Induction Heating: A Guide to

the Process and Its Benets

It doesnt touch the workpiece. It doesnt apply any
external heat. So how exactly does induction heating
work, and what are its advantages?
By Kristian Berggren & Dr. Hansjrg Stiele
I
INDUCTION HARDENING IS BEING INCREASINGLY USED WITHIN THE GEAR INDUSTRY. HOWEVER,
BEFORE LOOKING AT THE ADVANTAGES OF THE METHOD, IT IS HELPFUL TO REVIEW THE BASICS
OF THE TECHNOLOGY. THE PHENOMENON OF INDUCTION HEATING BEGINS BY PASSING AN
ALTERNATING CURRENT THROUGH A COIL IN ORDER TO GENERATE A MAGNETIC FIELD. THE
STRENGTH OF THE FIELD VARIES IN RELATION TO THE STRENGTH OF THE CURRENT PASSING
THROUGH THE COIL. THE FIELD IS CONCENTRATED IN THE AREA ENCLOSED BY THE COIL, WHILE
ITS MAGNITUDE DEPENDS ON THE STRENGTH OF THE CURRENT AND THE NUMBER OF TURNS
IN THE COIL. (FIG. 1)
Eddy currents are induced in
any electrically conductive object,
a metal bar, for example, placed
inside the coil. The phenomenon
of resistance generates heat in the
area where the eddy currents are
flowing. Increasing the strength of
the magnetic field increases the
heating effect. However, the total
heating effect is also influenced
by the magnetic properties of the
object and the distance between it
and the coil. (Fig. 2)
The eddy currents create their
own magnetic field that opposes
the original field produced by the
coil. This opposition prevents the
original field from immediately pen-
etrating to the center of the object
enclosed by the coil. The eddy
currents are most active close to
the surface of the object being
heated, but weaken considerably
in strength towards the center.
(Fig. 3)
The distance from the surface
of the heated object to the depth
where current density drops to
37% is the penetration depth. This
depth changes in relation to vari-
ous parameters such as heating
times, initial material and choice
of frequency.
THE KEY BENEFITS
Key features of induction harden-
ing are fast heating cycles, accu-
rate heating patterns and cores
that remain relatively cold and
stable. Such characteristics mini-
mize distortion and make heating
outcomes extremely repeatable,
Fig. 1: An alternating current flows through a coil, creating mag-
netic field (the blue lines).
Fig. 2: Eddy currents are induced (hence the term induction) on
the surface of the workpiece within the coil. Note that induction
is a no-contact heating method, at no time does the coil actually
touch the workpiece.
JULY 2012 41
reducing post-heat processing such as grinding. This is especially
true when comparing induction hardening to case carburizing.
Induction hardening also reduces pre-processing, as the geom-
etry changes are less than those caused by carburizing. Such
minimal changes mean distortion does not need to be accounted
for when making the gear. With gears destined for gas carburizing,
however, offsets that represent distortion are often introduced at
the design stage. These intentional offsets compensate for distor-
tion caused during the lengthy heat soaks typical of carburizing.
Induction can heat precisely localized zones in gears.
Achieving the same degree of localized hardening with carburiz-
ing can be a time- and labor-intensive procedure. When carburiz-
Fig. 3: Penetration depth is closely linked with frequency,
heating times, power input and workpiece characteristics.
Fig. 4: A schematic time-temperature graph for simultane-
ous dual-frequency contour hardening (MF = lower frequen-
cy, HF = higher frequency).
42 gearsolutions.com
ing specific zones such as the teeth areas,
it is usually necessary to mask the rest of
the gear with stop off coatings. These
masks must be applied to each and every
work piece, and removed following the
hardening process. No such masking is
necessary with induction hardening.
Induction hardening is ideal for integrat-
ing into production lines. Such integrated
inline hardening is more productive than
thermo- chemical processes. Moreover,
integrated hardening minimizes costs, as
the gears do not have to be removed for
separate heat treatment. In fact, induc-
tion heating makes it possible to create
one seamless production flow through the
machining, hardening, quenching, temper-
ing and storage stages.
SPIN HARDENING OF
SMALLER GEARS
The induction heating method used for
small- and medium-sized gears is often
referred to as spin hardening. This is
because the gear is placed within an
induction coil and spins as the eddy cur-
rents are induced. Spin hardening can in
turn be divided into two main methods:
through hardening and contour harden-
ing. With the first methodused primar-
ily for gears exposed to high wear the
tooth perimeter is hardened with a low
specific power. However, if the frequency
Fig. 5: The end result of simultane-
ous dual-frequency contour harden-
ing using EFD Induction equipment.
The lower frequency hardened the
root circle, while the higher frequen-
cy hardened the teeth.
Fig. 6: Simultaneous multi-frequency
gear hardening using EFD Induction
equipment. This process achieves
true contour hardening of small
gears in well under a second. Note
the absence of through-hardening in
the teeth.
44 gearsolutions.com
is too low, there is the risk that above the Curie temperature
the induced eddy current flows mainly in the root circle, and
the temperature lags behind in the teeth. Quenching is either
by submersion or spraying, and is usually delayed in order to
achieve a uniform temperature between the teeth and the root
circle. Tempering after through-hardening is essential in order to
prevent later cracking.
Contour hardening is divided into single- and dual-frequency
processes. With the former, a single generator feeds the induc-
tor. Austenitizing is achieved either in a single heating, or by
pre-heating the gear to 550-750 C before heating it to the
hardening temperature. The purpose of pre-heating is to reach
an adequately high austenitizing temperature in the root circle
during final heating, without overheating the teeth tips. Short
heating times and a high specific power are usually required to
achieve hardening profiles at an irregular distance to the tooth
face.
The dual-frequency process uses either separate or simultane-
ous frequencies. Using separate frequencies achieves harden-
ing profiles similar to case hardening. The process applies two
different frequencies one after the other to the gear. The teeth
are pre-heated at a low frequency to 550-750 C. The frequency
should be such that pre-heating occurs in the root circle area.
After a short delay, use of a higher frequency and specific power
achieves austenitizing. Accurate monitoring systems are essen-
tial, as heating times are measured in tenths of seconds or
seconds during this final heating phase.
With the simultaneous dual-frequency method, a lower and
a higher frequency feed into the inductor at the same time.
Hardening is achieved by heating the root circle with the lower
frequency, and the tooth tips with the higher (see Fig. 4). Unlike
the separate, or stepped, dual-frequency process, pre-heating is
not always required when using the simultaneous dual-frequency
process. However, the short heating times used with simulta-
neous frequencies place high demands on the generator and
machine engineering. Fig. 5 shows an example of a hardening
profile achieved with this method.
Correct quenching is critical for perfect spin hardening results,
and should be performed as soon as possible after the final
heating. The time gap between heating and quenching can be
minimized by using a fast CNC axle to position the spray head,
or by integrating a quench circuit into the inductor. During the
quenching phase the rotational speed of the gear is decreased
to below 50 rpm to avoid a shadow effect on the flank opposing
the direction of rotation.
Many other factors influence spin hardening outcomes. The
material to be hardened and its initial structure, for example,
have a decisive impact. Due to short austenitizing times, the
initial steel structure must be close-grained (ASTM 7 and above).
Non-homogenous pearlite-ferrite initial structures are not suit-
able. The importance of initial structure and carbon content
increases as module size decreases. If a somewhat increased
quenching distortion is acceptable, inductive pre-quenching and
tempering prior to contour hardening can greatly improve the
gears hardenability.
Module size is another key factor in spin hardening. For the
dual frequency method with simultaneous frequencies, the range
is 2.2 < m 5mm. However, for cost reasons the gear diameter
should be limited to approximately d 250mm. For modules of m
3.0mm, the separate dual frequency method is preferred. This
is because a final hardening phase with only the higher frequency
achieves better hardening at an irregular distance to the face.
The single frequency method is almost exclusively used for inter-
nal ring gears with a module where m 1.25mm, such as those
frequently used in automotive automatic transmission systems.
Spin hardening is a versatile and reliable process that can
harden spur-toothed, helical spur and internal gears at an irregu-
lar distance to the face. However, different gear forms influence
hardening results. With helical gearing, an asymmetrical harden-
ing of the tooth flank at a depth of up to 2-3mm from the gear
face has to be accepted. This situation is however only pro-
nounced with helix angles of 28. Patented coil solutions are
available that limit this effect by enhancing power distribution.
INDUCTION COILSTHE NEGLECTED
COMPONENT
Correctly designed and built induction coils are absolutely critical
for successful, cost-effective induction heating. In fact, designing
and testing coils is often the process with the longest lead time
when devising an induction heating solution. A key reason for this
is the fact that coils are task specific. They must be designed
to achieve specific results on specific materials under specific
conditions. There are noor at least there shouldnt beoff-
the-shelf coil designs.
Rigorous testing of a coils design and construction is essen-
tial. Too few people realize that coils are often the part most
exposed to harsh operating conditions. Testing and computer-
aided simulation is therefore sometimes needed to arrive at a
design that is both safe and fatigue resistant. And of course, it
takes repeated testing to achieve optimal part-heating patterns.
Nothing can be taken for granted when designing induction
coils. With very high power density coils, for example, one even
needs to determine the correct speed at which cooling water
should flow through the coil. Too low a speed will result in insuf-
ficient thermal transference. But even when the correct speed
has been found, the coil designer must decide whether a booster
pump is necessary in order to achieve and maintain the desired
water through-flow rate. The competent coil designer will also
specify a purity level for the cooling water, in order to minimize
corrosion on the inside of the coil. So something as apparently
straightforward as the coils water, is in fact a complex matter
demanding technical competence and specialist equipment.
Magnetic flux concentrators are another area of an overall
induction solution that at first glance seems relatively straightfor-
ward. As the name suggests, the main function of such concen-
trators is to concentrate the coils current in the area of the coil
facing the work piece. Without a concentrator, much of the mag-
netic flux is free to propagate around the coil. This uncontrolled
flux will then engulf adjacent conductive components. But when
channeled by a concentrator, the magnetic flux can be restricted
JULY 2012 45
ABOUT THE AUTHORS:
to precisely defined areas of the work
piece, resulting in the localized heating
zones characteristic of induction heating.
Many variables must be considered
when making flux concentrators. The work
pieces material, the coils shape, the
applicationeach influences the concen-
trators final design. Even deciding what
material to use for the concentrator can
be a complicated task. Basically, con-
centrators are made from laminations,
or from pure ferrites and ferrite- or iron-
based powders. Each concentrator mate-
rial has its own drawbacks and advan-
tages. Laminations have the highest flux
densities and magnetic permeability; they
are also less expensive as parts than iron-
and ferrite-based powders. Laminations
must however be stamped to a few stan-
dardized sizes and are therefore less
flexible. They are also labor intensive to
mount.
Pure ferrites can also offer outstanding
magnetic permeability. However, they suf-
fer from low saturation flux density, and
their brittleness makes them difficult to
machine (diamond-tipped cutters must be
used). Iron powders are easy to shape,
offer high flux densities, and are easy to
shape. But great care must be taken to
provide against over-heating, as internal
losses or heat transfer from the heated
part means such powders have a relatively
low working temperature.
Of course, many other factors need
to be considered when designing induc-
tion coils. Correct impedance matching
between the coil and the power source, for
instance, is crucial in order to use the full
power from the power source. Plus the fact
that coils need five to ten times as much
reactive as active power.
As we have seen, a professionally
designed and fabricated induction coil
is an advanced, complex component.
Unfortunately, too many induction users
persist in viewing coils as low-tech copper
tubes. The results of this misconception
are incorrect and even dangerous coil
designs, amateurish repairs, insufficient
or incorrect maintenance, and ultimately,
process and equipment failures.
Kristian Berggren entered the industrial
induction heating industry in 1979.
An acknowledged expert on induction
hardening, Kristian became Managing
Director of EFD Induction Sweden in
2007. In addition to writing the section
on induction heating for the book Steel
and its Heat Treatmenta Handbook,
Kristian has written and co-authored
numerous articles about induction
hardening.

Dr. Hansjrg Stiele has since 1999
been the Manager of Process
Development at EFD Induction, since
1999 at Germanys production facil-
ity in Freiburg. Dr. Stiele graduated
from Friedrich-Alexander-Universitt
Erlangen-Nrnberg in 1999. Following
further studies, plus a period at the
Bavarian Laser Center, he was awarded
a doctorate in 1997 for research on
solid-state laser welding.
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