders
when sipping water for personal purification, must not use it if brought by a Sudra. A
member of the first three castes must not travel in the company of Sudras. Ghurye feels
it seems that the Sudras were considered to impart some sort of defilement to objects
like bed & seat by their touch.
The state of caste organizations as revealed by literature and the
inscriptions of the fourth period is strikingly similar to that which we noticed as
prevailing about the middle of the 19th century. The leading authorities of this period arc
Parasara, Hemadri, Madhava and Kamalakara. As regards the regulations of marriage,
the four caste and the other groups are regarded as completely endogamous units,
hypergamy being positively discouraged. Thus by the end of this period Ghurye visualise
caste organization, as revealed in the literature of the period, to be not at all different in
any essential point from the one which are described as prevailing in the middle of the
19th century.

CASTE AND SUB-CASTE

Ghurye agrees that sub caste possess many properties of the caste, But a
sub-caste is not to be identified with a caste. As a group the sub-caste is not entirely
independent of the structures, obligations and liabilities which are attached to the caste.
The ranking of a sub-caste in a particular social milieu is largely dependence on its caste
affiliation. Moreover, the sub caste is a group known mostly to the people of the caste
while caste is a grouping known to the society at large Ghurye thinks that sub caste
groupings are the result of fragmentation occurs as a result of occupational
diversification, migration, rise of a new sect, some peculiarities or some nicknames etc.

CASTE AND RACE

Ghuryes conclusion with regard to caste-race relationship may be summarized as: -
(1) In U. P. & Punjab the Indo Aryan race has largely maintained its purity of blood.
(2) The differential index (in physical traits) between the high castes of this region and
the high castes of to other places is very high, indicating that there has been a wide
racial admixture in latter regions.
(3) In Northern India, where racial purity has been maintained, there is a correlation
between ranking and physical tanking
(4) In other parts of India, the situation is very complex and confusing so that
anthropometry does not help us much in accounting for caste - ranking.
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Ghurye holds the view that caste is mainly a product of race and
Hypergamy. The Indo Aryans first entered India in about 2500 B.C. the Conquered
aborigines were included within their caste fold but the Aryans took all steps to keep
their blood from intermixture. Endogamy became the essential device to maintain such
racial purity. The lead in this respect was given by the Brahmins and they became the
sole guardian of this society. As Brahmins were having the superior image, all her groups
tried to follow the Brahmanical practices. Group solidarity and group prestige enabled all
of them to close their ranks. Thus, what was earlier initiated by the Brahmins s a device
to maintain their racial purity was subsequently followed by other groups. These groups
also because endogamous.

CASTE IN MODERN INDIA

Contemporary Indian society, Ghurye maintains, is heading towards the
dangerous path of plural society and the seeds of it were implanted during the British
period. So Ghurye makes an analysis of the forces affecting the operation of caste in
British India. In this period there were various changes in the legal sphere in relation to
unsociability. They were granted the right of admittance in government - aided
institutions. Also, it was at this period that reservations of seats in various political
bodies were made. Caste wise, the population was divided into different groups and
specialized provisions for recruitment were made for the backward castes. Ghurye
admits the necessity of this type of observation and says that there is much justification
for demanding come representation for the untouchable classes in the local legislative
bodies. Industrialization and the introduction of new technology also accelerated the
pace of disintegration of castes. As communication system improved it became quite
difficult for people to observe rules relating to pollution and purity.
But, as already stated, the British rule generated forces which ran at
opposite directions. Infact, the British rulers were never seriously interested in
liquidating the social and economic basis of caste. They used the caste divisions to
foremen a sense of distrust and suspicion among various sections. Firstly, the caste
customs were allowed to remain in tact. Rules relating to untouchability continued to
exits. Ghurye declares untouchability as a positive curse and the government was never
seriously interested in fighting it out.

THE SCHEDULED CASTES

It can never be gainsaid that during the British period a set of new values
based on equality, freedom and humanitarianism were introduced. Broadly speaking,
there were three types of reactions as a result of these developments. First, the Brahmo
Samaj Movement, Second, the Arya Samaj Movement and the third and more significant
reaction which Ghurye calls the depressed classes movement. Western values and
ideals based on the spirit of equality inspired these people to demand a fair treatment of
them. In so far as the benefits of Westernization only reached the upper castes, it also
increased the feeling of deprivation among the lower castes. That is why Backward
classes Movement started precisely in those areas where they were subjected to
maximum exploitation and injustice. Ghurye says that largely the direction of the
movement was 2 fold. First, the lower castes demanded-and became successful in their
demands-separate political representation for them and reservation of jobs for them in
various services. Second, ideologically they challenged the genra1 tenets of Brahmanic
superiority and dominance. Ghuryes assertion that the protective discrimination policy
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has failed to realize its objectives, is perfectly, justified the social, economic and political
condition of these p people has not improved considerably. What is worse, the benefits
provided to the scheduled castes have all gone to a few top castes among them.

THE BACKWARD CLASSES

The backward classes constitute other focus of tension in modem India. As
in the case focus of SC and ST, they have organized themselves to protect their
constitutional facilities. Far from moving toward the objective of integration this has led
to progressive atomization of our society. Ghurye analyzes the whole development
relating to backward classes and says that it shows that special treatment which was
intended to be special privilege of restricted duration is being tried to be turned into a
both right of a permanent nature: What is worse, many of the so-called backward
classes are becoming economically more affluent and politically more resourceful. Even
within a particular caste, those who are economically better off, care very little for the
rest of the community.
These developments confirm Ghuryes fear that Indian Society is being
progressively atomized into different groups who are determined to realize their
sectional economic and political demands at the expense of the interest of the nation
and, the government measures to deal with the situation have been insufficient. Ghurye
concludes that instead of realizing the goal of a casteless society, our society is heading
towards the dangerous rocks of a plural society.
Ghurye says that the endogamous nature of caste has remained almost
the same today. He regards caste and endogamy is injurious to the cause of society. He
thinks that caste has become positively injurious today. It has definitely produced
harmless and antagonistic to the birth of real community and nationality feeling.
Formerly, the activities of caste were strictly controlled by religion and the
local society. Today the various caste groups arc not complementary to each other nor
do they contribute the integration of community. They have become self seeking
organizations who are going all out to realize their sectarian interest. These all are
pretends of a plural society, which Ghurye concludes, has created a dangerous situation
for India.

TRIBES AS BACKWARD HINDUS

Ghurye presented his thesis on tribes at a time when a majority of the
established anthropologists and administrators were of the opinion that the separate
identity of the tribes is to be maintained at any cost. Ghurye on the other hand believes
that most of the tribes have been Hinduized after a long period of contact with the
Hindus. He even maintains that originally these people were Hindus who somehow lost
connection with the parent body. An analysis of their language, economy and religious
tradition shows that they are not necessarily the autochthones of the regions where they
now live. He criticizes the use of the word Adivase to denote them because the various
stories and mythological accounts prevalent among them show elements of Hindu
Culture. Ghurye holds that it is futile to search for the separate identity of the tribes.
They are nothing but the Backward Hindus: Ghurye presents a huge data on the
thought, practices and habits of the tribes inhabiting the central Indian region. He quotes
extensively from various writings and reports to show that Katauris, Bhuiyas, Oraons,
Khonds, Gonds, Korkus etc. have substantially adopted Hindusim as their religion.
Ghurye suggests that the economic motivation behind the adoption of Hinduism is very
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strong when the tribals adopt Hindu religion, they can come out of: their tribal crafts and
adopt a specialized type of occupation which is in demand in society. Ghurye also says
that among the tribals there is a. section which is comparatively better off.
Thus, regarding the relationship between the tribals and Hindus, Ghurye
hold that a grand historical process of merger between two communities has almost
been completed as a result of which the tribes may now be regarded as backward
Hindus.

KINSHIP IN HINDU SOCIETY

In the analysis of kinship, Ghurye has successfully combined Indology and
Sociology. Ghurye is concerned with Kinship as an institution regulating the marriage in
Hindu society that reads him to discuss (i) the relation between kinship and caste (ii) the
origin, development and social implications of (Gotra, Charna and Pravara in Bralunanic
literature and society; and (iii) the operation of Spinda Exogamy.

CASTE AND KINSHIP

The relationship between caste and kinship is very close because (i)
Exogamy in our society is largely based on kinship, either real or imaginary and (ii) the
effective unit of caste, sub-caste is largely constituted of kinsmen, To Ghurye, there are
three types of marriage restrictions in our society which shape the relationship between
caste and kinship. These are Endogamy, exogamy and hypergamy. Exogamy can be
divided into 2 parts (1) Sapinda or prohibited degrees of kin (ii) Sept or Gotra exogamy.
Ghurye undertakes this task in details and on a gigantic scale in his two Brahmanical
institutions
Gotra and Charana (1972) - There are three underlying ideas which
prompted Ghurye to take up this work. First, sociological categories like Gotra, Charana
and Pravara have been the most important ones regulating the Brahmins social relations
for centuries, Secondly, all these Brahmanical institutions have penetrated the social
organization anti behavioral pattern of the non- Brahmins Hindus. And thirdly, that these
rules relating to gotra and Pravara exogamy still govern substantially the social relations
of the Hindus. It is on the basis of these assumptions that it is claimed that Ghurye has
combined Indology and sociology in an efficient way.
Culture and Civilization: There are two conflicting views on the growth and
accumulation pattern of culture. One theory maintains that in any community culture
grows quite independently of similar events happening elsewhere or that culture grows
predominantly with reference to local needs and local situation. He other group believes
that culture grows by diffusion. A single invention or discovery is made at one lace and
ultimately this cultural trait diffuses throughout the world. The most ardent advocate of
the diffusion at school was Sir G. E. Smith.
There are two articles of Ghurye The Disposal of Human Placenta,
published in 1937, examines .he practices of human beings with regard to the disposal of
discard of human body like first out hair, nail airings, first fallen teeth and the after birth.
The purpose of this article of Ghurye is as he says, to compare the methods of disposal
of the human placenta in the different regions of the world to see if they shed any light
on the problem of diffusion of culture. Culture Diffusion is essentially an anthropological
theory which is concerned with the nature of culture contact operating principally among
the preliminary people. According to Ghurye, culture constitutes the central or core
element for understanding society and is evolution, Infact, culture is a totality involving
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the entire heritage of mankind Ghuryes abiding interest was to analyze the I course of
cultural evolution and the nature of heritage which mankind has denied from the past.
Ghurye was more concerned with the process of evolution of Hindu
Civilization which has been termed as a Complex Civilization. And Ghurye thought that
for analyzing the dynamics of culture in such a long historical civilization, the process of
acculturation is more relevant than the process of diffusion. Ghurye thinks that tie
challenging task of a sociologist is to analyze this complex acculturation process in India,
Ghurye says: India has been the home of many ethnic stocks and culture from pre-
historic times. In his analysis of caste (Ghurye has shown how caste system was
developed by the Brahmins and how it spread to other sections of the population. The
operation of the process of Hinduisation also provides the general backdrop of his
analysis of the tribal phenomenon.
Ghurye was prompted by the belief that there is a common heritage of
modem civilization and that civilization is a collective endeavour of humanity. Ghurye
holds that behind the rise and fall of civilizations, there has occurred a steady growth of
culture. Cutting across the vicissitudes of civilizational growth, there are certain values
which have been established as final. These values have been termed by Ghurye as the
foundations of culture. He delineates five such values or foundations of culture. These
are -
(i) Religious consciousness
(ii) Conscicuce
(iii) Justice
(iv) Free pursuit of knowledge and free expression
(v) Toleration

According to Ghurye, Civilization is the sum total of social heritage
projected on the social plane. As civilization is an attribute of the society, different
societies can be differentiated with reference to their civilization attainment. Ghurye
makes four general conclusions with regard to the nature of civilization. Firstly, as yet,
there has been no society which has been either completely civilized or very highly
civilized. Secondly, Ghurye believes in the law of continuous progress. Thirdly, the
gradation of civilization is also correlated with the distribution of values. In a high
civilization, the humanitarian and cultural values will be accepted by a wide cross section
of population. Fourthly, every civilization, high or low possesses some qualities.
Now, after discussing about culture and civilization, if we are to identify
what is culture and what are its points of distinction with civilization? Ghurye says:
Those two terms are used interchangeably and those who have made distinction
between the two are riot all agreed regarding their exact meaning. To Malinowski,
culture comprises inherited artifacts- Goods, technical processes) ideas, habits and
values. Bottomore says: Civilization has remained largely a historians term and is
often used to describe what anthropologists would refer to as culture. But Toyrbee has
used the term, civilization as an attribute of developed societies as distinguished from
the primitive once. Maclver says that our culture is what we are, our civilization is what
we use, According to Toyrbee, cultural attainment and excellence is related with
individual capacity whereas to them, civilization is what is possessed in common by a
particular society or a number of societies. Ghurye says culture is a matter of individual
attainment. Culture and civilization are related in the sense that the more the individuals
excels in their individual attainments, the riches will become the civilization.
According to Ghurye, if we want to improve the general level of attainment
of the people, we have to popularize humanistic studies as an antidote to scientific and
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mechanical studies and to ensure the autonomy of the universities- The institution of
imparting education in society. Ghurye underlies the fact that the man has been cut up
from his past and tradition, while the spirit of innovation and novelty arc good change
must not be so sudden as to uproot man from his social movings. The imbalance can be
corrected by suitable change in the education system and by restoring the value of
humanistic studies in universities.

RELIGION: The Perspective of Ghuryes Sociology of Religion:

Religion is Fundamental to luau and man become conscious of some power
beyond his comprehension almost at the dawn of civilization. This field has drawn the
attention of sociologists like Weber (The Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism, 1930)
and Dirkieni (the Elementary form of Religious Life, 1915) Ghurye thinks religion is at
the centre of total cultural heritage of man. Ghurye gave the fine foundations of culture,
put of which religious consciousness is most important and it moulds and directs the
behaviour of man in society. -.
There are three works at Ghurye which are of interest from the standpoint
of sociology of religion. These are Gods and Men, Religious Consciousness and Indian
Sadhus. In the first work Ghurye has discussed the nature of the Hindu ideas of godhead
and the relations, if any between the climates of an age and the type of Godhead
favoured. In religious consciousness Ghurye analyzes the three oldest human
civilizations, the Mesopotamian, the Egyptian and the Hindu, in their various aspects
mythological beliefs, speculation cosmology, life after death, view of Godhead, temple
architecture, etc.
Ghuryes analysis of religion is relevant as any student of Indology knows
that. Hinduism, particularly the Brahmanic version of it, passed through career of long
vicissitudes. Infact, for a major part of the period, Hinduism had been deprived of royal
patronage. It has survived the attacks of the Buddhists the Jams, the foreign invaders
and lastly about the 700 years of Muslim role. The structure of Hinduism is so vast and
diverse that it calls for systematic analysis of this heterogeneity and the factors which
account for it. Thats why Dube, Srinivas and many other. Sociologists have done a
study at various levels.
Ghurye has analyzed the evolution & role of Godheads in Hindu society. In
Hinduism from the standpoint of the number of godheads, we find that there are five
principal godheads around which Hindu religion practices and rituals have evolved.
These five deities are Surya, Siva, Vishnu, Ganesa and Devi. This Hindu view of godhead
may be called according to Ghurye, monolations pantheism Regarding the origin of
Vishnu, Ghurye thinks that when the institutions of Yajna or ritual sacrifices became
more arid more costly in the late Vedic period. Yajna was anthropomorphized into
Vishnu so that people could do costly Yajna rituals. The thing which is sociologically most
relevant in case of Vishnu and which has created enormous influence on our society in
every age is the theory of Vishnus imaginations. Every Hindu believes that God Vishnu
incarnates himself from age to age to uphold the socio ethical order. The two
imaginations of Vishnu which have caught peoples imagination are Rama and Krishna
respectively. Both of them are being worshipped as man God and their lives and
activities have enthralled the minds of millions and millions of Hindus.
Thus, Ghurye has shown the idea of pentad, of five Cods in Hindu society
is primarily Brahmanic in nature. Ghurye recognition of the importance of the concept of
incarnation in Hindu society and his assertion that this sociology of incarnations should
be analyzed in details is fully justified. The dominating theme of Ghurye is the changing
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concept of Godheads in Hindu society and their role in evolving and maintaining the
normative structure of Hindu society.

SOCIAL TENSIONS

In this section, we shall be concerned with the examination of Ghuryes
ideas regarding the nature of national unity in India. Ghurye holds that though groups
play an integrational role in society, this is true only upto a certain extent. In modem
Indian Society, there are five sources of danger for national unity coming as they do
form a sense of excessive attachment with groups.
(i) The Scheduled Castes
ii) The Scheduled Tribe
iii) The Backward Classes
iv) The Muslims as religious minority groups.
v) The linguistic minorities.
As we have discussed the validity of Ghuryes assumption with regard to
first three, here we shall be primarily concerned with the analysis of the last two
aspects, viz., the religious and linguistic groups and the nature of challenges which they
create for Indian society. As we know the main focus of Ghuryes interest in on culture.
Ghuryes this to revision the problems associated with the working of the common
culture foundation. His concept of cultural unity is of a new one and is not secular in
orientation. He is concerned with India bf Hindu culture and uses the, term Indian
Culture and Hindu culture synonymously. Hinduism in traditional India, he says provided
an excellent normative base for maintaining social and political unity in the country.
Hinduism had brought within its fold widely different groups bring in India. The various
sects of Hinduism constitute vast mosaic holding together millions of people in different
parts of India. He analysed the normative structure of Hinduism, the teaching of sacred
religious texts the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Brahmanas etc. to show how they provide
the common cultural foundation. Second) the Role of such great Hindu thinkers as
Panini, Patanjali, Tulsidasa etc. has also been discussed by Ghurye.
Ghurye thinks that it is largely as a result of Brahmanical endeavour that
cultural unity in India has been built up. All, the major institutions of Hindu Society he
shows, originated among the Brahmins and gradually they were accepted by other
sections of community. Though Ghurye calls it process of acculturation, it was basically a
one way flow, in which the Brahmanical ideas and institutions infiltrated among the non-
Brahmins. It is in the background of such an approach that Ghurye analyse the problem
and prospects of Indian unity in contemporary India.
He blames the political leaders for his because the countrys leader
followed a course of action which was more or less exactly the one which should have
been avoided but the foundation for this National Cultural unity had been built and
maintained by the Hindu for 100s of years. According to Ghurye society is not just an
aggregation of isolated individuals but that group life which provides the bridge between
the individual and society. An individual acquires social attributes and is socializes
through groups. This is the integrative functions of group in society. When groups
perform the function efficiently, integration is achieved. Tensions in the process of this
integration in India arise today because the various groups of people have failed to
transient their narrow groups loyalties. Religious and linguistic minorities are the most
potential source of danger to Indian unity in modem India. According to Ghurye Religion
and linguistic lesions are the crucial areas causing disintegration of the country.
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As mentioned above, Ghurye gives great importance to the role of
language iii the process of nation building in India. Even, in case of tribes, tribal life and
culture, may be improved only when the pick up developed language of a neighbouring
community. Ghurye holds the view that the regional language has a symbolic
integrational value for the region. The regional languages ensure the unity of the
territory at the local level and all efforts should be made to improve that the regional
languages ensure the vicinity of the territory at the local level and all efforts should be
made to improve that. The range of Ghuryes interest is encyclopedic. His abiding interest
is in the course of world civilization in general and in Hindu civilization in particular. He
has analyzed various aspects like the origin and evolution of caste, the evolution of Indo-
Aryan family structure and its connections with the Indo-European family structure, of
specific institutions like gotra etc. Analysis of the diverse aspects of the evolution of
Indian social history and culture thus constitutes the major preoccupation of Ghurye.
Ghurye has been concerned not merely with the past evolution of Indian
society and culture but also with its present tensions and problems. The task of
sociologists according to him is to explore the social history of the past. He says .one
cannot understand the present without reference to the past.

WEAKNESSES OF GHURYES WRITINGS

Ghurye fails to recognize that a qualitative change in the dynamics of Indian
unity has occurred in modern India, His knowledge of Indias past instead of helping him has
stood in the way of this realization on his past. Admitting that the past is important for
present, the question is how much of the past is useful for this purpose? And what should be
the sociologists method of looking at history? Ghurye could not solve these questions in a,
satisfactory manner? Ghurye fails to appreciate that the political involvement of castes is a
result of Collective mobilization process that has occurred in modern India. Another criticism
leveled against Ghurye is h1s answer that the development of regional language is conducive
to disunity at the national level or that it is an obstacle for national unity is a simple one.
Nevertheless, with his deep knowledge of Hinduism; Ghurye has contributed significantly in
same spheres of sociology at least. His writings on caste, kinship terminologies, the social
factors behind the creation of Gods, come immediately in mind in this connection. As from
the above discussion, we have seen, Ghurye laid significant contributions. He sowed the
seeds in many respects and the posterity are enjoying the rich harness. It may b rightly said
that no single person did so much for sociology a. Ghurye. He emphasized that sociology in
India must have a fully INDIAN orientation. Sociology in India would not have come to its
present shape without Ghurye.




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TRIBAL COMMUNITIES IN INDIA


Definitional Problem

Who are the tribals in India? It has been an interesting and vexing question. None of
the Indian languages behave appropriate term for tribe. The concept of tribe emerged in
India with the coming of the British. The problems for the British were how best to
protect the tribal areas for the time being and how to distinguish them for casts.
Gradually the concept of reservation emerged and through that emerged the idea of
scheduled tribe in independent India.
Definitional problem of Tribe deals with two interrelated problems. Firstly, highlighting
the problem in the definition of tribe; secondly, evolving an understanding of tribes in
Indian context.

Problem in the definition

Commonly, Tribes have been defined as a group of indigenous people with
shallow history. Having common name, language and territory, tied by strong kingship
bonds, practicing endogamy, having distinct customs, rituals and beliefs, simple social
rank and political organisation, common ownership of resources and technology.
The imperial Gazetteer of India has defined tribes as collection of families
bearing a common name, Speaking a common dialed occupying and processing to
occupy a common territory and is not usually endogamous through it might have been.
According to D.N. Mazumdar, A Tribe is a social group with territorial
integration, endogamous with no specialization of functions, united in language or dialect
and recognizing Social distance with other tribes or castes without any obligation
attaching to them.
A tribe is a social group with territorial affiliation, endogamous, with no
specialization of functions, rules by tribal officers, hereditary or otherwise, united in
language or dialect, recognizing social distance from tribes or castes but without any
stigma attached in the case of a caste structure, following tribal traditions, beliefs and
customs, illiberal of naturalization of ideas from alien sources, above all conscious of a
homogeneity of ethnic and territorial integration.
Such definitions are not very helpful because when the situation of tribes
is examined carefully not only do we find a lot of variations in their life styles but also
many of these features are shared by the caste people. The people of India include a
very large number of tribes who exhibit high degree of variation in term of variety of
features. Defining such people must face the challenge of these variations, which
manifest in terms of economic, linguistic socio cultural or even racial differences. This
raises the problems as to how to distinguish them from castes.
Historically, various authorities have described them by different names,
Sir Herbert Risley and Lacey, I: Elwin and A.V. Thakkar called them aboriginals Grigson
regards them as hill tribes or wilder aboriginals. Hutton call them as Primitive tribes
Elwin calls the Baigas, the Original owners of the country. The eminent Indian
anthropologist and socialgist, G.S. Ghurye calls them backward Hjindus. Dr. Das
renamed them as submerged humanity. Despite these differences, the tribal groups
are presumed to form the oldest section of the national population hence the term
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Adivasis (original inhabitants) has recently become current to designate these groups.
The term aboriginal, aboriginal primitives have been used in this context.
In the pre independence period tribal groups were understood through
mainly view points.
Firstly, the people called tribals were through to live in remote forests and hilly areas,
enjoying a free life of their own. The geographical isolation has been considered the
central theme of such understanding of tribe.
Secondly, the tribes were considered groups were living in the close association with
the caste groups or other groups and what differentiated them from other groups were
these typical socio cultural features unlike the caste system. In this understanding
those groups which were not considered part of caste hierachy or belonging to other
mainstream groups were considered as tribes. This understand come from vast number
of anthropological accounts generated with respect to various tribe in India in Pre
Independence period.
Historically the tribal groups have also under gone a process of transformation in terms
of their typical features like language, religion, culture, economic situation etc.
Particularly in the post independence period bthere has been a changes in the tribes to
an extent that it has posed a problem of defining the tribe. The diversity and
heterogeneity among various groups have been seen in following terms.

GEOGRAPHICAL ISOLATION

Firstly, now, a days tribe are no longer considered geographically isolated there are
only few primitive tribal groups who are living isolated geographically, rest of the tribal
population is living in close association with the adjoining groups Ghurye, Dubey,
Srinivas, Sinha, Srivastav. For example, the Dublas of Surat District (Gujarat) do not
live forests. They live in fertile plains in the midst of advanced communities like the
Anavils and Banias; neverthyeless, they are included in the list of Scheduled tribe. On
the other hand, the Pankas found in the Jungles living with the Marias near Chitrakot and
Kutumsar in Bastar are excluded. Therefore, Geographical mis-location, in the case of
majority of tribes does not fit in the case of Indian society.

Linguistic separation

A large number of the tribes, the Santhals, the Mundas, the Oraons, the
Khonds, the Korkus, speak languages which either belong to the Khewari or Mundari
group of language or to the Dravidian family, and are, more often than not, different,
different from the languages of the plains people among whom they have their being or
with whom they have a large amount of social intercourse. The languages of the latter in
most cases belong to the Indo Aryan family.
Many of these tribes, though they have preserved their tribal languages,
can and very often do employ the Indo Aryan languages of the surrounding people in
their routine intercourse. Many of them thus are bilingual, having their own mother
tongue and having more less acquired the language of the neighboring people. There are
others, like the Baigas, who have taken up the Indo-Aryan tongue of the locality in place
of their own langue, whatever it might have been. Other Like the Bhils speak languages
which are dialects of the local languages. In all cases the languages spoken by the so
called aborigines were till recently only spoken tongues and had no scripts of their own.
Needless to say, they had no literature, the only kind of it being what is known as folk-
literature. Vix, folk sonds and folktales. There is some poetry enshrined in some of the
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folk-songs make a strong appeal to the aborigines who have been accustomed from their
childhood to listen to end to chant their tunes.

Social organisation of tribe

Thirdly, the social organisation of tribe is considered unique in terms of
absence of cast type of organisation. Specific kinship organisation distinct marriage rules
and diverse social arrangement tribe in this sense are definitely distinct but at the same
time there are various other groups also which are distinct socially but still are not tribe.
Social interdependence

Fourthly, tribe can also identify functional interdependent within their own
community. This also calls for interactional autonomy with respect to adjoing groups.
This point towards the self sufficiently and independent venture of the tribe but in this
case again the process of assimilation has made functionally dependent on the others
group. Dr. Conducts an in depth research on this aspect and concludes that tribes were
always in a state of functional interaction with caste Hindus.

Administrative notion

Fifthly, the administrative notion of tribe considered them as a scheduled
also suffer with a number of problems the criteria of backwardness use of such definition
may apply only part of the tribe. In the same way numbers of tribes have adopted a
Christian faith still they are recognized as tribes. For tribes of North East Apart from this
other ingredients type homogeneity, territorial integrity also suffers with the same
problem.

Economic backwardness

Sixthly, tribes are generally considered as economically backward as
comparing to adjoin groups. In this sense the presence of a traditional economy (Non
monetized). Primitive means of resources and primitive means of exploiting and are
often takes as indicator of tribal group particular occupations, dependence of forest
produce shifting cultivation, use of traditional technology are some of the example but
again there are huge population in India which have shifted to settled agriculture, taking
employment in industry and even government and other jobs by taking modern
education Negi of Uttar Pradesh and Meena of Rajasthan show their visible presence in
civil services. This again proposes a definition of tribe problem. In some areas they were
just advanced as the rest of the population; for example the Gond in Nagpur Tehsil is no
different from the Kumbi, the Raj Gond in Jabalpur is just as advanced as the Lodhi, and
so on.
Therefore, Backwardness is a relative term, and very caste or community
may be more or less backward as compared to other castes or communities.

Scheduled status as tribes

In the Constitution the criteria have not been clearly stated. They are
listed as scheduled tribes because of the Kind of life led by them which is considered as
peculiar. A tribe may be scheduled or may not be. The scheduled status is given for
the purpose of providing certain benefits. Article 342 of the Constitution attributes
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isolation, backwardness and cultural distinctiveness as the characteristics of the
Scheduled Tribes.
Therefore, certain groups though may be tribes may not be considered so.
Moreover, A tribe may be converted to Christianity/ Hinduism, but it still remains a tribe
but may not get scheduled tribe status.
Finally the typical Attitude of tribe in distinct political organization,
psychological conversation etc cannot test regional variability.

Understanding of tribes in Indian context

Bailey (1960) has suggested that the only solution to the problem of
definition of tribes in India is to conceive of a Continuum of which at one end are tribes
and at the other are castes. Sinha (1965) too thinks of tribe and caste in terms of a
continuum but his ideas are more elaborates and he brings in the concept of civilization.
For him, the tribe is ideally defined in terms of its isolation from the networks of social
relations and cultural communications of the centres of civilization. It has been
suggested that wherever civilizations exist, tribes can be described, defined and
analysed only in contrast to that civilization which it may fight, serve, mimic or adopt but
cannot ignore.
In India, there are numerous examples of tribes transforming themselves
into the larger entity of the caste system; other have become Christian or Muslim. They
also join the ranks of peasantry and in modem times become wage labourers in
plantations, mining and other industries. Thus, in our concept of tribe we should not
overlook these changing aspects. Evolving and understanding of tribes necessitate the
due consideration of such diversity and variation. The possibility of a community having
all the typical features of tribes has remote. These typical features as discuss include
geographically isolation, common dialect, common social organization, typical cultural
attribute like totemic economic specifically and backwardness.
Therefore, it is very difficult to given an exact criterion for distinguishing
tribe. Scholars have tried to define the term tribe by enumerating their characteristics
features, by considering them as a stage in the evolutionary framework, by
distinguishing them from castes and by considering them as a part of Indian civilization.
In this way instead of generating a single definition of tribe various
sociologist and committee have identified tribal group rather than a single definition of
tribe.

Shrikant committee divided the tribes into four categories: Tribals, semi tribals,
Acculturated tribals and Assimilated tribals Ghurye divided them into three classes: first,
member of frairly high status within Hindu society, Raj Gonds; second, partially Hindu
zed and, thirdly, hill sections. Assimilation of the tribals attracted a number of
anthropologists. Ghurye characterized the tribal as backward Hindus (1963) and argued
that may attempt to isolate them from the mainstream of India life would be
meaningless.

Majumdar (1974) Hindu influence responsible and gave a threefold classification: (i)
real primitive, (ii) primitive tribe with a degree of association with Hindu caste and (iii)
Hinduzed tribes whereas Elwin (1943) talked about it as the external influence and
suggested four types of tribes, ViZ, (i) most primitive, (ii) individualistic and used to
outside life, (iii) detribalized and (iv) tribal aristocrats. In the Indian Conference of Social
work in 1952, four divisons of tribals were made: (i) tribal communities, (ii) semi tribal
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communities, (iii) acculturated tribal communities and (iv) totally assimilated tribals.
Dube (1960) classified them into five categories considering the present habitation and
behaviour of the new communities which come in contact. According to this classification
they are: (i) aboriginals living in seclusion, (ii) tribal group with some village folk
association, (iii) tribals living in mixed villages, (iv) tribals who have been forced to live
as untouchables, and (v) tribals enjoying a high social status.

These classifications reveal that the process of assimilation has been a
part and parcel of the Indian tribal culture. Many anthropologists have explained in their
own ways. Sanskritization of Srinivas (1957) and tribe caste continuum model given by
Sinha (1965) for the Bhumijs, by Srivastava (1966) for the Bhutias by Sachidananda
(1970) for the Gonds explain the phenomeon. L. K. Mahapatra (1968) feels that there
was an age old procesws of cultural assimilation in Orissa especially among the tribes
like the Binjhal, Bhuiyan, Gond, Kond, etc. the Hos (Majumdar, 1950 and Rai., 1967)
have exclusiveness as an important character but much has been adopted from the
Dikkus (the Hindus neighbours). In the Dikku Andi way of marriage, a Brahman presides
over the ceramony. The Parhayas feel proud to be called Hindus. TheBhumijs are new
Hindualized (Sinha, 1965). Thus the definition of tribe depends on their habitat, cultural
customs, beliefs, ways of living dialect and social and economic conditions.
Reviewing the literature on tribes and peasantry Andre Beteille wrote in
n1987 that there was no satisfactory way of defining the tribal society. Arguing that it
was difficult to call any one a tribal in Indian society, rather the agrarian society was
comprised of a heterogeneous body of peasants cut up into various ethno linguistic
categories. In a similar vaein Gurha also argues that historically informed
anthropologists like G.SD. Ghurye and D.R. Gadgil were justified in repudiating the
categories of aboriginals and tribals and that historical record supported such skepticism,
there is a continuum. There are multiplicity of definitions. There are tubers of tribes.

GEOGRAPHICAL SPREAD

India has the largest concentration of tribal people anywhere in the world
except perhaps in Africa. The lifestyle of tribal is conditioned by the Eco-system. India,
with a variety of Eco-system, presents a varied tribal population throughout its length
and breadth. The different tribal communities are found in most of the states of India
covering nearly 8 percent of Indias total population. However, exact ethnographic data
on a number of tribal communities are lacking. Some of the large tribal communities are
distributed in a wide region and often profess varied occupations. Again, a few tribal
groups are divided into a number of subgroup which are practically distinct tribal
groups. In many cases, some distinct tribal groups have identical names. Besides these,
the scheduling of tribes has also created a problems as in many cases, a tribe many be
scheduled in one state and not so in another state. For all these reasons, any
classification needs careful endeavour. Still it can be said that the tribal communities
belong to different racial stocks, speak languages of different families and show
considerable variation in their basic economy.
Though the tribal communities are distributed in most of the status on
India, there are a few concentration points of regional distribution. Vidyarthi (1977) has
suggested a five-fold classification on the basis of regional distribution of the tribal
population. Dube (1960) and Atal (1965) have suggested a four-fold classification while
Chaudhuri (1982) has suggested a six-fold classification.

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Broadly, the tribals are concentrated in the following regions of India:

a) North Eastern region: in the mountain valleys and other areas of north eastern
India covering Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland
and Tripura live tribes like the Abor, Garo, Khasi, Kuki, Mismi, Naga, etc. who mostly
belong to Mongolian racial stock.
b) Himalayan region: In the hilly areas and sub-himalayan areas covering parts of
North Bengal, Sikkim, U.P., Himachal Pradesh, etc. live a number of tribal groups like
the Lepcha, Bhotia, Rabha, etc. belonging to Monoglian racial stocjk.
c) Central India : In the older hills and Chotanagapur Plateau, along the dividing lines
between peninsular India and the Indo-Gangetic basin, live many tribal communities
like the Bhumij, Gond., HO. Oraon, Munda, Santal, etc. covering the states of Bihar,
Orisa, M.P. and West Bengal and mostly belong to proto Australoid racial stock.
d) Western region: Covering the states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa,
Dadra and Nagar Haveli live a number of tribal communities the most important of
them being the Bhi racially belonging to the Proto Astraloid group.
e) Southern region: covering the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
and Kerala, in the Nilgiri Hills and covering lines the Chenchu, Irula, Kadar, Kota,
Kurumba. Toda etc. having Negrito, Caucasoid, Proto Australoid or mixed physical
features.
f) Island region: Covering Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands live a number
of small tribes like the Andamanese, Onge, Sentinilese, etc.

Administrative view

The areas inhabited by the tribals constitute a significant part of the under
developed areas of the country. The tribals live mostly in isolated villages or hamlets. A
significant portion of their population has now settled in permanent villages as well as in
towns and cities. On the whole, as per rough estimates, the prominent tribal areas
constitute about 15 percent of the total geographical area of the country.
There are 533 tribes (with many overlapping types in more than one
State) as per notified Schedule under Article 342 of the Constitution of India in different
States and Union Territories of the country with the largest 62 being in the State of
Orissa.
Among the notified tribes, a group is still at most primitive stage. They
continue to live in isolated areas and practice either primitive agriculture or no
agricultural or no agricultural practice and most of them are still in food gathering stage
with almost stagnating population. Such groups (75Nos.) are named as Primitives Tribal
Groups (PTGs). They are spread over 15 States/UTs.

Colonial policies and Tribes

Historically there have been main types of policies towards the tribes:
1. Policy of Segregation/ Isolation.
2. Policy of Assimilation: A result of constant contact of the Tribes with the rest of
Indian population and the efforts of Social Reformers.
3. Policy of Integration of the Tribes in Regional and National setting. These approaches
may be viewed in some detail.

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Historically, the people considered tribals were living forest and hilly areas
as part and parcel of Indian population. They had enjoyed a free life of their own. It was
only in the immediate past in the British period of Indian history that these people were
approached in quite a different way. Need for a policy towards tribes was felt after the
consolidation of British rule in Bengal in the later half of 18
th
Century. Initially Colonial
powers extended PoliticoAdministrative rule in Bengal which had considered Tribal
concentration. The revenue administration was extended to villages through gradual
institution of land tenure systems.

The initial efforts from the Britishers have extended revenue
administration of tribal areas through either Britishers administration or local attribute
could not be much successful. The notion of the Tribe held by the Britishers was one of
primitive, barbaric or uncivilized people. Conforming to civilizational ideal, initially British
tried to interference in the socioculture life of the tribals. Both these efforts were
registered by the labor in the form of number of revolts which started from the end of
the 18
th
century. Towards the beginning of the 19
th
century, by an act, the Christian
missionaries were legally allowed to operate in Tribal areas. Religious missionaries
followed a policy which was a mix of isolation, assimilation and integration.

Therefore initial efforts of the British did not bear much fruits. In the
middle of the 19
th
century a policy of administration segregation which result beginning
of policy of administrative isolation toward the tribes. Because the British tribal policy
was political and colonial, the British administrators feared, that if these tribals (bow
and-arrow armed tribals were often labeled as militant, unruly and junglee) were to have
contact with the mainstream of Indian society, the freedom movements would gain
further strength. In this background it seemed logical to them to isolate, administratively
and politically, the religious that had predominantly tribal populations.

Excluded and partially excluded were created from keeping the tribes in
isolation. As tribal habitations coincided with the forests, they had to formulate a
separate policy for the forests in order to facilitate the appropriation of the forests for
satisfying the commercial interests. In pursuance of this need, they systematically took
away the traditional rights of the tribes to appropriate the forests. Through various
forests acts tribes were confined to small pieces of forests. This led to further
impoverishment of the tribes.

Apart from all these efforts certain benevolent administrators, social
reformers also approached the tribes from the humanistic angle. They contributed
towards the improvement of the health, education economic, status of the tribes.

It must be mentioned here; the tribe in India never shared homogenous
conditioned features. Certain tribes were geographically isolated living in hills, forests, in
isolation on one stream and in close association with the Hindu population on the other.
They different highly in terms of the degree of socio cultural segregation vis--vis
others groups. The segregation was quite visible in North East India but least in Central
India. The colonial policy towards tribes only considered these groups as tribes. Thus,
the colonial policy towards the tribals had two major elements. Firstly, it favoured
isolation of the tribal areas from the mainstream (Bhowmick 1980); Chaudhuri (1982).
Thus was given the concept of excluded and or partially excluded areas.
crackIAS.com 81

Secondly, at the level of reform, the British administration was interested
in civilizing these people. In their ethno-centric assessment, the tribals were viewed at
par, with stage of bestiality. In the words of Sir E.B. Taylor these people inhabiting the
hilly or forested terrain with sparse population and difficult communication were social
fossile; a study or who would illuminate the prehistoric phases of human existence.

Policy of Segregation

Administrative segregation

The foremost policies which were adopted by the British rulers were to
isolate these people from the general mass and separate the tribal areas from the
purview of the normal administration. The policy of isolation by the British Government
was largely affected by their deliberated efforts not to develop communication in the
tribal areas which, as a result remained cut off from the rest of the population. A few
roads that were constructed were for security purpose and to enable contactors to
exploit the forest produce, communication with the other groups of people, e.g., plain
people, was also discouraged as the tribal areas were made sedluded by the authority.
The most burning example nthat can cited in this respect is of the north eastern
Himalayan tribes. They had no communication with the rest of India and consequently a
sense of separatism had developed in them.

In isolated tribals areas a very small number of people were allowed some
contractors, government officials and a few businessmen. They grouped together and
started business on their own terms. This isolation led to much exploitation by non
tribals added to their strain of fighting a lone battle against nature in the hilly and forest
areas.

In some areas the British rules also created excluded and partially
excluded area and them separate political representation. In fact the area wise
isolation began with the enactment of the Government of India Act of 1870 and a few
tracts were specified as scheduled tracts viz., in the Himalayan region, the then Assam
Darjeeling, Kumaon and Garhwali, the then Tarai Paragas. Jaunsar-Bawar, Lahaal, and
Spiti; in middle India, Chotanagpur and Santhal Pargana, Angul Mahal, Chanda,
Chhattisgarh, Chhindwara, Mapur (Indore)Jhansi, Mirzapur, Ganjam; in western India,
Panch Mahals, Mewasi (Khandesh): and in south India. Vizagapatam (Visakhapatnam)
Godavari, and Lakshadweep, in 1874 the scheduled District Act gave effect to the
Government of India Act 1870. A number of Acts were enforced from time to time till
1919 when certain territories were declared Backward Tracts under the Government of
India Act of 1919 the areas were more or less, the same as those of scheduled tracts
and scheduled districts with certain additions and omissions
They considered certain are as to be backward, the people, being primitive
without political institutions as so on. Again in 1936 two areas were created Excluded
Areas and Partially excluded Areas Under sections 91 and 92 of the Government of
India Act of 1935. The list of the areas was embodied in the Government of India
(Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas) order, 1936. On the whole the list of excluded
areas or partially excluded areas largely left the situations as it was in 1874 barring only
certain areas on the then frontiers. The main features of distinguish an Excluded Areas
from a partially Excluded Areas were:
1. The governor functioned in his own discretion in an excluded area.
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2. The expenditure in regard to the former was non-votable while the demands in the
latter case were subject to a vote of the Legislature,
3. The discussion of any matter regarding the excluded areas needed prior consent of
the Governor.

In 1939 Elwin advocated (1939: 511 -519) for the establishment of a sort
of National Park of the tribals and advice that their contact with the outside world
should be reduce to the minimum. Again in 1941 he (Elwin: 1941) supported the idea of
isolationism to a great extent.

Forest Policy and tribes

Before the advent of the British rule the regulation of peoples use of
forest was mainly through local customs. Their own beliefs regarding both plantation and
feeling of trees, contributed much to the conservation and expansion of forests. The
forest policy followed by British administration in India has entailed hardship on the so
called aborigines. The forests adjoining the village are the natural grazing grounds for
the cattle of the agriculturists, who resort to them also for collecting cow dung and
firewood. The manure of the village fields is provided by the cow dung, dry leaves, and
dry wood to be procured from the forests.
The relationship between the tribal communities and the forest is
extremely close. The tribals are generally called Vanya Jati or forest dwellers. The
relationship is symbiotic i.e. a close and multi faceted inter independence. The main
aspects of the relationship are economic, religio-cultural and emotional. Economically,
certain groups of tribals heavily depend on forests. These groups are the food gatherers,
hunters and shifting cultivators. A majority of the remaining tribal communities also
support and supplement their economy from forests by way of collection and sale of
minor forest produce (MFP), materials uses in crafts, fuel. Wage-earning in the forest
work is another vital supplementary source. The religion-cultural life of the tribes
dwelling in the forests revolves round the forests. Their benefits, abode of gods and the
spirits, taboos etc., are all forest, linked. Emotionally, many tribal communities are so
much attached to the forest life that they find it difficult to imagine a meaningful
existence bereft of the forests.
The British saw Indian forests as a valuable resource to be exploited for
the purpose of revenue and export combined with a general policy to increases the
agricultural land at the cost of forest. They started heavy deforestation for the needs of
their Navy, much before initiating a forest policy in 1855. Governor General Dalhousie
issued a memorandum on forests conservation to curtail the previous access enjoyed by
rural communities declaring teak as state property the felling of which was to be strictly
regulated. Restrictions were also placed on the collection of MFP. As a follow up of the
policy, an inspector General of Forest was appointed by the Government of India in
1856. Forest Act of 1865 was made to regulate forest exploitation, management and
preservation. The hitherto socially regulated practices of the locals were to be restrained
by law. The law was applicable only to the forests notified as government property, and
not private forests. At this movement, three distinct strands of thinking manifested
within the colonial bureaucracy on the question of customary common property rights.
The first section, called annexationist by Gadgil and Guha, wished for a total state
control over all forest areas.
BadenPowell and the then Secretary of the Agricultural Department A.O
Hume took this position that state monopoly of forests and wasteland was an undisputed
crackIAS.com 83

feature of Oriental Sovereignty and the colonial state by its right of conquest inherited
this monopoly right. The second prominent position mainly held by forest officials of
Madras government, denied the legitimacy of any state intervention in the customary
rights of use exercised by the rural communities. The legitimacy position, represented by
the Inspector General of Forests, Dietrich Brandis and some officials, held the view
that the state had undisputable right in certain cases but favoured retention of
customary rights of villagers to freely graze their cattle, cut wood, etc, subject to some
restriction by the state. The passing of Indian Forest Act (1878) clearly resolved the
question in favour of an annexationists position.

Forest Act of 1878 aimed to remove the existing ambiguities about the
absolute proprietary rights of State. It increased government control over forests. The
classification of forests into reserved, protected and village forests was introduced. The
acts like grazing of cattle and entry for collection of fuel in reserved forest were
abolished and declared punishable offenses. Thus, it meant total exclusion of right
holders from forest management. The area under reserved forests was increased
gradually.

Forest Policy Resolution 1894 was more favourable disposed to village
needs to assuage widespread discontent. It declared that forests would be administered
in public interest, but went on to further restrict the claims of the local communities in
the larger interest and in consistence with imperial interest. The rights of the forest
dwelling communities were changed to rights and privileges. A new four fold
classification was introduced (a) Such forests the preservation of which was essential
on economical and fiscal grounds; (b) Forests which supplied valuable timers for
commercial purpose; (c) Minor forests; and (d) Pasture land. The resolution also allowed
freely the conversation of forests into cultivable lands and made some suggestions for
utilization of wastelands. Conversation of forest land facilitated tae and coffee plantation
by Europeans and increased entry of outsiders into tribal areas.

Under the Indian Forest Act of 1927, the government increased it s control
over the forest and strengthened the forest department with a view to regulate peoples
claims to forest land and produce and increase its commercial exploitation. Certain MFP
became commercially valuable and hence there was a need to further reduce traditional
rights and codify all the practices of the forest officials. The rights were classified as
concessions, rights, privileges and an emphasis was led on detailed codification
regarding these. By and large, the private forests could also now be taken over by the
government. The machinery to punish offense under the Act was strengthened and the
powers of the forest officials enlarged. Large areas in the princely states were also drawn
into forest management.
The British policy relating to forest management had thus been fashioned
to satisfy the needs in England as well as India, and earn large revenues. The result was
a loss of cohesion in the rural communities, utter misery for tribal groups depending on
forests, opening up of their areas to outside elements and fast decline in their traditional
management systems and in born sense of ecology. Even at the time of framing the
1874 law, the government of Madras Presidency also led to unrest and uprising in
different parts of country.



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Policy of reform

In a colonial assessment, the tribals were viewed at par with stage of
bestiality. They treated the contemporary primitives as the remnants or survivals of the
early stages of humanity, savagery and barbarism. In the words of Sir E.B. Taylor, these
people inhabiting the hilly or forested terrain with sparse population and difficult
communication were social fossils a study or whom would illuminate the prehistoric
phases of human existence. Consequently, Missionaries were sent to some of the difficult
areas inhabited by these people. Animism, as the tribal religion was often characterised,
was replaced by one or the other denomination of Christianity. Beginning with the
conversation of the Khasi of Assam in 1813, of the Oraon of Chotanagpur in 1850 and of
the Bhil of Madhya Pradesh in 1880 by Christian missionaries, Christianity brought about
many changes in the cultural life of the tribals in India. Schools were opened up, and
obviously English was opted as the main language of instruction. Along with come the
Western medical system, which slowly started exorcising the traditional practices of cure,
styles of life and ways of behaviour began changing. And they became very conspicuous
in dress patterns, especially of men.

And this evaluation the tribal culture must be museumified lest it
disappear with the onslaught of modernity promoted the classical ethnographic studies.
In them, the way they were changing was not attended to. The attempt was to record as
meticulously as possible the tradition, or betters the dying tradition of the people.

Issues of integration and autonomy

Historically, the people considered were living in remote forest and hilly
areas as part and parcel of India population. They had enjoyed an autonomous life of
their own. Colonial policy towards tribe resulted in exploitation of the tribes and
breakage of their nexus with ecological environment. The past experience of the policies
of isolation and assimilation followed by the colonial government introduced disparities in
tribal situation. The western notion of modernity followed by the administrators and
missionaries resulted in attempts to assimilate and then to the national mainstream.
Certain tribes were left isolated and some other like parts of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and
north east got modern education.
This forced by thinkers and social reformers to go a midway which might
have been more fruitful. The ideal of unity in diversity was followed in order to
reconcile divergent interests with Indian nationalism. The social reformers, politicians,
anthropologists as experts on the tribal ways of life and the administration combined
their skills and adopted an integrated approach towards the tribals. Therefore, policy of
integration has found acceptance particularly, after independence. The fundamental
premise of this policy is to integrate the tribal groups in the national mainstream without
compromising with their own identity. This policy gets its broad conception from the late
Jawaharlal Nehrus Tribal Panchsheel, i.e., five fundamental principles for the tribal
upliftment, as an integrational approach which was later confirmed by the research of
anthropologists. The principles are:

1. People should develop along the lines of their own genius and we should avoid
imposing anything on them. We should try to encourage in every way their own
traditional arts and culture.
2. Tribal rights to land and forests should be respected.
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3. We should try to train and build up a term of their own people to do the work of
administration and development. Some technical personnel form outside will no
doubt, be needed, especially in the beginning. But we should avoid introducing too
many outsiders into tribal territory.
4. We should not over administer these areas or overwhelm them with a multiplicity of
schemes. We should rather work through, and not in rivalry, to their own social and
cultural institutions.
5. We should judge results, not by statistics or the amount of money spent, but by the
quality of human character that is evolved.

The tribal development programme undertaken after Independence aimed
at extending the fruits of development to the tribes without comprising of their identity.
The term tribal welfare has been used to cover an all-round development of the tribals
as a weaker section of the Indian population. The Constitution of India envisage that
the State shall promote with special care and educational and economic interests of the
weaker sections of the people and, in particular, of the Scheduled Caste and the
Scheduled Tribes and shall protest them from social injustice and all forms of
exploitation.

Therefore, Constitutional of India gives a special status to the tribes for
the purpose of their development, without interfering in their social life directly. All these
initiative at the level of ideology must conform to the policy of integration.
Particular approaches, i.e. (i) single-line administration, (ii) comparatively
small districts due to communicational difficulties, (iii) area development approach to
develop the area in its totality in the Fourth Plan and drawing the Sub-Plans in the Fifth
Five Year Plans are a clear reflection of the policy of integration with the regional and
national setting. It is also a good sign that the recently all the three districts of Nagaland
have been bifurcated into seven districts and one big district of Madhya Pradesh, i.e.
Raipur, have been bifurcated into two districts. The single district, Bastar, has been put
under a Commissioner. In Bihar, too, the number of districts has been doubled to give
better administration and to speed up development.

Certain constitutional provisions like 5
th
schedule promise separate
administration structure for Scheduled and Tribal areas. Thus keeping the tribes isolated.
The sub-committee, with Shri A.V. Thakkar, as Chairman, had emphasized that the great
need of the aboriginal was protection from alienation of land and virtual serfdom under
the moneylender. This clearly indicates that the Constituent Assembly had never
recommended isolation of some area as specific area but has simply wanted the end of
the exploitation. In the different Five Year Plan of tribal development faced financial
segregation. The fund meant for tribal welfare was kept reserved for tribal
development. Even Varrier Elwin advise on tribal affairs to the Government of Assam
regarding isolation of tribals groups in certain extreme cases was later, modified by him,
in the second edition of this book (1959), he said, we do not want to preserve the
tribesmen as museum specimens, but equally we do not want to stop the clock of
progress but we do to see that it keeps the right time. We may not believe in the myth
of noble savage but we do not want to create a class of ignoble.

There is no denying the fact that if one looks from the broader perspective
in the last seventy years of planning the policy is one of integration.

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Policy of assimilation

The assimilation either directly of indirectly of the tribal people with the
rest of the population is another trend which has picked up firstly as a continuous
process of the culture contact with the neighboring population and secondly as an
outcome of government policy though not deliberate. Construction of development
projects leads to submergence of land. Unfortunately, the area that comes under
submergence lies in the tribal areas. Entire villages and close-knit tribal communities get
displaced and uprooted from their tribal habitat. Similarly large-scale mining of coal,
iron, bauxite, copper, limestone and diamond which have already come up in the tribal
areas devastating large areas and displacing local communities. Exposure to same
education system has also created problems like a perceived threat of identity.

FOREST POLICY 1988

It includes maintenance of environment stability; conservation of natural
heritage, checking soil erosion and denudation, massive afforestation and social forestry
programs to meet the needs of rural and urban population, efficient utilization of forest
produce and creation of massive peoples movement for achieving these objects. The
policy, however, relates rights/concessions for the local communities to the carrying
capacity of the forest which is a very controversial issue and a vague test. The tribals
feel that defining this concept should not be left to the forest officials alone. Moreover,
the resolution emphasizes social forestry as the main source for meeting the needs of
the forest dwellers. But development of social forestry, again, is very much, in the hands
of the Forest Department, who, it has been seen in a many tribal areas like, Bastar,
Nilgiris etc., have planted such commercial species as pine and eucalyptus which are of
no use to the tribal households. It is also seen at while the forest produce from reserved
and protected forests is given for industrial use at throw away prices, the needs of the
tribal handicraft workers are fulfilled at much higher prices. There are some other
difficulties with this policy. It bans totally the entry of tribals to reserved forests and to
supply them rights/concessions only from forest depots. It is known that these depots
are inadequate by way of number and locations and tribals face exploitation and
harassment in these depots.
The 1988 policy breaks a new ground in the case of shifting cultivation. It
makes a general resolve to find out way to discourage shifting cultivation and take up
social forestry and plantation in the areas damaged by shifting cultivation. But shifting
cultivation is not a homogeneous variety and some areas may even be suitable for
shifting cultivation. Suitable packages of alternative cultivation/plantation have to be
evolved for different areas at micro level. As the Working Group for VIII Plan has pointed
out, these efforts are still in an initial stage.
Moreover, the tribals were finding the restrictions quite confusing. Good
forests have been clear-felled to make room for industries and mines. Major river valley
projects have submerged large chunks of forests. Large thermal power stations and
major iron ore, coal and bauxite mines have come up in the midst of forest causing
irreparable damage to the environment.
The State refuses to recognize forests as a life-support of the tribal
communities living in and around them. It exercises first right on this asset and has
persisted in pursuing the anti-people colonial forest policy in an even more unscientific
way immical both to sustainable management of this asset and the tribal communities
who draw sustenance from it. Thus overall the government has been following a policy of
crackIAS.com 87

integration towards tribes. But there are other aspects of the policy which has resulted in
the dissatisfaction among the tribes.

Issues of autonomy

The attempts of Integration after Independence have raised number of
issues leading to disparity in the development of different tribes in different regions.
1. Tribes in number of areas have accused the state Government for not giving
enough attention to their problem and there by developing the perception of
discrimination.
2. Exposing tribes to the same education system has resulted in perception of threat
to identity.
3. This unrest becomes aggravated by non-recognition of tribal cultural/languages at
the national or the state level. Due to non-availability of written script the tribes
are unable to preserve their culture heritage.
4. In some areas, the geographically boundaries tribes, do not conform to state
boundaries, thereby leading to dissatisfaction because of differential treatment to
the members of the same tribe. All these have led to the generation of social
movement among tribes generally expressing their distribution through demands of
autonomy.

The various all-India tribal Conference organized by the Government or
actively supported by it indirectly created solidarity in tribal India. But he found in this
only additional encouragement to the demands for autonomy in some parts of the
country. They take the forms of movements for autonomy for creation of sub regional
autonomy, separate states, demands for secession. Autonomy demands are also
expressed in terms of freedom to pursue their own culture. Movements for demand for
recognition to tribal languages for protection of the culture have been seen in different
parts of the country. Autonomy has also been understood in terms of economy of the
sons of the soil from the outside exploiters. Tribal movements find their expression in
all forms of insurgency, ethnic conflicts, demands from the state, political mobilization
etc.





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THE WORKING CLASS: STRUCTURE,
GROWTH AND CLASS MOBILIZATION


The question who & what is working class is not & easy one to answer.
There are several reason of this the working class is not a cohesive entity & it has
numerous differences & contradicting. There is problem of where to draw the line. Who
belong to the working class & who does not? The difference further extends in terms of
skills, sex, age income & caste. Hence the working class is complex, contradictory
constantly changing entity. But it is an entity in other words, there is group of people
denoted as working class who are not just the some of people. Even though there are
differences & contradiction within the working class, they need to be recognized &
analysed. One can not have single definition which will be all inclusive this is the because
of the blurring of boundaries between classes & the different working classes. For
example of worker 1970 is the not same as the worker in 2005, that is, the composition,
the size & the character of class changes over a period of time therefore the requirement
is of a series of definition which have to change in accordance with the changes in social
structure.
In the Marxian scheme, the capitalist society is characterized by two
principal classes: bourgeoisie & proletariat. Bourgeoisie owns mean production &
proletariat sell their labour for wages in order to live the Marxist meaning of these terms
have been specified clearly by angles in afoot note to the communist manifesto. By
bourgeoisie is meant the class of modern capitalist, & by the proletariat the class of
modern wage labourers. Hence, bourgeoisie is synonymous with capitalist & the
proletariat with working class.
In recent year, the Marxist view on the working class has been counter
essentially by two views giving contradictory analysis. The first view is that working class
is literally disappearing with automation of industry & apparent displacement of blue
collar jobs, the working is fast shrinking in size. However, blue collar workers are
disappearing. The second view states the opposite; in this view all society is becoming
working class. Blue collar, white collar worker & salaried employees of various kinds are
all worker. The working class is not disappearing but is infect expanding with everybody
joining it expect few capitalist at the top.

India has multi-structural economy where numbers of pre-capitalists of
relations of production co-exist with capitalist relation of production. Correspondingly,
here a differentiated working class structure exists i.e. the numerous types of relations
of production, consumption and accumulation of surplus combine to produce a variety of
forms of the existence of the working class. This is further compounded by the structural
features of pan-Indian society with local conditions, so the compositions of the working
class is affected by the caste, tribe, ethnic origin and the gender based division of labour
between male and female and associated patriarchy. This empires that despite, internal
structural differences and the relations of productions through which working people
have been and continues to be, there exist a groups of people denoted as working
class. Then, it becomes pertinent to analyses the growth of working class in India.
This is particularly so, when one considers two facts. First, in India prior to 19
th
century
crackIAS.com 89

there were vast numbers of working people not working class. Second, the growth of
capitalist mode of production along with industrialization was imposed by the colonial
masters.

Growth of working class in India: The modern working class came into being with the
rise of capitalist mode of production. This mode of production brought with it the factory
system of production and working class happened simultaneously. Conversely, without a
factory industry there can be no working class but only working people.

Traditional Indian economy and encounter with colonial

In India, as mentioned above, till the middle of the 19
th
century, there
were working people but not the working class. In other words, Indian economy was
characterized by what Marx termed as small and extremely ancient Indian communities
are based on the possession in common land, on the blending of agriculture and
handicraft, and a unadulterated division of labour, which serve, wherever a new
community is started. The colonial rule of exploitation of British imperialists completely
ruined the system of production of these traditional and self-sufficient societies. Hence,
colonialist followed the trading policy where by they not only flooded the Indian market
with British industrial products but maintained the constant supply of Indian raw
materials and agricultural products to England.

The formative period

The forced intrusion of British capital in India devastated the old economy
but did not transport it by forces of modern capital economy. So, traditional cottage
industry and weavers famed for their skill through the centuries were robbed of their
means of livelihood and were uprooted throughout India. The loss of the old world with
no new gains led to extreme impoverishment of the people. The millions of ruined
artisans and craftsmen, spinner, weavers, potters, smelters and smiths from the town
and the village alike had no alternative but the crowd into agriculture, leading to deadly
pressure on the land. Subsequently, with the introduction of railway and sporadic growth
of some industries, a section of these very people at the lowest rung of Indian society
who had been plodding through immense sufferings and impoverishment in village life
entered the modern industries as workers. The first generation of factory workers, it
appears, came from the distressed and dispossessed section the village people.
However, other studies point out of a different pattern of migration of
workers from the village. The early working class was not the poorest of the poor.
Buchanans views were based on deductions. The studies of Monis and Chandavarker
show that the lowest caste did not join the industries. Kalpana Rams study of mines
workers also shows something similar. There were two reasons for this. The wages were
very low and it was not possible for the poor to migrate to the city with their families and
work in factories. It would be difficult to maintain a family on low wages. Hence, both
monis and ram note that initially middles class-those with some land-migrated. Their
families stayed behind and the workers would send small amount of money to
supplement the family earning/substance from land. Dalits/ lower castes did not migrate
or they could not migrate as they were required to do the unclean activities in the
village. Secondly, being landless, they could not subsist on those meager earning.


crackIAS.com 90

Emergence of working class

With the growth of modern factory industries, the factory workers
gradually shaped themselves into a distinct category. The concentration of the workers
class in the cities near the industrial enterprises was an extremely important factor in
the formation of the workers as a class. Similar conditions in factories and common
living conditions made the workers feel that they had a similar experience and shared
interest and react in similar fashion.
Side by side with these forms of protest there were also other forms of
struggle characteristic of the working class. Typical working class actions such as strike
against long hours of work, against wage cuts, against supervisors extortion were
increasing in numbers and the tendency to act collectively was also growing. As early as
1879/80 there was a threat of a strike in champdani jute mill against an attempt by the
authorities to introduce a new system of a single shift which was unpopular with
workers. Presumably because of these strike threats the proposed system was ultimately
abandoned. However, the process of class formation among workers in India was
marked by fundamental differences opposed to their European counterparts. It had for
reaching consequences on the growth of the Indian working class. These differences are:

a) Though in Europe also in artisans and the craftsmen were dispossessed of their
profession, they were not forced out of towns to crowd the village economy. They found
employment in the large industries as soon as they were dispossessed of their old
professions. In India, after the destruction of traditional handcraft and cottage industry,
modern industry did not grow up in its place. The dispossessed artisans and craftsmen
were compelled to depend on the village economy and earn livelihood as landless
peasants and agricultural laborers.
b) The gap between destruction of traditional cottage industry and its partial
replacements by modern industries was about to two three generations. The
dispossessed artisans and craftsmen lost their age-old technical skill and when they
entered the modern industries, they did so without any initial skills.
c) When the workers, after long and close association with agricultural life, entered the
modern industries and got transformed into modern workers, they did it in with the full
inheritance of the legacy and various superstitions, habits and customs of agricultural
life. There was no opportunity for these men to get out of casteism, racialism and
religious superstitions of Indian social life and harmful influence of medieval ideas. They
were born as an Indian working class deeply imbued with obscurantist ideas and
backward trends. However, this feature they shared with some of their European
counterparts, as well, such as the British working class who too had suffered similar
problems.
These peculiarities accompanying the birth of Indian workers acted as
hindrances to the development of their modern outlook and class consciousness. In fact
the Indian workers were not the only workers characterized by these peculiarities; rather
these were general characteristics of the working class of the colonies and sub-colonies.

Consolidation of the working class

The end of 19
th
century and the beginning of 20
th
century was marked by
the organized national movements and consolidation of the working class. The national
movements, especially in Bengal and Maharashtra had already assumed a developed
form which exerted a great impact on the later national awakening of the entire country.
crackIAS.com 91

The partition of Bengal in 1905 aroused bitter public indignation and gave rise to mass
national upsurge. This political development worked as a favorable condition for the
Indian working class too for moving ahead with its economic struggles and raising them
to a higher pitch. The period from the beginning of the century till the outbreak of the
First World War was marked with widespread and dogged struggles of which were not
only economic struggles, but political struggles also. That is these struggle led to the
laying of the foundation of the first trade unions of the country. Moreover, the turn of
the country was also marked by the advance in industrialization with concomitant
swelling of the working class in numerical strength.
On the eve of the First World War, the capitalist development of India got
accelerated. There was increase in the number of joint stock company i.e in 1900the
number of joint stock firms was 1360, which is 1907 rose to 2166. it marked the further
increase at the beginning of the first world war when the number of registered firms
stood at 2553. However, with the outbreak of war the colonial exploitation of India
assured horrible proportions. The govt. widely used the countries industrial potential for
the needs of war. In ail these Indian bourgeoisie got opportunities to prosper.

The main advantage accruing ti Indian bourgeoisie during war were less
competition from major imperialist powers, a large market for the country made goods
inside. And outside the country, war contracts, relatively cheaper raw agricultural
materials, lower real wages and higher prices of manufactured goods. But for the
working class it was a tough time. This was because the soaring up of prices reduced the
living standards of working class. While rural areas were affected by the rise of prices of
manufactured goods, the towns faced higher food prices. The expansion of
industrialization saw swelling of numbers of factory workers. In 1919, the large scale
industries of the country employed 13.67,000 workers. Of this 306,300 were employed
in 277 cotton spinning and weaving mills; 140,800 in 1940 cotton ginning factories and
276,100 in jute factories and presses. The railway shops employed 126,100 workers.
The October socialist revolution and subsequent sweeping mass and
working class struggles formed the background under which the first organization of the
Indian working class called all India trade union congress (AITUC) was born. In other
words, the end of World War 1, the success of the October revolution and the first
general crisis of capitalism added new strength to the anti-imperialist struggle of India.

The working class too did not fail to occupy its own place in the anti-
imperialist struggle. In this regard it is important to note that the background of political
struggle during 1905-8 is the unprecedented dimension of class struggle waged by the
Indian working class in the national and international set-up of the post war period
against capitalist exploitation bore more significance from the point of view of workers
class consciousness.
Recession on Indian industry and economy began already in the year 1922
continued intensifying. In 1929 the impact of the world economy recession and general
crisis of world capitalism veritably shook the Indian economy. Though the World War 1
provided a numbers of industries with some temporary advantages or opportunities to
expend and saw limited growth of some industries, in real sense Indias industrialization
was absolutely of a sprawling character and without any basic consolidation. The mill
owner attempted to reduce wages of workers. It is the particular misfortune of the
Indian working class that they ultimately had to fall victim to the intensive rivalry
between imperialists and native capitalist. The working class of India had to proceed
through a path of bitter struggle. The investigation conducted by the Bombay labour
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office into the working class. Budget of 1921-23 revealed that the quantity of daily food
consumed by the Bombay workers was less then what was available to the prison
inmates. An enquiry conducted by the madras labour department also revealed a
similarly shameful state of affairs.
The years 1926-29 constitute an eventful phase of the working class
struggle. During this phase the Indian communist movement stood on a firm foundation
poised for advance. Communist influence on the working class movement was felt to be
very strong. Large scale strikes were conducts during these years. Although the govt.
tried to dub these strikes as communist conspiracies. These struggles led by the
communists, in many cases were infect, a sharp manifestation of the simmering
disconnect of a working class afflicted with crushing problems. Sharpening of struggles,
side by side acted to further widen outlook of the working class and these was borne out
by the very nature of its activities at both national and international levels. The govt. in
response tried to root out the militants section of the working class movement by
unleashing draconian measures. With a view to keeping the speeding working-class
movement under safe control, they on one hand introduced the trade union act.
1926and on the other passed. The trade disputes act and public safety act for tightening
up their suppressive designs.
The world economic crisis of 1931-36 was the most profound and
destructive of all economic crises capitalism has ever known. It dealt a shattering blow
to the economy, the political foundation and ideology of bourgeoisie and in total effect It
further aggravated the general crisis of capitalism. In India the repercussion of This
crisis was more fatal. Indias economy, where 80 percent of the people were Dependent
on agriculture came to a breaking point due to a tall in agricultural prices. The plight of
the peasantry was beyond all imagination, their purchasing power came down to an all
time low. In all industries, there was mass retrenchment and wages were slashed.
World War-II broke out on 3
rd
Sep 1939. This had a devastating effect on
the Indian economy, working class in particular. The colonial govt. reoriented the work
and hereby the industrial units introduced double to triple shifts of needs of eave
facilities were curtailed. This was done to cater to the war condition England. As far as
workers were concerned, their economic situation was miserable in the pre-war period.
This was because of the steady fall in the wage rates. Though there was a reversal in the
trends of wage rates from 1936 onwards, the abnormal rise in prices had not only offset
the rise in wages, the wages of the workers in the real terms had gone down. In such
the situation the working class of India had to wage a struggle for protecting the existing
standards of living. Working class embarked on a series of strikes in Bombay, Kanpur,
Calcutta, Bangalore, Jamshedpur, Dhanbad, Jharia, Nagpur, Madras, Digboy of Assam.

Moreover, the greatest working class Action in India was the anti-war
strike which was organized in Bombay On 2
nd
October 1939 and was joined by 90,000
workers. This event along With other struggles indicates that during this period the
outlook of the Indian working class did not remain confined solely to the economic
Demands. The working class rather fully kept pace with the national and international
political developments and played a key role in the Political struggles. In such an event
the imperialist government directed Severe attacks to forestall the struggle of the
working class.
The defeat of fascism and end of the World War II saw the emergence Of
the India working class as a highly organized, class conscious and uncompromising force
against the colonialist. The upsurge of world democratic national liberation forces that
followed had its impact of India too. An unprecedented and irresistible struggle for
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national liberation and democratic advance engulfed the country. Side-by-side the
working class had to engage in sharp economic struggles. The reason was that after war
there was large scale retrenchments of the wartime recruits and reduction of wages.
Against all this, the working class resolutely started the struggle. The phenomenal rise in
the number of strike actions in the year 1946 was an indication of the stiff resistance. All
India trade union congress raised the demand of stopping retrenchment, minimum
wage, eight hours work, health insurance scheme, old age pension, unemployment
allowance and several other social security measures. To suppress this, govt. took
recourse to extreme measures such as police firing and several other repressive
measures. In this many workers had to lay down their lives while upholding their cause.

As soon as India becomes independent, the political climate of the country
changed. This was the particularly so for the working class. That is, till independence
political and economic struggle of the class was directed against the colonial masters.
Moreover, it was a broad political front against imperialism where everybody from the
national bourgeoisie to the working class rallied with one common objective. But with
independence began a new political dynamics, where power was in the hands of
capitalists and landlords. Their economic interest was directly counter to those of the
working class. With this, the objective of the struggle of the working class also saw a
change i.e. to end the rule of the capitalist and establish socialism in the real sense of
the term. This was thought to be the precondition for growing class-consciousness,
which the majority of working class of India had not yet realized.

NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF THE WORKING CLASS TODAY

Given such an eventful history and evolution of the working class in India
it is worthless to examine the nature and structure of the working class in the present
circumstances. As mentioned above, due to the existence of multi-structural economy
and effect of primordial affiliations, a variety of forms of the working class exists in
India. On top of all the differences, the difference in wage is also the basis of divisions of
the working class. On the basis of wage, there are four types of workers. First, those
workers who are permanent employees of the large factory sector and get family wage.

They are mostly employed in the public sector enterprises and modern
sectors of petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, chemicals and engineering. Second there is
a large and preponderant section of the working class that does not get a family wage.
This includes workers in the older industries like cotton and jute textiles, sugar and
paper. Even the permanent workers in the tea plantation come in the same category
because the owners refuse to accept the norms of family wage for an individual worker.
Third, there is a section of the working class at the bottom of the wage scale the mass
of contract and sometimes casual labourers in industry, including construction, brick
making and other casual workers. Fourth, below all these lie a reserve army of labour
who work in petty commodities production, in petty trading, ranging from hawking to
rag-picking. They are generally engaged in the informal sector and carry on for the want
of sufficient survival wage. The existence of a majority of workers, who are not paid
family wage means that either the worker gets some form of supplement from other
non-capitalist sectors or the worker or his/ her family cut down their consumption below
the minimum standard. This also means that there is more than one wage earner per
household. At the same time they also supplement these earnings with various kinds of
agricultural activities including not only cultivation as such but also poultry and milk
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production. Even in the plantation workers are given plots of land with which to carry on
agricultural production. It is the supplementary agriculture activities that enable wages
in these sectors to be kept low.
Not only is there wage differential among the working class, there is also
variation in the terms of working conditions. Hence, better paid labour has also much
greater job security. However the workers on the tower end of the wage scale have not
only job security but also considerable extra-economic coercion and personal bondage
which lead to lack of civil rights. Similarly working conditions for the low paid workers
are uniformly worse than for high paid workers. So in the same plant or site there is a
clear difference in the safety measures for the two groups of workers. The situation
worsens further with regard to women workers. For example, women are not allowed to
work in the steel plants for safety reasons, but are not prohibited to be employed on the
same site as contract labour.

With such major divisions amongst the working classes of India, one would
expect that there would be large scale mobility among, the workers. So a worker would
start as casual or contract labour in a firm and then would move to permanent
employment either in the same or other firms. A study by Deshpande (1979) of Bombay
labour found the reverse to be true. That is, around 87 per cent of the regular
employees, who had changed their jobs, had started as regular employees and only 13
percent had started as casual Labour. In this regard Harriss 1982 who conducted a study
in Coimbatore, reported that individuals do not move easily between sectors of the
Labour market. This means that mobility to a large extent is dependent upon the way
recruiters are done. The above-mentioned study of Bombay Labour, though dealing with
private sector, found that recruitments are done mainly through friends and relatives. A
study in Ahmedabad by Subramanium and Papola (1973) found that 91% of jobs were
secured through introduction by other workers. This in a way then denies the
disadvantaged groups, access to the high wage employment. In public sector, though a
substantial portion of the vacancies are filled through employment exchange, it does not
in any way mean that the casual, contract or other disadvantaged groups have equal
access.

SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF INDIAN WORKING CLASS

Indian working class, as mentioned earlier, came from diverse social
backgrounds in which primordial identities such as caste, ethnicity, religion and language
played very important roles. In recent years, the significance of these elements has been
reduced but they do persist nonetheless. In this regard, the Ahmedabad study (1973),
points out that where jobs are secured through introduction by other workers, the Latter
was a blood relation in 35 per cent of the cases, belonged to the same caste in another
44 percent and belonged to the same native place in another 12 per cent. Friends helped
in 7 per cent o the cases. Several other studies have pointed out the role of kinship ties
iii getting employment. Kinship ties not only play a significant role in securing
employment, but also in the placement in the wage scale. Five studies of Pune, Kota,
Bombay, Ahmedabad and Bangalore covering large number of industries found that 61
per cent of workers were upper caste Hindus (Sharma 1970). The dominant position of
the workers from upper caste was also brought out in a study of Kerala. This Study
points out that in higher income jobs upper castes dominate whereas Dalits / adivasis
have preponderance in low wage jobs. The middle castes are concentrated in middle to
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bottom ranges. Even in public sector, the representation of backward castes, schedule
castes and tribes is not up to their proportion in the population.
Moreover, it seems that caste based division of labour is followed in the
class III and IV jobs in government and public sector enterprises. So the jobs of
Sweepers are reserved for dalits and adivasis in coal mines, hard physical labour of
loading and pushing the coal tubs. In steel plants the production work in the intense
heat of coke oven and blast furnace is mainly done by adivasis and dalits. This is
because of pre labour market characteristic such as education and land holding. So those
who possessed more land and education ended up in a higher wage sector. But then if
upper and lower caste people own comparable levels of landholding and education, the
upper caste worker will get into a higher segment of the wage than the lower caste
worker. This is because of the continuing importance of caste ties in recruitment. Caste
also serves the faction of ensuring the supply of cheap labour for different jobs with fact
of not paying more than what is necessary. In other words, the depressed conditions of
advises and davits helps in ensuring a supply of labour, who can be made to work at the
mere subsistence level (Nathan 1987). Hence, caste on one hand plays a role in keeping
the lower sections of the society in the lower strata of the working class, on the other
hand, the upper caste get a privilege in the labour market. Further, caste is not only a
matter of marriage and to an extent residence, but more so a continuing pool of social
relation for the supply of various kinds of labour for the capitalist mode of production.


INFORMAL SECTOR IN INDIA
Approaches for Social Security

Informal sector in India is broadly characterized as consisting of units
engaged in the production of goods and services with the primary objectives of
generating employment and income to the persons concern. These units typically
operate at low level of organization, with little or no division between labour and capital
as factors of production and on a small scale. Labour relations, where they exist, are
based mostly on casual employment, kinship or personal or social relations rather than
contractual arrangements with formal guarantees. Thus, production units in informal
sector are not constituted as separate legal entities independently of the household or
house hold members that own them and for which no complete sets of accounts are
available which would permit a clear distinction of the production activities of the
enterprises from the other activities of their owners. The owners of their production units
have to raise the finance at their own risk and are personally liable, without limit, for any
debts or obligations incurred in the production process. Expenditure for production is
often indistinguishable from household expenditure. For statistical purpose, the informal
sector is regarded as a group of production units, which form part of the household
sector as household enterprises or equivalently, unincorporated enterprises owned by
households.
In India, the term informal sector has not been used in the official
statistics or in the National Accounts Statistics (NAS). The terms used in the Indian NAS
are organized and unorganized sectors. The organized sector comprises enterprises for
which the statistics are available from the budget documents or reports etc. On the other
hand the unorganized sector refers to those enterprises whose activities or collections of
data is not regulated under any legal provision or do not maintain any regular accounts.
In the unorganized sector, in addition to the unincorporated proprieties or partnership
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enterprises or partnership enterprises, enterprises run by cooperative societies, trust,
private and limited companies are also covered. The informal sector can therefore, be
considered as a sub-set of the unorganized sector.

Magnitude of workforce engaged in the unorganized/informal sector:

The national Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) carried out a sample
survey in 1999-2000 and its results showed that out of total workforce of 397 million,
only 28 million workers are employed in the organized sector and remaining in the
unorganized sector. It reveals that over a decade, the employment in the organized
sector has been almost stagnant or slightly declined.

In the light of definition of informal sector encompassing private
unincorporated enterprises as mentioned above, NSS 55
th
round, 1999-2000 also
covered non-agricultural enterprises in the informal sector in India. As per survey, there
were 44.35 million enterprises and 79.71 million workers employed thereof in the non-
agricultural informal sector of the economy. Among these 25.01 million enterprises
employing 39.74 million workers were in rural areas whereas 19.34 million enterprises
with 39.37 million workers in the urban area. Among the workers engaged in the
informal sector, 70.21 million are full time and 9.5 million part times. Percentage of
female workers to the total workers is 20.2 percent.

Relevancy of the Informal Sector in Indian Context:

Broadly, the informal sector provides income-earning opportunities for a
larger number of workers. In India, there is large magnitude of workforce getting their
livelihood from the informal sector. The enactment of legislations and other measures to
bring them under the regulatory and social protection instruments will adversely affect
the existing mechanism prevailing in the informal sector as it would lead to market
imperfections creating hurdles in the smooth functioning of the market led economy.
Besides, it requires huge infrastructural beyond the capacity of the Government in the
changing scenario all over the world. The Government has to play a role of facilitator and
promoter so that the workers employed in the informal sector are able to get requisite
level of protection and security to have decent work environment enabling them to
express their skills fully and according to their capabilities necessary for enhancing the
competitiveness of their outputs and thereby raising their income and socio-economic
status.

Importance of Informal Sector in Indian Economy:

About 370 million workers constituting 92% of the total workforce in a
country were employed in the unorganized sector as per NSS Survey 1999-2000. It
plays a vital role in terms of providing employment opportunity to large segment of the
working force in the country and contributes to the national product significantly. The
contribution of the unorganized sector to the net domestic product and its share in the
total NDP at current prices has been over 60%. In the matter of savings the share of
household sector in the total gross domestic saving mainly unorganized sector is about
three fourth.

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Thus unorganized sector has a crucial role in our economy in terms of
employment and its contribution to the National Domestic Product, savings and capital
formation. At present Indian Economy is passing through a process of economic reforms
and liberalization. During the process, merger, integration of various firms within the
industry and up gradation of technology and other innovative measures take place to
enhance competitiveness of the output both in terms of cost and qualitative to complete
in the international market. The low inefficient units either wither away or merge with
other ones performing better. In this situation, there is a special need to take care of the
interests of the workers by providing them training, upgrading their skills, and other
measures to enable them to find new avenue of employment, improve their productivity
in the existing employment, necessary to enhance the competitiveness of their product
both in terms of quality and cost which would also help in improving their income and
thereby raising their socio economic status. It has been experienced that formal sector
could not provide adequate opportunities to accommodate the workforce in the country
and informal sector has been providing employment of their subsistence and survival.
Keeping in view the existing economic scenario, the unorganized sector will expand
further in the years to come. Thus, it needs to be strengthened and activated so that it
could act as a vehicle of employment provider and social development.

SOCIAL SECURITY

In Indian the term social security is generally used in its broadest sense, it
may consist of all types of measures preventive, promotional and protective as the case
may be. The measures may be statutory, public or private. The term encompasses social
insurance, social assistance, social protection, social safety net and other steps involved.

There are number of models of providing social security to the workers in
the unorganized sector. These may be classified as under:

Centrally funded social assistance programmes.
Social insurance scheme
Social assistance through welfare funds of Central and State Governments, and
Public initiatives

The centrally funded social assistance programmes include the
employment oriented poverty alleviation programmes such as Swarnjayanti Gram
Swarojgar Yojana, Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana, and Employment Assurance Scheme.
National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) comprising old age pension, family benefit
and maternity benefits to address the social security needs of the people below poverty
line.

The social insurance schemes include several schemes launched by the
Central and State Government for the benefit of weaker sections through the Life
Insurance Corporation of India and General Insurance Corporation of India. There are
schemes for the employees of shops and commercial establishments and other weaker
sections. Janshree Bima Yojana is a group insurance scheme and covers
natural/accidental death, partial or total permanent disability due to accident and the
people below poverty line and marginally above are eligible to join the Scheme. Another
group insurance scheme for the agriculture landless labour, Krishi Shramik Samajik
Yojana-2001 launched in July, 2001 provides for pension and insurance besides
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providing money back. The contribution of the beneficiary is Rs. 1 per day while the
Government contributes Rs. 2 per day.

Several public institutions and agencies are also imparting various kinds of
social security benefits to the selected groups of workers. Among these self Employed
Womens Association (SEWA) has made significant achievement in promoting social
security through the formation of cooperatives.

Welfare funds represent one of the models developed in India for providing
social protection to workers in the unorganized sector. The Government of India has set
up five welfare funds. Central funds are administered through the Ministry of Labour for
the beedi and workers in certain other occupations for whom no direct employer-
employee relationship exists and is implemented without any contribution from the
government. The scheme of welfare fund is outside the framework of specific employer
and employee relationship in as much as the resources are raised by the Government on
non-contributory basis and the delivery of welfare services is affected without linkage to
individual workers contribution. These funds are constituted from the cess collected
from the employers and manufacturers/ producers of particular commodity/industry
concerned.

The Government has also enacted a Central legislation for the building and
other construction workers towards creation of welfare funds at the level of States. There
are around 20 million construction workers in the country. A small cess is collected on
the basis of the cost of a construction project which makes the corpus of the welfare
fund for the construction workers. All facilities as enumerated above are provided to this
section of the unorganized sector workers. Presently three States in the country namely,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Delhi have started implementing schemes under this Act.
However, other States are in the process of adopting.

Moreover, the welfare fund models have successfully been implemented
by various States for various categories of workers. The State of Tamil Nadu is running
11 Welfare Boards for workers like construction workers, truck drivers, footwear
workers, handloom and silk weaving workers. Similarly, State of Kerala are also running
several welfare funds for agricultural workers, cashew workers, coir workers, fisherman,
toddy-tappers etc. The model is so popular that some of the other States like Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh are in the process of bringing out their own
legislation for creation of welfare funds in the unorganized sector workers for providing
them social security.










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REGIONALISM AND DECENTRALISATION
OF POWER


Regionalism
A region is a geographically contiguous area characterized by distinctive
cultural identity, even a distinctive social order, shared economic interests & problems
and often also a shared history, common language, religion, castes, kinship patterns,
economic aspiration and problems. Region comes close to a nation. Regional identity is
sub-nation identity.
Robert Stern: Castism is least harmful problem, India has. Caste can not constitute
nation, region can be used for separation.
Regionalism is a manifestation of concern for the region. When people express social
concern for their region because of its distinct character, this process is called as
regionalism. It can have different forms or expressions like moderate and virulent
regionalism.
Moderate: group identifies with regionalism but its interests specific to region are not
antithetical to nation interests. Though there is identification with region. People believe
regional interests can be acts within the framework of nation identity.
Virulent: regional interests seen as antithetical to nation interests eg. NSCN in
Nagaland, Hurriyat in Kashmir.

Causes for the prevalence of Regionalism:

Parties like Shiv Sena, Akalies, TDP are regional in nature, strongly identify with regional
identity. Demand for autonomy or separate statehood like Jharkhand, Chattisgarh,
Telangana, vidharbha, Harit Pradesh, Khalistan. These are manifestation of regional
aspiration. Violence in Bihar and Assam is due to regionalism. It has both moderate and
virulent expressions in India.

Factors

1. India is a plural society and never developed homogenous nation identity, historically.
Process of nation building strengthened regional identities rather than weakening.
Linguistic re-organisation of status is acceptance of so many regions. Regional identities
are a fact. Federal structure of Indian union must be preserved. It is healthy, otherwise
result in Balkanisation of India. India is surviving because of regionalism. Regional
identities are historically established identities. Regions became stronger as nation
building was attempted.

2. Secondly, excessive centralization. Blatant use of Article 356. Protest against
tendencies towards distortion of federalism.

3. After independence, economic development has been uneven. Some areas progressed
more than other areas, inspite of avowed balanced regional planning, North vs South,
FDI go to south and west. These conditions of disparity will contribute to regionalism
because regional disparities create conditions similar to colonial equation. So regionalism
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grows as a process against uneven growth eg. Telangana is still backward, Coastal A.P.
is prosperous.

4. Regionalism is also a result of rise of new groups who have aspirations for political
power. Regionalism is populist stance they adopt to stop entrenched political parties.
Other grievances when they overlap with aspiration of emergent classes for politial
power their appeals are accepted eg. Dravid Nadu was ploy to dislodge Congress from
T.N., so it is clearly an attempt to gain political power, so it is populism.

5. Regionalism is another short cut method of political mobilization. Over a period of
time, consensus forged during freedom movement has broken down, this resulted in
fragmentation.

Caste based parties can only be king makers. Horizontal mobilization gives support of
any primordial group, should be vertical mobilization which is based on consensus
among different strata. But politic lack vision, so appeal to region as regionalism glosses
over caste divisions eg. Khalistan: Sikhs in Punjab marginal majority because Akalis had
support of Jats alone. Appealing to regionalism, they wanted to bring all Sikhs together.
Regionalism is a case of vertical mobility because of fragmentation, voting public ends
up being faction.

6. Changes that have taken place in India because of which needs of different sections
have become divergent from formed consensus.

Moderate regionalism is not antithetical to nation unity and must be respected. Regional
aspirations should be accommodated to maintain Indian entity. Federal structure must
be preserved.

Decentralization of Power: Panchayti Raj and Nagar Palikas:

Decentralization of power has been considered as crucial for bringing
about social development. Though the constitutional assembly debated role of local self
government institutions, but did not consider it so vital for future India. Local self
government were only included in DPSPs in Article 40 which leaves it to the states to
take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them with such powers and
authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self government.
DPSPs are non-justiciable, lack of commitment in constitution itself. It was a state
subject.
Different states may think differently. Only two ties: federal and state.
High degree of centralization of power is in the hands of bureaucracy at the local level.
Although leaders like M.N. Roy and even Gandhi talked about Gram Swaraj and
autonomy for village communities i.e. not only administration decentralization but also
devolution of powers. Most of leaders who were members of constitutional assembly did
not feel need for grass root democracy. After independence, we thought in terms of rural
development and therefore community development programs launched in 1952 during
first five year plan. Numerous studies including those conducted by local government
found largely a failure. Its benefits accrued to relatively better sections of rural society.
Whole program was envisaged to function on principle of active
community participation. But no such participation took place, lack of institutional
structure led to this. Bureaucracy was ill-suited for mobilizing community, suspicion and
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distrust of community. Some members of constitutional assembly including Ambedkar
were opposed to any attempt at devolution of power because they suspected
legitimization of land owning upper class and exploitation. Though bureaucracy would act
in unbiased manner and deliver benefit for all. Numerous studies have shown this.
Bureaucracy tends to identify with vested interests. This is what happened to community
development programs, worked for entrenched upper classes.

Balwant Rai Mehta Committee

This committee was appointed by government to review functioning of community
development programs. It strongly recommended that community participation can only
take place if there is an institutional framework to facilitate such participation by the
people. Therefore, the need for grass root democracy was emphasized. Various other
studies in other countries like Brazil, Jordan, South Africa, Botswana and States like
Kerala, W.B, M.P., Karnataka etc. have clearly shown the various advantages of
decentralization.

Advantages

1. Faster response to local needs. First hand knowledge of real problems of local people.
Administrative delays, when decision making is centralized and correct identification of
peoples need.

2. Greater transparency and accountability. If decision making is easily accessible to
people, transparency and efficiency increases. Most of primary schools in villages had
improved attendance of primary school teachers.
3. Better information flow: Decentralisation provides administration with early warning of
potential disasters.

4. Decentralisation makes planning more realistic and development projects become
more sustainable as local people get actively involved in design, execution and
monitoring the projects. There is participation budgeting and accounting.

5. Peoples motivation increases as they are stakeholders.

6. Local self government act as nurseries of political leadership, provide opportunities for
participation. Nurseries of training future political leaders.

7. it acts as safety valve to terrorism, secessionism and other kinds of protest.

Decentralization of power is essential for speedy and effective
development of national unity, law & order. This was realized after Balwant Rai Mehta
Committee report.

Recommendations

1. Establishment of a three tier Panchayati Raj Sytem i.e. Gram Panchayat at village
level, Panchayat Samiti at Block level and Zila Parishad at District level.
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2. They should be linked through indirect elections. Village panchayats should have
direct elections, whereas Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad should have indirect
elections.
3. All planning and developmental activities should be entrusted to these bodies.
4. Panchayat Samiti should be an executive body while Zila Parishad should be advisory
and supervisory body.
5. Power and responsibility should be transferred to these bodies and adequate
resources must be provided to enable them to discharge functions.
6. District Collector should be chairman of Zila Parishad.
7. System must be evolved for progressive devolution of powers and responsible in
future.

Developmental programs should be instituted and planned at local level.
As a result of this, on 2
nd
Oct., 1959, first Panchayat was inaugurated by Nehru in
Nagaur, Rajasthan, followed by another on at Shadnagar near Hyderabad.
It was left states to design the structure of local self governmen and
timing of their elections. By mid, 1960s almost all parts of India established Panchayti
Raj System. Many of them showed encouraging result eg. AVARD in 1962: people felt
that they had sufficient powers to mould their futures. Privileges earlier enjoyed by Block
Development Officers have come under their control. Attendance of primary school
teachers improved in these areas. People were freely able to voice their grievances to
pradhans and also had remedies implemented.

Planning Commission conducted all India level study: 114 villages as sample:

Significant change in nature of rural bodies. Younger and more educated
leaders were emerging as village Sarpanch. It also contribute to cooperation among
groups which were earlier hostile to each other.

Yogendra Singh conducted studies in six villages in U.P.

Although, Local Self Government continued to be in hands of land owning
dominant castes but they lost normative basis of right to rule. Now, they rule by
winning elections, appease numerical dominance. However, because it was a state
subject more than dozen committees were appease in different states to implement
recommendation of Balwant Rai Mehta committee. These changes were not appreciated
by political elite at state level. They would not like their monopoly over political power to
be shared.

In T.N., sixteen times elections were postponed and reasons which were
sighted for postponing elections were equally true for state assembly election, but they
were not postponed. Where elections were held, there was no power or resources. First
general panchayats proved to be a case of failure.
Even central government showed cynicism to panchayati raj institutions.
In mid 1960s, idea of community development disappeared. Intensive area development
programs were launched instead of Community Development Programs.

In 1967, loss of power of congress in most states (DMK, BKD, Communist
party in Bengal) because of three successive rain failures. Indira Gandhi resorted to this
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by populist politics Garibi Hatao. Bangladesh war won , lot of anti poverty programs,
rural development programs, centrally sponsored schemes, bureaucratic administration.

In 1977, Janta party tried to many populist things. Ashok Mehta
Committee was appointed. This committee gave its report in 1978 and its
recommendations were:

1. Two tier system should be there where population is between 15,000 to 20,000 i.e.
Zila Parishad at District level and Mandal Panchayat at group level.
2. Zila Parishad was to consist of elected representatives with elected chairman.
3. Panchayat elections to be fought on party level.
4. Panchayats should be given the right to raise their own resources by taxation.
5. In case of supercession of any panchayats elections must be held in six months.
6. Judicial decentralization i.e. Nayay Panchayat should be established.
7. Developmental functions at village level should be inferred to zila parishad.
8. Every state should have ministry for Panchayti Raj Insititution.
9. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes must have representation at both levels in
proportion to their population.

In 1977, in Bengal CPM government came to power. It went on massive
drive for establishment base at grass root level. Shortly afterwards, in early 1980s, in
Karnataka and A.P. also non-Congress governments came to power. W.B. followed by
A.P. and Karnataka where Ashok Mehta Committee recommendations were adopted. In
Karnataka, genuine attempts were made for infer of resources to panch. Again debate
surfaced for need of Panchayti Raj Insitution. Because became obvious that tip heavy
structure with centralization will collapse. Development delivery through bureaucracy
controlled institutions became very insignificant.
In later 1980s, debate surfaced again. In 1985, at AICC session in
Bombay, Rajiv Gandhi pointed out how poor are being exploited by power brokers.
Bureaucratic administration developmental programs can not succeed. Political
compulsions of elections in 1989, he gave employment to 20,000 dalits in govt. services
in two months though no services needed. By the President orders, declared funds would
be given to village Sarpanch directly and Panchayti Raj institution would be revived. So
in 1989, it was realized constitutional support is must. Third generation panchayat with
73
rd
and 74
th
amendment bills, Narsimhan Rao passed 73
rd
and 74
th
amendment.

73
rd
and 74
th
amendments

Articles 243 to 243 (O), contain the provisions regarding panchayti raj
system. In 1996, according to Bhuria Committee, these provisions were amended to
extend them to tribal dominate states. Now, uniform system of panchayti raj institutions
has been established.

Provisions

This constitutional amendment is not automatically binding. It envisages
that every state will pass conformity Act, whereby it will provide formation off panchayti
raj system in that state. It was 5000 elected representative in democracy. Now, elected
representatives are upto 30 lacs. Democracy penetrated to grass root level. It will go a
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long way in ensuring gender justice. Women will develop awareness of community
problems.
Cases where women have proved more competent than men: Sudha Patel,
Gujrat, Blind but eminent Sarpanch , Fatima Bee in Kurnool district, Ram Rati Bai in
Sidhi District of M.P., Buri Hambrum of W.B.: How panchayat local self is successfully
able to fight against alcoholism. When her husband, got to know of it, he thrashed her.
Accommodated by few more women, went and destroy wine shop. When police came to
arrest, all women joined her. As a result all wine shops closed.
Although, there have been numerous reports of how men folk tried to
manipulation these women, but this is a beginning in traditional patriarchal society. This
has led to mobilization of women at local level for water conservation, environmental
degradation and local problems which are never reported in media.
In Goa, panchayats have fought MNCs like DuPont-Nylon factory, had to
give up its plans. It posed a serious threat to environment. Kerala High Court directed
Coca Cola Company to find alternative source of water for its bottling plant in
Palachimade village.

Limitation and problems

1. Reluctance on part of political elites to encourage Panchayti Raj Institutions. Except
for Kerala, Bengal, Tripura and Bihar, all other conform acts deal in panchayat as
administration organ.
2. Procedural bye laws have not been passed to make them functional in spirit. There is
nothing in legislation like time frame, resources to be given. Centralizing tendency is still
persisting. Judicial and law & order decentralization has not taken place.
3. WB elections showed electoral violence at panchayat level.
4. No commensurate social and economic equality. Any attempt at assertion of their
rights by middle class and lower classes is confronted with conflict. Mere reservation has
not solved this problem.
Criminal-politician nexus becomes more pronounced at Panchayi Raj level.

Decentralization of corruption

Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathon, Rajasthan: has brought out rampant corruption
on Bhim panchayat samiti. In Punjab, Sarpanches have embezzled lot of money. In
Bihar, MP, Rajasthan, Gujrat see large scale violence against women. In Gujrat
(Porbandar), Lakhi Ben was beaten up by BJP workers.
Social and economic equality is not being created. Education has not
spread enough. Officials remain largely uncooperative, when officials are given to work
under Panchayti Raj Institution, they go for stay orders in courts. Recent studies, which
are survey of Panchayats working in 19 states conducted by National institute of Rural
development, Hyderabad in 2002. Panchayats largely remain toothless, inspite of the
fact that they are constitutional mandated bodies. Reasons:
1. Absence of national consensus across party lines on what should be the status of
Panchayti Raj Institutions. Political initiatives and Will is lacking. Only in those
pockets, where there has been thrust from below, they can function.
2. Political elites at national and state level are unwilling to give up contribution over
financial and developmental schemes.
3. Bureaucratic control over Panchayti Raj Institutions continues.
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4. Functional and financial autonomy has not been granted to Panchayti Raj
Institutions. Except in Kerala and WB Panchayti Raj Institutions are seen as low level
agencies of government rather than units of self government.

So, Panchayti Raj Institutions implement country and state level. Gram
Sabha has not been given clear identity, functions are not defined. State governments
do not give technical staff to Panchayti Raj Institutions. Thus, higher level elites are
sabotaging the Panchayti Raj Institutions.

Panchayati Raj System: M.N. Roy

Decentralisation of democracy will prevent centralization of power and the
function of the state will be reduced to coordination of the activities of the other
autonomous social institutions.
According to M.N. Roy peoples committees must be the basis units of an
origanised democracy. He is strongly against concentration of power. He advocated
partyless democracy. Ambedkar considered rigidity and legalism were two serious
weaknesses of federalism. Articles 249, 250, 252, 352 and 356 have been used by the
union to enchance the powers of the centres, thus acting against the federal principle.
The serious flaw of the Indian Constitution was that it did not give primacy
to the local governments- the panchayats and municipalities. The federal structure has
only two tiers: the Union and the States; and the local bodies did not have any role-
neither developmental nor governmental. It was left to the states to take steps to
organize Village Panchayats and endow them powers and authority to function as units
of self-government. Parliament passed the Constitution (73
rd
Amendment) Act 1992.
By the mid 1980s, demand for decentralization of powers became clear
that with concentration of power, Indian polity could crumble. Meanwhile, the success of
the second-generation panchayats as political institutions in the States of West Bengal,
Karnataka and AP as well aas a general demand for decentralization of power with the
slogan power to the people also accelerated the pace for the constitutional amendment.

Elections at the Local Bodies

The study of the Panchayat Election Process and Election issues in
Karnataka in 1995 and TN in 1996 revealed some interesting facts about the democratic
process at the grassroots level that caste and religion which were playing a prominent
role in elections have shown signs of decline. In TN, in the 1996 panchayat elections,
growing democratic consciousness of the people was clearly evident. Nearly 81% of the
respondents of a survey said that the religious or caste leaders did not direct the people
to exercise their voting right in one way or other. These election studies show that the
local body elections lessen the intensity of casteism and parochialism. This is mainly
because people in general give priority to the welfare and development activities in the
villages or blocks level, transcending caste or party politics. The May 1993 elections to
the WB panchayats also highlighted this positive aspect at the grassroots level.

Political Parties in Panchayat Elections

Political parties are formed not with the object of practicing democracy,
but of capturing power. They are guided by the dictum that the end justifies the means
and the means often amount to the corruption and destruction of democracy.
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Santhanam Committee on Panchayati Raj elections stated in 1964,
whether and to what extent political parties should participate in panchayat elections.
However, in the given context of Indian politics and society, involvement of political
parties in local government elections has become necessary. It is not without some
positive aspects of social change. Studies of harassment and illtreatment of women
Sarpanches, members and office bearers belonging to the Scheduled Castes in
panchayats of MP came to light only because there were political parties on the other
side to take up the victims cause. Field studies have also shown that even in a highly
politicized states like WB, after the elections on party lines are over, all members
cooperate for the development of the village. After all, if we have a multi-party election
process for the State Assembly and Parliament, partyless elections at the base will be
meaningless.

Women and Weaker Sections in Local Governance:

The new panchayats and municipalities provide opportunities for weaker
sections i.e. SCs, STs, who form 25% of our population. The membership is decided by
the proportion of their population in an area. The fifth and sixth sechedules in the
Constitution give special status and privileges to tribal areas. In reality, in tribal majority
areas, non-tribals have been controlling the affairs, dominating the scene and destroying
the tribal tradition. Tribal land was appropriated by non-tribals. The high-level committee
under the chairmanship of D. S. Bhuria, in 1994 suggested proposal to extend the 73ed
Constitution Amendment to the Scheduled Areas, had recommended:
1. to constitute a village assembly in all tribal villages because the community should be
the basic unit of self-governance in tribal areas.
2. to reserve a majority of seats in all levels of the elected bodies for members of the
Scheduled Tribes
3. Only a tribal could be elected as a Sarpanch.

A unique feature of the new phase in panchayats and municipalities in
India is that it has ensured one-third representation for women in the local bodies and
one-third of the offices of chairpersons at all level in rural and urban bodies for them.

Problems of the Third Tier of Governance:

1. In the State Panchayat and Municipal Acts after 1993, one finds that the States have
accepted the letter of the 73rd and 74
th
Amendments rather than their spirit. In
many States Acts, civil servants are given powers indirectly over the elected body.
Transfer of activities and functions to panchayats is taking place very slowly. Only in
places where strong demands from below-the Village Assembly, Village Panchayats
and District Panchayats as well as enlightened citizens orgnisation come up,
attempts to devolve powers are taking place.

2. Another problem is that although States have enacted Conformity Acts, many
States have not formulated rules and bye-laws for the day to day functioning. The
necessary infrastructural facilities are lacking for panchayats in many states.

3. The reluctance of State-level politicians to recognize the importance of the
governance-their autonomy, their powers and their areas of functioning-is creating a
serious problem. In Orissa, when the new government case to power in early 1995 it
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decided to dissolve the duly elected panchayats and municipalities. The real reason
for this action was that the MLAs were impatient to wrest full control of large sums of
money coming to the panchayats through the Central Government schemes for rural
development.

4. The government officials and government employees prefer to work with a distant
control mechanism i.e. the State Capital. They do not want to be closely supervised
under Panchayati Raj. Therefore, their non-cooperative attitude towards elected
panchayat members is a major issues.

5. The low level of political consciousness in many parts of the country is another
factor which will pull the new APanchayati Raj backwards. The States of Bihar, MP,
Rajasthan, UP and Orissa, with a population of about 370 million (1991 census), have
a low Panchayati Raj performance rating. The main reason is the low level of political
awareness, prevalence of feudal authority and feudal values.

6. In many places, the panchayats themselves are working as oppressive
instruments. Absence of land reforms, low level of literacy, especially among
women, patriarchal system, etc. will work against weaker sections in the villages.

7. Serious conflicts have taken place during elections and afterwards in their
functioning in the villages. The recently held panchayat elections in Orissa ahd
widespread violence resulting in loss of life.

8. The central government itself creates situations which are not conducive for the
growth of panchayats. Any programmes, any scheme, any organization created
parallel to the functioning of the panchayats, will undermine the local government
system. The serious offensive against the emerging local governance is the disbursal
of Rs. 800 crores out of the Consolidated Fund of India at the rate of Rs. 1 crore per
MP, popularly known as MPs Constituency Development Scheme. Now, it is 2 crores.

Distribution of Power in Village Community of India and how it is changing:

Community Power Structure

Traditionally, village community in India had hierarchy of caste. Although as many of
orientalists believed that village had internal matter-village council or panchayat decided
all matters. The rural power structure or distribution of power in villages was never
egalitarian or democratic power, it was exercised on ascriptive basis i.e. birth, age etc.

Who wielded power

Power was held by influential family belonging to, according to Srinivas, land owning
dominant caste. Every caste has its ritual and secular hierarchy. These two overlap each
others but not totally.

Rampura in Mysore

Madhav Brahmins are ritually considered as highest caste i.e. in terms of
Hindu notion of purity and pollution but except for ceremonial occasion when people
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touched their feet in day to day they had little say and hardly mattered. In secular
affairs, village communities like Okkaligas, a dominate landowners, dominated village
council, though ritually they ranked in middle of hierarchy wielded power in village.
Dominant caste numerically preponderant vis a vis other jatis, but quite
often it is jati in village which owns maximum land and also dominates village councils
and exercises political power. Power is exercised by dominant caste, influential families
belonging to dominant castes wield power in the village. They came close to elite model
of distribution of power i.e. minority wields power. This shows that power is concentrated
in very small group of elites, it is not broad based. They happen to be elite because of
their control over land and village council. Elders from these were in village council. Eg.
Thakurs in India wield power though less in numerical strength but are big land owners.

M.N. Srinivas and Yogendra Singh

Studied six villages in UP. Although power continues to be wielded by
traditional dominant caste, by this time Panchayti Raj Institutions and electoral politics
introduced. So, rights to the member of village council based on majority support and no
longer ascriptive and hereditary basis. Dominant caste held power by gradually
accommodating interest of other people, jati and caste. Now they had to win election.
So, factional alliances developed and often individual clashes because more than one
member from single family tried to gain seat in village council. Till early 70s, power
continued to reside in dominant castes, though power developed factions within
dominant caste and mobilisation tended to be vertical i.e. other caste mobilized behind
lower section of dominant caste.

Task force by Planning Commission at All India level

In 140 villages all over India to look at pattern of distribution of power in
early 70s. It has been found that in almost 95% of the cases, the village Council
President was from dominant caste i.e. Dominant caste model persisted. Power in few
hands resembled elite mode. Dominant caste model came to be questioned by late 70s.

Prof. Rajni Kothari: presented an alternate model, because of changes in
India after independence has brought a lot of change in distribution of power, land
reforms, conferring ownership rights on superior tenant which had hereditary rights or
had documentary evidence of tenancy etc., abolishing zamindari system. By late 1960s,
Green Revolution introduced use of hybrid variety seeds, seed-fertilizer techniques. New
kind of seed converted nutrient into fruit. Output could be increased by increase in
fertilizer. Brought prosperity to farmers who had access to irrigation, as irrigational
facilities extended, agriculture converted into capitalist.
Middle sized farmers organized themselves are pressure group demanding
increase in procurement price etc. so increase in politicization. These were numerically
superior to land owning caste. Now became independent and economically well by Green
Revolution, land reforms. Rise of Charan Singh in mid 1960s, Chief Minister of UP shows
rise of middle size farmer. People mobilized for political power. Power in village
community became broad based and competition for power.

1. Dominant caste vs. middle castes, Rajni Kothari called them as Entrenched caste
vs. Ascendant caste respectively. Eg. Jats provided low status initially. Yadavas,
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Kurmis, Koris in UP. Their rise to political power at local level and also state level led to
violent conflict.

2. Factionalism within backward castes: Different sections of so called backward
castes had factions among them because of personal ambitions.

3. Phase of 1980s: by 80s, the ascendant castes were largely successful in gaining
power at local level. So power now shared between entrenched caste and ascendant
caste. Mobilisation of dalits was initially in Maharashtra but now spread to all India level.
Horizontal mobilization of Dalit castes fused together because Harijan identity was
rejected. Dalit means oppressed earlier, alliance with dominant castes.

T.K. Oomen

He has presented alternative model of distribution of power- power pool.
By 90s, model of power cannot be explained in terms of entrenched caste and ascendant
caste because dalits have emerged where they have gained economically. At local level
acquired power. Distribution of power is complex now. Now, it is not confined to one
caste. In every village community, there is a power pool. No single faction alone explains
power pool land ownership, politicization i.e. alliance with any political party gives
organization and cloud at political level, numerical strength, education (people acquire
empowerment either position which command authority or lucrative jobs).
Power has become in village community broad based. No single caste can
claim power now. It is power pool. In south also, power of dominant caste has declined.
Dalit mobilization has taken place there also. In AP, dominant castes in Telangana region
was Reddys, who mostly wielded power as land owner which was challenged by middle
class.

Paul Brass
The politics of India since independence: among the elite and middle
status castes, a process of caste succession had begun before independence and was
intensified after it with the adoption of adult franchise by which in election after election,
new leaders from previously unrepresented or under represented castes began to
emerge and the castes began themselves to be mobilized. The intermediate castes
acquired increasing voting power through adult suffrage and increased economic power
through Zaminidari abolition.

Dipankar Gupta: Interrogating caste: locus of power has shifted from ritually higher
castes to numerically large.

STATELESS SOCIETY

These societies have no formal agency of social control. These have idea of territorial
rights which are maintained through notions of age and social sanctions and social
control. Power and authority are diffused in different groups in a society.

Features of stateless society

- No rigid boundary
- Oral traditions
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- No Bureaucracy
- Single person holds several powers like religious, economical, political etc.
- No fixed ideology
- Simple economy

Types of stateless society

1. Hunting and Gathering: is largest social unit, cooperating groups of families, No
gradations or stratifications, no specific political organization, authority/power is
enjoyed by senior members of these families.
2. Village Communities: this type of society has kinship and economic ties, formally
appointed councils to maintain administration, emergence of political order.
3. Age set System: in this authority is vested in elders one. Organization is based on
principle of seniority eg. Cheyenne of America and Nuer of Africa.
4. Political functions: unilineal descent system prevails. There is no specific political
office. Elders may exercise limited authority. Eg. Nuer, Dinka of South Sudan.

Political principles of stateless society

- Society becomes united when different groups unite. Come together for some
particular cause.
- Authority delegated to a subordinate
- Mystical symbols integrated and unify stateless societies

For example, Tonga an African tribe, is a nomadic tribe. Its headman has
little power. It belongs to Matrilineal kin group called as Mukowa. Principle of exogamy in
Mukowa prevails. Joking relationship also exists. This society functions without political
power and authority because of warning issued during joking relationships.

Stateless Tribes in India

Political institutions in Indian tribes are based on clan & lineage, village
unit and group of villages eg. Lineage system of Santals, Oraon, Bhils has :
- Principle of segmental opposition.
- When hostility is over, return back and organizational position takes place.
- Territorial separateness prevents conflict between lineages

Judicial Machinery

- To deal with social offences
- Village council is a assembly of elders
- Informal control, in evening meetings through public disapproval and criticism.
- For criminals, fine and punishment are announced

State in traditional societies

- States in traditional societies lie between two poles of stateless and Modern states.
- These lack developed form of political institutions.
- Distinct and permanent political structures clearly dominated by religion and to a
lesser extent by kinship.
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Nature and Scope of political authority

1. Chief authority as Titular head. Chief is a symbolic head, representing entire group
though segmentary social structure persists. He is considered almost divine eg.
Shilluk of Upper Nile (Evan Pritchard) her king reigned but did not govern.
2. Secular authority endowed with sacredness. Secular authority of king is with
sacredness eg. Indian Rajans ruled their kingdoms on behalf of presiding deities of
their lineages. Myths of divine origin legitimize political authority of king.
3. Necessity of acquiring a king. Secular authority is ritualized to raise its status above
ordinary people. Territory and demography in relation to range of political authority.
4. Range of political authority: Area in which residents acknowledge power of the
king. Geographical limits of his administration and judicial measures.
5. Economy and centralization of polity: More the level of surplus, greater the
development of centralized polity. Extent to which a ruler exercises his authority over
his people, defines the scope of his political power. Scope rather than range of power
makes polity more centralized eg. Feudatory states of Orissa. Territory of king
surrounded by segmentary clan lineage based units. They participate in main rituals
and ceremonies of central kingdom. No other political authority exist i.e. minimal
scope e.g. Silluks of upper Nile.
6. Among loyal subjects: Relatives considered as rivals. Loyalty is rewarded by king in
form of shared authority.