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Synchronousmotors
The field current I
F
of the motor
produces a steady-state rotor
magnetic field B
R
. A 3-phase set of
voltages applied to the stator produces
a 3-phase current flow in the windings.
A 3-phase set of currents in an
armature winding produces a uniform
rotating magnetic field B
s
.
Two magnetic fields are present in the machine, and the rotor field tends to align
with the stator magnetic field. Since the stator magnetic field is rotating, the rotor
magnetic field will try to catch up pulling the rotor.
The larger the angle between two magnetic fields (up to a certain maximum), the
greater the torque on the rotor of the machine.
Figure17.3 Diagramshowingthemaincomponentsofabrushlessexciterforasynchronousmotor.Itissimilarto
thatofa synchronousgenerator.
Theodore Wildi
Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power
Systems, 6e
Copyright 2006bySperikaEnterprisesand
publishedbyPearsonEducation, Inc.
Upper SaddleRiver, NewJ ersey07458
All rightsreserved.
10/31/2013
2
Figure17.5 Thepolesoftherotorareattractedtotheoppositepolesonthestator.Atnoloadtheaxesofthepoles
coincide.
Theodore Wildi
Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power
Systems, 6e
Copyright 2006bySperikaEnterprisesand
publishedbyPearsonEducation, Inc.
Upper SaddleRiver, NewJ ersey07458
All rightsreserved.
10/31/2013
3
Figure17.6 Therotorpolesaredisplacedwithrespecttotheaxesofthestatorpoleswhenthemotordelivers
mechanicalpower.
Theodore Wildi
Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power
Systems, 6e
Copyright 2006bySperikaEnterprisesand
publishedbyPearsonEducation, Inc.
Upper SaddleRiver, NewJ ersey07458
All rightsreserved.
Synchronousmotorequivalent
circuit
A synchronous motor has the same
equivalent circuit as synchronous
generator, except that the direction of
power flow (and the direction of I
A
) is
reversed. Per-phase circuit is shown:
A change in direction of I
A
changes the Kirchhoffs voltage law equation:
A S A A A
V E jX I R I
|
= + +
A S A A A
E V jX I R I
|
=
Therefore, the internal generated voltage is
We observe that this is exactly the same equation as the equation for the generator,
except that the sign on the current terms is reversed.
(7.69.1)
(7.69.2)
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3
sin
A
ind
m S
V E
X
|
t o
e
=
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Synchronousmotorvs.synchronous
generator
Let us suppose that a phasor
diagram of synchronous
generator is shown. B
R
produces
E
A
, B
net
produces V
|
, and B
S
produces E
stat
=-jX
S
I
A
. The
rotation on both diagrams is
counterclockwise and the
induced torque is
ind R net
kB B t = (7.70.1)
clockwise, opposing the direction of rotation. In other words, the induced torque in
generators is a counter-torque that opposes the rotation caused by external torque.
If the prime mover loses power, the rotor will slow down and the rotor field B
R
will
fall behind the magnetic field in the machine B
net
. Therefore, the operation of the
machine changes
Synchronousmotorvs.synchronous
generator
The induced torque becomes
counter-clockwise, being now in the
direction of rotation. The machine
starts acting as a motor.
The increasing torque angle o
results in an increasing torque in
the direction of rotation until it
equals to the load torque.
At this point, the machine operates at steady state and synchronous speed but as a
motor.
Notice that, since the direction of I
A
is changed between the generator and motor
actions, the polarity of stator voltage (-jX
S
I
A
) also changes.
In a summary: in a generator, E
A
lies ahead of V
|
, while in a motor, E
A
lies
behind V
|
.
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Steadystateoperationofmotor:
Torquespeedcurve
Usually, synchronous motors are connected to large power systems (infinite bus);
therefore, their terminal voltage and system frequency are constant regardless
the motor load. Since the motor speed is locked to the electrical frequency, the
speed should be constant regardless the load.
The steady-state speed of the motor is
constant from no-load to the maximum torque
that motor can supply (pullout torque).
Therefore, the speed regulation of
synchronous motor is 0%.
The induced torque is
sin
ind R net
kB B t o =
or
3
sin
A
ind
m S
V E
X
|
t o
e
=
(7.72.1)
(7.72.2)
Steadystateoperationofmotor:
Torquespeedcurve
The maximum pullout torque occurs when o =90
0
:
Normal full-load torques are much less than that (usually, about 3 times smaller).
When the torque on the shaft of a synchronous motor exceeds the pullout torque,
the rotor can no longer remain locked to the stator and net magnetic fields. It starts
to slip behind them. As the motor slows down, the stator magnetic field laps it
repeatedly, and the direction of the induced torque in the rotor reverses with each
pass. As a result, huge torque surges of alternating direction cause the motor
vibrate severely. The loss of synchronization after the pullout torque is exceeded is
known as slipping poles.
max
3
R net
A
m S
V E
X
kB B
|
t
e
= =
(7.73.1)
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Steadystateoperationofmotor:
Effectoftorquechanges
Assuming that a synchronous motor operates
initially with a leading PF.
If the load on the motor increases, the rotor
initially slows down increasing the torque angle
o. As a result, the induced torque increases
speeding up the rotor up to the synchronous
speed with a larger torque angle o.
Since the terminal voltage and frequency
supplied to the motor are constant, the
magnitude of internal generated voltage
must be constant at the load changes
(E
A
= K|e and field current is constant).
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Steadystateoperationofmotor:
Effectoftorquechanges
Assuming that the armature resistance is negligible, the power converted from
electrical to mechanical form in the motor will be the same as its input power:
3
3 cos sin
A
A
S
V E
P V I
X
|
|
u o = = (7.73.1)
Since the phase voltage is constant, the quantities I
A
cosu and E
A
sino are directly
proportional to the power supplied by (and to) the motor. When the power
supplied by the motor increases, the distance proportional to power increases.
Since the internal generated voltage is
constant, its phasor swings down as
load increases. The quantity jX
S
I
A
has to
increase; therefore, the armature current
I
A
increases too.
Also, the PF angle changes too moving
from leading to lagging.
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23
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Steadystateoperationofmotor:
Effectoffieldcurrentchanges
Assuming that a synchronous motor operates
initially with a lagging PF.
If, for the constant load, the field current on the
motor increases, the magnitude of the internal
generated voltage E
A
increases.
Since changes in I
A
do not affect the shaft
speed and the motor load is constant, the
real power supplied by the motor is
unchanged. Therefore, the distances
proportional to power on the phasor
diagram (E
A
sino and I
A
cosu) must be
constant.
Notice that as E
A
increases, the magnitude of the armature current I
A
first
decreases and then increases again. At low E
A
, the armature current is lagging and
the motor is an inductive load that consumes reactive power Q. As the field current
increases , I
A
eventually lines up with V
|
, and the motor is purely resistive. As the
field current further increases, I
A
becomes leading and the motor is a capacitive
load that supplies reactive power Q to the system (consumes Q).
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Steadystateoperationofmotor:
Effectoffieldcurrentchanges
A plot of armature current vs. field current is
called a synchronous motor V curve. V
curves for different levels of real power
have their minimum at unity PF, when only
real power is supplied to the motor. For field
currents less than the one giving the
minimum I
A
, the armature current is lagging
and the motor consumes reactive power.
For field currents greater than the one
giving the minimum I
A
, the armature current
is leading and the motor supplies reactive
power to the system.
Therefore, by controlling the field current of a synchronous
motor, the reactive power consumed or supplied to the power
system can be controlled.
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Steadystateoperationofmotor:
Effectoffieldcurrentchanges
When the projection of the phasor E
A
onto
V
|
(E
A
coso) is shorter than V
|
, a
synchronous motor has a lagging current
and consumes Q. Since the field current is
small in this situation, the motor is sais to
be under-excited.
When the projection of the phasor E
A
onto V
|
(E
A
coso) is longer than V
|
, a
synchronous motor has a leading
current and supplies Q to the system.
Since the field current is large in this
situation, the motor is sais to be over-
excited.
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31
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Steadystateoperationofmotor:
powerfactorcorrection
Assuming that a load contains a
synchronous motor (whose PF
can be adjusted) in addition to
motors of other types. What
does the ability to set the PF of
one of the loads do for the
power system?
Letusconsideralargepowersystemoperatingat480V.Load1isaninductionmotor
consuming100kWat0.78PFlagging,andload2isaninductionmotorconsuming200kW
at0.8PFlagging.Load3isasynchronousmotorwhoserealpowerconsumptionis150kW.
a. Ifthesynchronousmotorisadjustedto0.85PFlagging,whatisthelinecurrent?
b. Ifthesynchronousmotorisadjustedto0.85PFleading,whatisthelinecurrent?
c. AssumingthatthelinelossesareP
LL
=3I
L
2
R
L
,howdutheselossescompareinthetwo
cases?
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Steadystateoperationofmotor:
powerfactorcorrection
a. The real power of load 1 is 100 kW, and the reactive power of load 1 is
( )
1
1 1
tan 100tan cos 0.78 80.2 Q P kVAR u

= = =
The real power of load 2 is 200 kW, and the reactive power of load 2 is
( )
1
2 2
tan 200tan cos 0.8 150 Q P kVAR u

= = =
The real power of load 3 is 150 kW, and the reactive power of load 3 is
( )
1
3 3
tan 150tan cos 0.85 93 Q P kVAR u

= = =
The total real load is
1 2 3
100 200 150 450
tot
P P P P kW = + + = + + =
The total reactive load is
1 2 3
80.2 150 93
tot
Q Q Q Q kVAR = + + = + + = 323.2
The equivalent system PF is
1 1
323.2
cos cos tan cos tan 0.812
450
Q
PF lagging
P
u

| | | |
= = = =
| |
\ . \ .
The line current is
450000
3 cos 3 480 0.812
667
tot
L
L
I
V
A
P
u

= =

=
Steadystateoperationofmotor:
powerfactorcorrection
b. The real and reactive powers of loads 1 and 2 are the same. The reactive power
of load 3 is
( )
1
3 3
tan 150tan cos 0.85 93 Q P kVAR u

= = =
The total real load is
1 2 3
100 200 150 450
tot
P P P P kW = + + = + + =
The total reactive load is
1 2 3
80.2 150 93
tot
Q Q Q Q kVAR = + + = + = 137.2
The equivalent system PF is
1 1
137.2
cos cos tan cos tan 0.957
450
Q
PF lagging
P
u

| | | |
= = = =
| |
\ . \ .
The line current is
450000
3 cos 3 480 0.957
566
tot
L
L
I
V
A
P
u

= =

=
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Steadystateoperationofmotor:
powerfactorcorrection
c. The transmission line losses in the first case are
2
1 7 0 3 344 0
LL L L L
P I R R = =
The transmission line losses in the second case are
2
6 70 3 9 1
LL L L L
P I R R = = 0
We notice that the transmission power losses are 28% less in the second
case, while the real power supplied to the loads is the same.
Steadystateoperationofmotor:
powerfactorcorrection
Theabilitytoadjustthepowerfactorofoneormoreloadsinapowersystemcan
significantlyaffecttheefficiencyofthepowersystem:thelowerthePF,thegreaterthe
lossesinthepowerlines.Sincemostloadsinatypicalpowersystemareinductionmotors,
havingoneormoreoverexcidedsynchronousmotors(leadingloads)inthesystemis
usefulforthefollowingreasons:
1. Aleadingloadsuppliessomereactivepowertolaggingloadsinthesystem.Sincethis
reactivepowerdoesnottravelalongthetransmissionline,transmissionlinecurrentis
reducedreducingpowerlosses.
2. Sincethetransmissionlinecarrieslesscurrent,thelinecanbesmallerforagiven
powerflowreducingsystemcost.
3. Theoverexcitedmodeofsynchronousmotorincreasesthemotorsmaximumtorque.
Usage of synchronous motors or other equipment increasing the overall systems
PF is called power-factor correction. Since a synchronous motor can provide PF
correction, many loads that can accept constant speed are driven by over-excited
synchronous motors.
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Startingsynchronousmotors
Consider a 60 Hz synchronous motor.
When the power is applied to the stator windings, the rotor (and,
therefore its magnetic field B
R
) is stationary. The stator magnetic field
B
S
starts sweeping around the motor at synchronous speed.
Note that the induced torque on the shaft
ind R S
kB B t = (7.84.1)
is zero at t =0 since both magnetic fields are aligned.
At t =1/240 s the rotor has barely moved but the stator
magnetic field B
S
has rotated by 90
0
. Therefore, the torque
on the shaft is non-zero and counter-clockwise.
Startingsynchronousmotors
At t =1/120 s the rotor and stator magnetic fields point in opposite
directions, and the induced torque on the shaft is zero again.
At t =3/240 s the stator magnetic fields point to the
right, and the induced torque on the shaft is non-
zero but clockwise.
Finally, at t =1/60 s the rotor and stator magnetic fields are aligned
again, and the induced torque on the shaft is zero.
During one electrical cycle, the torque was counter-clockwise
and then clockwise, and the average torque is zero. The
motor will vibrate heavily and finally overheats!
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Startingsynchronousmotors
Threebasicapproachescanbeusedtosafelystartasynchronousmotor:
1. Reducethespeedofthestatormagneticfieldtoalowenoughvaluethatthe
rotorcanaccelerateandtwomagneticfieldslockinduringonehalfcycleof
fieldrotation.Thiscanbeachievedbyreducingthefrequencyoftheapplied
electricpower(whichusedtobedifficultbutcanbedonenow).
2. Useanexternalprimemovertoacceleratethesynchronousmotorupto
synchronousspeed,gothroughtheparallelingprocedure,andbringthe
machineonthelineasagenerator.Next,turningofftheprimemoverwill
makethesynchronousmachineamotor.
3. Usedamperwindingsoramortisseurwindings themostpopular.
Motorstartingbyamortisseuror
damperwindings
Amortisseur (damper) windings are special bars
laid into notches carved in the rotor face and then
shorted out on each end by a large shorting ring.
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Motorstartingbyamortisseuror
damperwindings
A diagram of a salient 2-pole rotor with an
amortisseur winding, with the shorting bars on the
ends of the two rotor pole faces connected by wires
(not quite the design of actual machines).
We assume initially that the
rotor windings are
disconnected and only a 3-
phase set of voltages are
applied to the stator.
As B
S
sweeps along in s counter-clockwise direction, it
induces a voltage in bars of the amortisseur winding:
At t =0, assume that B
S
(stator field) is vertical.
( )
ind
e v B l = (7.88.1)
Motorstartingbyamortisseuror
damperwindings
Here v the velocity of the bar relative to the
magnetic field;
B magnetic flux density vector;
l length of conductor in the magnetic field.
The bars at the top of the rotor are moving to the right
relative to the magnetic field: a voltage, with direction
out of page, will be induced. Similarly, the induced
voltage is into the page in the bottom bars. These
voltages produce a current flow out of the top bars and
into the bottom bars generating a winding magnetic
field B
w
to the right. Two magnetic fields will create a
torque
ind W S
kB B t = (7.89.1)
The resulting induced torque will be counter-clockwise.
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Motorstartingbyamortisseuror
damperwindings
At t =1/240 s, B
S
has rotated 90
0
while the rotor has barely
moved. Since v is parallel to B
S
, the voltage induced in the
amortisseur windings is zero, therefore, no current in wires
create a zero-torque.
At t =1/120 s, B
S
has rotated
another 90
0
and the rotor is still.
The voltages induced in the bars
create a current inducing a
magnetic field pointing to the left.
The torque is counter-clockwise.
Finally, at t =3/240 s, no voltage is
induced in the amortisseur windings
and, therefore, the torque will be zero.
Motorstartingbyamortisseuror
damperwindings
Weobservethatthetorqueiseithercounterclockwiseorzero,butitisalways
unidirectional.Sincethenettorqueisnonzero,themotorwillspeedup.
However,therotorwillneverreachthesynchronousspeed!Ifarotorwasrunningatthe
synchronousspeed,thespeedofstatormagneticfieldB
S
wouldbethesameasthespeed
oftherotorand,therefore,norelativemotionbetweentherotorandthestatormagnetic
field.Ifthereisnorelativemotion,novoltageisinducedand,therefore,thetorquewillbe
zero.
Instead,whentherotorsspeedisclosetosynchronous,theregularfieldcurrentcanbe
turnedonandthemotorwilloperatenormally.Inrealmachines,fieldcircuitareshorted
duringstarting.Therefore,ifamachinehasdamperwinding:
1. DisconnectthefieldwindingsfromtheirDCpowersourceandshortthemout;
2. Applya3phasevoltagetothestatorandlettherotortoaccelerateuptonear
synchronousspeed.Themotorshouldhavenoloadonitsshafttoenablemotorspeed
toapproachthesynchronousspeedascloselyaspossible;
3. ConnecttheDCfieldcircuittoitspowersource:themotorwilllockatsynchronous
speedandloadsmaybeaddedtotheshaft.
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Relationshipbetweensynchronous
generatorsandmotors
Synchronous generator and synchronous
motor are physically the same machines!
A synchronous machine can supply real
power to (generator) or consume real
power (motor) from a power system. It
can also either consume or supply
reactive power to the system.
1. The distinguishing characteristic of a
synchronous generator (supplying P)
is that E
A
lies ahead of V
|
while for a
motor E
A
lies behind V
|
.
2. The distinguishing characteristic of a
machine supplying reactive power Q
is that E
a
coso > V
|
(regardless
whether it is a motor or generator).
The machine consuming reactive
power Q has E
a
coso < V
|
.
Synchronousmachineratings
The speed and power that can be obtained from a synchronous motor or generator
are limited. These limited values are called ratings of the machine. The purpose of
ratings is to protect the machine from damage. Typical ratings of synchronous
machines are voltage, speed, apparent power (kVA), power factor, field current and
service factor.
1. Voltage, Speed, and Frequency
The rated frequency of a synchronous machine depends on the power system to
which it is connected. The commonly used frequencies are 50 Hz (Europe, Asia),
60 Hz (Americas), and 400 Hz (special applications: aircraft, spacecraft, etc.).
Once the operation frequency is determined, only one rotational speed in possible
for the given number of poles:
120
e
m
f
n
P
=
(7.93.1)
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Synchronousmachineratings
A generators voltage depends on the flux, the rotational speed, and the
mechanical construction of the machine. For a given design and speed, the higher
the desired voltage, the higher the flux should be. However, the flux is limited by
the field current.
The rated voltage is also limited by the windings insulation breakdown limit, which
should not be approached closely.
Is it possible to operate a synchronous machine at a frequency other than the
machine is rated for? For instance, can a 60 Hz generator operate at 50 Hz?
The change in frequency would change the speed. Since E
A
= K|e, the
maximum allowed armature voltage changes when frequency changes.
Specifically, if a 60 Hz generator will be operating at 50 Hz, its operating
voltage must be derated to 50/60 or 83.3 %.
Synchronousmachineratings
2. Apparent power and Power factor
Twofactorslimitingthepowerofelectricmachinesare
1) Mechanicaltorqueonitsshaft(usually,shaftcanhandlemuchmoretorque)
2) Heatingofthemachineswinding
The practical steady-state limits are set by heating in the windings.
The maximum acceptable armature current sets the apparent power rating for a
generator:
3
A
S V I
|
=
If the rated voltage is known, the maximum accepted armature current determines
the apparent power rating of the generator:
, ,max , ,max
3 3
rated A L rated L
S V I V I
|
= =
(7.95.1)
(7.95.2)
The power factor of the armature current is irrelevant for heating the
armature windings.
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Synchronousmachineratings
The stator cupper losses also do not depend on the current angle:
2
3
SCL A A
P I R =
(7.96.1)
The rotor (field winding) cupper losses are:
Since the current angle is irrelevant to the armature heating, synchronous
generators are rated in kVA rather than in KW.
2
RCL F F
P I R =
(7.96.2)
Allowable heating sets the maximum field current,
which determines the maximum acceptable
armature voltage E
A
. These translate to
restrictions on the lowest acceptable power factor:
The current I
A
can have different angles (that
depends on PF). E
A
is a sum of V
|
and jX
S
I
A
. We
see that, (for a constant V
|
) for some angles the
required E
A
exceeds its maximum value.
Synchronousmachineratings
If the armature voltage exceeds its maximum allowed value, the windings could be
damaged. The angle of I
A
that requires maximum possible E
A
specifies the rated
power factor of the generator. It is possible to operate the generator at a lower
(more lagging) PF than the rated value, but only by decreasing the apparent power
supplied by the generator.
Synchronous motors are usually rated in terms of real output power and the lowest
PF at full-load conditions.
3. Short-time operation and service factor
A typical synchronous machine is often able to supply up to 300% of its rated
power for a while (until its windings burn up). This ability to supply power above the
rated values is used to supply momentary power surges during motor starts.
It is also possible to use synchronous machine at powers exceeding the rated
values for longer periods of time, as long as windings do not have time to hit up too
much before the excess load is removed. For instance, a generator that could
supply 1 MW indefinitely, would be able to supply 1.5 MW for 1 minute without
serious harm and for longer periods at lower power levels.
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Synchronousmachineratings
The maximum temperature rise that a machine can stand depends on the
insulation class of its windings. The four standard insulation classes with they
temperature ratings are:
A 60
0
C above the ambient temperature
B 80
0
C above the ambient temperature
F 105
0
C above the ambient temperature
H 125
0
C above the ambient temperature
The higher the insulation class of a given machine, the greater the power that can
be drawn out of it without overheating its windings.
The overheating is a serious problem and synchronous machines should not be
overheated unless absolutely necessary. However, power requirements of the
machine not always known exactly prior its installation. Because of this, general-
purpose machines usually have their service factor defined as the ratio of the
actual maximum power of the machine to the rating on its plate.
For instance, a machine with a service factor of 1.15 can actually be operated at
115% of the rated load indefinitely without harm.