1

Computer Networks Notes

2. Network Software:
2.1 Protocol Hierarchies:
To reduce design complexity, most networks are organized as a stack of Layers or Levels.
The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers.
Protocol- Protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how communication is
to proceed.
Peers- The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines are called peers.
Physical Medium- Through which actual communication occurs.
Iterface-The interface defines which primitive operations and services the lower layer makes
available to the upper one.
Network !rchitecture- A set of layers and protocols.
Protocol stack - A list of protocol used by a system, one protocol per layer.
2.2. "esi# Issues for the $ayers:
%rror cotrol- etection and correction of errors
Possibility of two types of errors!
Lost frames " frame fails to arrive at the other side
amaged frames " a frame does arrive, but some of the bits are in error
#ommon techni$ues for error control
%rror detection
Positive acknowledgement " successfully received error free frames
&etransmission after timeout
'egative acknowledgment ('A)* and retransmission
&low cotrol- +low control is the management of data flow between computers or devices or between
nodes in a network so that the data can be handled at an efficient pace. Too much data arriving before
a device can handle it causes data overflow, meaning the data is either lost or must be retransmitted.
'outi#- is the process of selecting best paths in a network. ,n the past, the term routing was also
used to mean forwarding network traffic among networks. ,n internetworking, the process of moving
a packet of data from source to destination. &outing is usually performed by a dedicated device called
a router. &outing is a key feature of the ,nternet because it enables messages to pass from one
computer to another and eventually reach the target machine. %ach intermediary computer performs
routing by passing along the message to the next computer. Part of this process involves analyzing a
routing table to determine the best path.
2.(. Coectio )rieted ad Coectioless Ser*ices:
2
Coectio )rieted- There is a connection established in between the source and destination.
Three steps are followed in connection oriented. They are,
-. %stablish a connection.
.. /end data.
0. Terminate the connection.
Coectioless- There is no establishment of connection between the source and destination. %ach
message carries full address of the destination /ystem and each one is routed through the system
independent of all the others.
"ata#ram ser*ice 1 #onnectionless service often called datagram service . ,ts an unreliable service
which doesn2t have the acknowledgement to the sender.
!ckowled#ed "ata#ram Ser*ice 1 ,n connectionless service the sender can receive the
acknowledgment from the receiver.
'e+uest-'eply- ,n this service the sender transmits a datagram containing a re$uest3 the reply
contains the answer.
2.(. Ser*ice Primiti*es:
A /ervice is formally specified by a set of primitives (operation* available to a user process to access
the service. These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report on an action taken by a
peer entity.
Primiti*es Meai#
L,/T%' 4lock waiting for an incoming connection
#5''%#T %stablish a connection with a waiting peer
&%#%,6% 4lock waiting for an incoming message
/%' /end a message to the peer
,/#5''%#T Terminate a connection
2., -he 'elatioship of the Protocol ad Ser*ices:
A Ser*ice is a set of primitives (operation* that a layer provides to the layer above it. /ervice related
to interface between layers. A /ervice is a abstract data type or an ob7ect in the 5b7ect 5riented
Programming. ,t defines the operation that can be performed on the ob7ect but does not specify how
these operations are implemented.
A Protocol is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the pocket. 5r messages are
exchanged by the peer entities within the layer.
(. '%&%'%NC% M)"%$
(.1. -H% )SI 'eferece Model:
IS) )SI- ,nternational /tandard 5rganization 5pen /ystem ,nterconnection.
Principles that were applied to arrive at the seven Layers can be summarized here,
A Layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
%ach layer should perform a well1defined function.
The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interface.
3
The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in a same layer out of necessity.
-he Physical $ayer:
The physical layer is concerned with raw bits over a communication channel
8ow the initial connection is established and how it is torn down when both sided are
finished.
The design issue deal with mechanical, electrical and timing interface etc., which lies
below the physical layer
"ata lik layer
This layer provides reliable transmission of a packet by using the services of the physical layer which
transmits bits over the medium in an unreliable fashion. This layer is concerned with !
-. +raming ! 4reaking input data into frames (typically a few hundred bytes* and caring about the
frame boundaries and the size of each frame.
.. Acknowledgment ! /ent by the receiving end to inform the source that the frame was received
without any error.
0. /e$uence 'umbering ! To acknowledge which frame was received.
9. %rror etection ! The frames may be damaged, lost or duplicated leading to errors.The error
control is on lik to lik basis.
:. &etransmission ! The packet is retransmitted if the source fails to receive acknowledgment.
;. +low #ontrol ! 'ecessary for a fast transmitter to keep pace with a slow receiver.
Network $ayer
,ts basic functions are routing and congestion control.
'outi#: This deals with determining how packets will be routed (transferred* from source to
destination. ,t can be of three types !
/tatic ! &outes are based on static tables that are <wired into< the network and are rarely
changed.
ynamic ! All packets of one application can follow different routes depending upon the
topology of the network, the shortest path and the current network load.
/emi1ynamic ! A route is chosen at the start of each conversation and then all the packets of
the application follow the same route.
-rasport $ayer
The basic function of the transport layer is to accept the data from session layer and split it up
into smaller units.
-ypes of ser*ice : The transport layer also decides the type of service that should be provided
to the session layer. The service may be perfectly reliable, or may be reliable within certain
4
tolerances or may not be reliable at all. The message may or may not be received in the order
in which it was sent. The decision regarding the type of service to be provided is taken at the
time when the connection is established.
%rror Cotrol : ,f reliable service is provided then error detection and error recovery
operations are also performed. ,t provides error control mechanism on ed to ed basis.
Coectio %sta.lishmet / 'elease : The transport layer also establishes and releases the
connection across the network. This re$uires some sort of naming mechanism so that a process
on one machine can indicate with whom it wants to communicate.
Sessio layer
/ession layer allows the user on different machine to establish session between them.
,t offers various services including
ialog control " keep track whose turn it is to transmit
Token management preventing two parties to attempting the same critical operation at
the same time
/ynchronization " check pointing long transmission to allow them to continue to where
they were after a crash
Presetatio $ayer
This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. ,n order
to make it possible for computers with different data representations to communicate data
structures to be exchanged can be defined in abstract way alongwith standard encoding. ,t also
manages these abstract data structres and allows higher level of data structres to be defined an
exchange.
!pplicatio $ayer
The seventh layer contains the application protocols with which the user gains access to the
network. The choice of which specific protocols and their associated functions are to be used
at the application level is up to the individual user. +or example commonly used protocols are
8TTP(for web browsing*, +TP(for file transfer* etc.
(.2 -CP IP 'eferece model
The ability to connect multiple network in a seamless way was one of the ma7or design goal from the
very beginning. T#P ,P reference model act as key to achieve it. T#P ,P reference model has two
primary protocols.
Iteret layer
Pocket switching can be held on a internet layer based on connectionless service. The pocket
may arrive in different order than they are sent.
The internet layer defines an official pocket format and protocol called ,P (,nternet Protocol*.
5
,nternet layer handles the Pocket &outing system
-rasport layer
,t is designed to allow peer entities on the source and the destination host to carry on a conversation
Two end to end transport protocol have been defined here.
-. T#P "is a reliable connection oriented protocol that allows a byte stream originating on a one
machine to deliver without a error on an any other machine in internet.
.. =P (=ser atagram Protocol* " it is a unreliable connectionless protocol
!pplicatio layer
T#P ,P model does not have the session and presentation layers
,t contains all higher level protocols
Host to Network layer
,t does not really say much about what happens here, except to point out that the host has to connect to
the network using some protocol so it can send ,P pockets.
(.( ! compariso of -CP IP ad )SI model
Three concepts of 5/, model
Similarity "iffereces
The functionality of the layers are roughly
similar
Ser*ices
,t tells what the layer does, not how the layer
does.
,t defines the layer semantics
4oth transport layer provide end1to1end
transport service
Iterface
,t tells the processes above it how to access it
>hat the parameters and what the results to
expect
,t doesn2t say how layers work inside
Protocol
Layers can use any protocol it wants
,t provide offered services
-CP IP Model
There is no clear distinguish between service, interface and protocol
5ffers the services /%' ,P P5#)%T, &%#%,6% ,P P5#)%T

(., ! critic of the )SI Model ad Protocol
4ad timing
4ad technology
4ad implementation
4ad politics
(.0 ! critic of the -CP IP referece model
There is a problem in the concept of service, interface and protocol
This models not much of a guide for designing new network using new technology.
This model is poorly suited to describing any protocol stack other than T#P ,P
8ost network layer is not really a layer, it is an interface between the network and data link
layer.
6
T#P ,P doesn2t distinguish the physical and data link layer.
,P and T#P protocol were carefully thought out and well implemented