SHRINKAGE STOPING

Shrinkage stoping is suitable for vertical or steeply inclined orebodies.

Development work is much the same as for sublevel stoping. The orebody is
excavated in slices, working upwards from the bottom of the stope.
In the shrinkage method the broken ore is mainly left in the stope where it
ofers support for the stope and forms a working platform for the excavation of
the next slice. The stope is emptied at the end when all of the ore has been
blasted.
Shrinkage stoping has traditionally used short holes drilled from the top of the
broken ore, but present mechanied versions use long!hole "#$%& and vein
mining.
METHOD
Shrinkage mining is most suitable for steeply dipping "preferably '() ! *()&
orebodies. If an orebody inclines at less than +,) or ,() shrinkage stoping is no
longer possible because gravity -ow is impaired.
The ore itself must be strong enough to stand without ma.or support and stay
unchanged during the time it is kept in the stope. This method cannot be used
with ores that change chemically during storage or /burn0 while in storage.
1ining proceeds from the bottom upwards in horiontal slices similar to the cut!
and!2ll method. Since the ore takes much more volume when broken. Some of
the blasted ore must be loaded from the drawpoints to provide the necessary
working space for the next slice. This is how the pile shrinks and hence the
name of the method. 3bout +(4 of the ore is drawn during slicing. 3fter the top
has been reached the remaining ore is drawn out and the stope may be left
empty or back2lled depending on the rock conditions.
ADVANTAGES
The method makes it easy to adapt to market -uctuations, especially in large
operations.
5re dilution is fairly low, under 6(4
1echanied shrinkage applications do not re7uire much development work.
1echanied shrinkage stoping is 7uite e8cient, with production varying
between ,( and 6,( tonnes9manshift.
DISADVANTAGES
The big disadvantage of this stoping method is that the ore stays in the stopes
for a long period. This ties up capital and delays getting returns on investment.
$ompared to the cut!and!2ll or sublevel stoping methods. Shrinkage stoping
re7uires more skilled labour, The traditional form of shrinkage stoping is 7uite
di8cult to mechanie and the more modern mechanied variations re7uire
special drilling e7uipment.
The cut!and!2ll method is also more selective than shrinkage stoping.
Shrinkage stoping is also much more haardous than sublevel stoping.
Traditional un mechanied methods have low production rates, , ! 6(
tonnes9manshift.
2.5 Special applications
2.5.1 Vein minin
#ein mining is a modern mechanied method for utiliing narrow steeply
inclined orebodies. It is safer and more e8cient than the traditional shrinkage
stoping method. In vein mining, drilling and charging is done from raises driven
inside the orebody.
The drill fans are horiontal or slightly inclined and drilled e7uipment mounted
on a carrier on rails or on wheels. The e7uipment needs to be compact since
the typical raise is not more than : metres in diameter. Several fans are drilled
beforehand. The charging and blasting e7uipment is similar to the drilling rig.
1ining continues upwards by blasting a couple of fans some : in to , m apart
at the same time.
The ;amew <ake 1ine in $anada forms a good example of mechanied vein
mining, It has a steeply dipping and narrow orebody, varying between =.,
metres and =( metres in width. The operating raises are : metres in diameter
and about =(( metres long. The mine has mechanied both drilling and
charging functions and produces some =((( tonnes of ore daily.
ADVANTAGES
#ein mining can be mechanied and is safer than traditional shrinkage stoping.
#ein mining is 7uite e8cient. >roducing between ,( and 6,( tonnes per man
shift.
DISADVENTAGES
The main disadvantages of this method are the di8cult working conditions, the
safety aspects and the di8culty of controlling blasting results. If blasting is
unsuccessful, ore in the walls cannot be recovered.
2.! "ost e#cienc$ in %n&e''o%n& minin
2.!.1 E#cienc$
?8ciency in underground mining greatly depends on the degree of
mechaniation used in the mining method. In many cases the original mining
method has changed slightly and become mechanied and more e8cient.
3t one time, increasing hole sie and length was considered the way to achieve
higher e8ciency. This has its limits, however, and today hole sie and length
have settled at a point beyond which blasting becomes un!manageable and
stope sies become uneconomical
2.!.2 Selecti(it$
Selectivity methods follow the boundaries of the orebody most closely,
permitting selective mining. @owever, selective methods are also the most
expensive, and can be .usti2ed only for very valuable orebodies. 1odern
mechanied long!hole drilling rigs make it possible to drill very accurate holes,
with a deviation of less than 6.,4. which makes longhole methods competitive
with short!hole methods.
The geological complexity and changing rock mechanical conditions are
fre7uently the main obstacles to consistent high 7uality mining.
2.!.) Econom$
The uni7ue nature of each orebody is an overall deciding factor when choosing
a suitable mining method but the selected system always has certain features
or characteristics that make it particularly suitable for an orebody.
5nce the choice of methods has beennarrowed down, the most economical
methodA
Is simple easy to control and as selective as possible.
@as the minimum possible developments work.
@as a short! term return on investments .
Is easy to mechanied and e8cient .
$an be altered if market and rock conditions change.
1odern mines have higher capacity than in the past, but operate with less
mining e7uipment and manpower. The reverse of this is that performance and
economy are badly afected by all non!operational time for loading, drilling and
bolting e7uipment.
). * "ONSTR+"TION APP,I"ATIONS
).1 Gene'al
3n increasing amount of subsurface space is being used for various civil
engineering pro.ects. Bnderground construction ranges from very small sewage
tunnels to huge hydropower stations. In addition to tunnels for transportation
and power stations more and more underground utility halls and storage are
being constructed.
).2 -i-.a$ an& 'ail.a$ t%nnels
Today highway and railway tunnels are becoming longer and tunnel cross
sections are increasing in sie. Tunnels are now being built in extreme
conditions, where underground excavation would have been almost impossible
only a few decades ago. Developments in excavations have made it possible to
excavate more accurately and safely even in densely populated city areas.
Tunnels not only provide the shortest route between two points but are also
protected from changes in the weatherC landslides etc. and help to safeguard
the environment.
).2.1 /acto's to consi&e' in t%nnelin
3 tunneling pro.ect contains the following stagesA
Initial planning and evaluation.
Site examinations.
$ore drilling.
$hoice of excavation and reinforcement plants.
Selection by tender of contractor.
5n!site settlement.
%emoval of overburden material.
?xcavation and rock reinforcement.
Dinaliing work, paving, piping, electri2cation and other installations.
Inspection and commissioning.
The sie of each phase depends on the 2nal use on the tunnel and the rock
mechanical situation. In a typical tunnel pro.ect excavation accounts for some
=,4 to :(4 of the total pro.ect costs.
?xcavation itself proceeds in cycles. The total working time is divided into
shifts. The most suitable shift length is determined by the working method, the
advancing on excavation. Shifts are usually eight, ten or twelve hours long.
Drill and blast tunnels advance in cycles called rounds. 5ne round presents one
fully completed excavation cycle. This usually includes the following eventsA
Drilling.
$harging.
Elasting and ventilation.
Scaling.
<oading and haulage.
%ock support "rock bolting, shotcreting, wire mesh installation, grouting&.
1iscellaneous works "adding water pipes and ventilation tubes, road
construction, etc.&.
The drilling and charging times include the complete cycleA e7uipment set!up
drilling or charging and e7uipment clear! out times. 1odern hydraulic drilling
rigs are usually capable of drilling more than one tunnel face in a shift. In order
to make drilling -exible and to make maximum use of drilling capacity several
faces should be available for drilling.
The loading and haulage time depends on the number of trucks and cars
available and on the loading capacity of the loading machines. To eliminate any
excess waiting time the number of trucks and cars should be chosen to match
the maximum practical loading capacity.
The amount of rock reinforcement re7uired depends on the rock conditions.
Sometimes only a few bolts and shotcreting are re7uired for each round. In
poor rock conditions systematic heavy bolting with shotcreting and wire
meshing is recommended. $oncreted arching is often re7uired for permanent
road, railway and water tunnels and pressuried portions of water tunnels may
need steel arching. The rock conditions and the organiation of the work
determine whether rock reinforcement has to be completed after each round or
if it is possible to carry out heavy reinforcement a few rounds behind the actual
excavation. In most cases the type, amount and fre7uency of rock
reinforcement are speci2ed by design consultants.
The following table gives an example of the organiation of work for eight hours
shifts. "Table :!6&