INTS401H 220086769

PAIS Honours Coursework

Essay 2
Matthew yan
220086769
!The a"a#e$%" stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s shou(# )e o)*e"t%+e, The
'o(%t%"a( s"%ent%st shou(# not )e #%stra"te# )y eth%"a( -uest%ons
a)out the nature o& the .oo# (%&e,!
/or#s0 4477 e1, -uotat%ons
1 o& 18
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'The academic study of politics should be objective. The
political scientist should not be distracted by ethical
questions about the nature of the good life.'
Introduction
In or#er &or a so"%ety to &un"t%on2 there %s a ne"ess%ty &or a $e"han%s$ wh%"h
&a"%(%tates "o((e"t%+e #e"%s%on $ak%n., That $e"han%s$ %s "a((e# !'o(%t%"s!, As su"h2
!'o(%t%"s %s "on"erne#2 a($ost )y #e&%n%t%on2 w%th the "onstru"t%on an#2 %#ea((y2 the
rea(%sat%on o& a sense o& the "o((e"t%+e .oo#! 3Hay2 20070 24, An# yet the academic stu#y
o& 'o(%t%"s %s2 %n the o'%n%on o& so$e2 )est #%+or"e# &ro$ "ons%#erat%ons o& anyth%n. as
+a.ue an# su)*e"t%+e as the !"o((e"t%+e .oo#!, Those sa$e 'un#%ts wou(# a(so ar.ue
a.a%nst a((ow%n. us to )e"o$e entan.(e# %n the nor$at%+e task o& !"onstru"t%n.! that
rea(%ty, There wou(# see$ to )e a "orre(at%on 5 %& not "ausat%on 5 )etween the 'o'u(ar
#%s%((us%on$ent w%th 'o(%t%"a( 'ra1%s an# the atte$'t to "reate an o)*e"t%+e #%s"%'(%ne2
one #e+o%# o& eth%"a( a$)%.u%t%es0
Po(%t%"s #enotes an a"t%+%ty a)out wh%"h $any 'eo'(e to#ay &ee( a
"o$)%nat%on o& "yn%"%s$2 s"e't%"%s$ an# $%strust, It %s e1'er%en"e# as
so$eth%n. #%stant an# re$ote &ro$ e+ery#ay (%&e,,, The #%s"%'(%ne o& Po(%t%"s
#oes (%tt(e2 %& anyth%n.2 to #%s'e( th%s %$a.e o& 'o(%t%"s,,, 3He(# 6 7e&tw%"h2
19840 1894,
There %s on.o%n. #e)ate aroun# the a''ro'r%ate way to a''roa"h the a"a#e$%"
stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s, E$)e##e# %n the #%"tu$ )e%n. #%s"usse# here %s the 'ers'e"t%+e o& a
'art%"u(ar &a"t%on w%th%n that #e)ate 5 the 're#o$%nant(y North A$er%"an s"hoo( o&
!'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e!2 wh%"h rose to %nte((e"tua( #o$%nan"e %n the $%#9twent%eth "entury,
The 'ur'ose o& th%s 'a'er %s to e1a$%ne th%s state$ent2 an# the stan"e that %t %$'(%es2
w%th a .reat #ea( o& s"rut%ny, Thus the task here %s not on(y to ar.ue e%ther &or or a.a%nst
th%s 'os%t%on2 )ut to "ons%#er2 $ore )roa#(y2 the #e)ate %n wh%"h %t %s s%tuate#2 an# the
%$'(%"at%ons o& th%s #e)ate &or the +ery state o& our #%s"%'(%ne,
A(thou.h th%s w%(( a(( )e e1a$%ne# %n $u"h $ore #eta%( )e(ow2 %t %s %$$e#%ate(y
a''arent that the a)o+e -uotat%on e-uates the !a"a#e$%" stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s! to an o)*e"t%+e
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!'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e!, Th%s %s to the e1"(us%on o& the r%"h h%stor%"a(2 e+a(uat%+e2 an#
nor$at%+e ana(yt%"a( tra#%t%ons o& 'o(%t%"a( 'h%(oso'hy an# 'o(%t%"a( theory, It %s that
e1"(us%on that %s the "ore %ssue w%th a#o't%n. th%s o)*e"t%+%st 'ers'e"t%+e, As %s su..este#
)y uth :rant2 !;%<& we %.nore the hu$an%st!s -uest%ons when stu#y%n. 'o(%t%"s2 we w%((
see on(y a s$a(( 'art o& the 'o(%t%"a( 'heno$ena2 an# e+en that 'art we w%(( see )a#(y!
3:rant2 20020 =919=924, The 'ers'e"t%+e o& the !'o(%t%"a( s"%ent%st! %s one %n wh%"h the
-uest%ons aske# )y the a"a#e$%" #%s"%'(%ne o& 'o(%t%"s are (%$%te# to $ere(y those w%th
!s"%ent%&%"a((y knowa)(e! answers, It %s the %$'(%"at%on o& that stan"e wh%"h %s to )e
e1'(ore# here,
The &%rst task w%(( )e2 then2 to "(ar%&y so$e key ter$s2 the $ean%n.s o& wh%"h are
o&ten a$)%.uous, /%th those 'ara$eters esta)(%she#2 we sha(( turn to the "r%t%"a(
e+a(uat%on o& the state$ent at han# 5 what are the %$'(%"at%ons an# e1"(us%ons o& th%s
'os%t%on> /hat $%.ht )e the state o& the #%s"%'(%ne %& the a''roa"h re'resente# )y the
a)o+e -uotat%on was a#o'te# )y a(( resear"hers> Is the "(a%$ to o)*e"t%+%ty %tse(& )oth
'o(%t%"a( an# 3'art%a((y4 res'ons%)(e &or the !"onte$'orary #%sen"hant$ent w%th 'o(%t%"s!
3Hay2 20070 =4? an#2 &%na((y2 a 'ro'er #e&en"e o& eth%"a( e$'%r%"%s$ w%(( )e (a%# out,
/%th the a)o+e %ssues "ons%#ere#2 th%s w%(( )r%n. us to the thes%s o& th%s 'a'er0 %&
the a"a#e$%" stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s shou(# atte$'t on(y to answer -uest%ons wh%"h are
answera)(e )y a s'e"%&%" $etho#o(o.y2 then the out"o$e w%(( )e a #%s"%'(%ne "o$'r%se#
o& !%#%ot sa+ants! 5 those whose te"hn%"a( e1'ert%se has (%tt(e re(e+an"e to the rea( wor(#
1
,
Su"h a #%s"%'(%ne #oes (%tt(e to #%s'e( "onte$'orary 'o(%t%"a( #%s%((us%on$ent,
Definition of Terms
Ethics, 'the good life', and Politics.
It %s %$'ortant to take t%$e to "(ar%&y what %s $eant )y !eth%"a( -uest%ons a)out the
.oo# (%&e!2 %& we are to un#erstan# why so$e $%.ht "ons%#er su"h -uest%ons to )e
!#%stra"t%ons!, @ant 'ro+%#es us w%th a su""%n"t #e&%n%t%on o& eth%"s0 !Eth%"s %s so$et%$es
"ons%#ere# as the theory o& +%rtue! 3@ant2 1979 ;1817<0 644, Conse-uent(y2 to "ons%#er
eth%"a( -uest%ons %s to "ons%#er the state o& th%n.s %n "o$'ar%son to an %#ea( 5 an eth%"a(
1 The k%n# o& e'%ste$o(o.%"a( sh%&t seen here #oes not o""ur %n a +a"uu$, The 'ara((e(s )etween the %#o(%sat%on o&
o)*e"t%+%ty %n )oth 'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e an# neo"(ass%"a( e"ono$%"s are %$$e#%ate(y a''arent, Aoth o& these %nte((e"tua(
#e+e(o'$ents are roote# %n En(%.hten$ent %#ea(s o& rat%ona(%ty an# se"u(ar%s$,
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a''roa"h %s essent%a((y one wh%"h %s "r%t%"a( an# nor$at%+e 3Mu%rhea#2 19810 4144, The
ro(e o& eth%"a( -uest%ons an# a''roa"hes %n the stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s %s as o(# as the #%s"%'(%ne
%tse(&, In#ee#2 &or the "(ass%"a( 'o(%t%"a( th%nkers2 the stu#%es o& 'o(%t%"s an# eth%"s were
%nse'ara)(e 3:o$'erB2 19120 2414, As %s su..este# )y the -uotat%on2 the )est e1a$'(e o&
th%s ant%-uar%an 'er"e't%on o& entw%ne# 'o(%t%"s an# eth%"s %s en"a'su(ate# w%th%n the
Ar%stote(%an %#ea( o& !the .oo# (%&e!,
Cor Ar%stot(e !the .oo# (%&e! was the #es%ra)(e en# .oa( o& 'o(%t%"a( or.an%sat%on 5
!the state %s not $ere(y .oo#2 )ut e1%sts &or the h%.hest .oo#2 the )est (%&e 'oss%)(e &or
hu$ank%n#! 3Ma##o12 19960 44, In &a"t2 "ontrary to 'o'u(ar $%s"on"e't%on2 th%s %s what
Ar%stot(e was e1'(or%n. when he wrote that !$an %s a 'o(%t%"a( an%$a(!, Th%s "an )e
un#erstoo# )y '(a"%n. th%s state$ent %n a &u((er "onte1t0
Man %s )y nature a 'o(%t%"a( an%$a(? an# so e+en when $en ha+e no nee# o&
ass%stan"e &ro$ ea"h other2 they none the (ess #es%re to (%+e to.ether, At the
sa$e t%$e2 they are a(so )rou.ht to.ether )y a "o$$on %nterest2 so &ar as
ea"h a"h%e+es a share o& the .oo# (%&e, The .oo# (%&e then %s the "h%e& a%$ o&
the 'o(%t%"a( "o$$un%ty2 )oth "o((e"t%+e(y &or a(( %ts $e$)ers an# %n#%+%#ua((y
3Ar%stot(e2 %n D(asso'ou(os2 20102 ', 1184,
There %s no #e&%n%t%+e (%st o& "r%ter%a &or the atta%n$ent o& the .oo# (%&e 5 %n#ee#2 %t
%s %ts e'he$era(2 su)*e"t%+e nature that ren#ers %t %n"o$'at%)(e w%th "onte$'orary
!'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e! $etho#o(o.%es, !The .oo# (%&e! %$'(%es that the 'ur'ose o& )oth the
stu#y an# the 'ra"t%"e o& 'o(%t%"s %s to str%+e &or the "ont%nua( a#+an"e o& the hu$an
"on#%t%on 5 %n#%+%#ua((y2 an# "o((e"t%+e(y 5 o+er the a(ternat%+e o& the )rut%sh an# "rue(
e1%sten"e that wou(# 'ers%st w%thout "o((e"t%+e 'o(%t%"a( or.an%sat%on, Th%s tra#%t%ona(
"on"e't%on o& 'o(%t%"s2 eth%"s2 an# !the .oo# (%&e! #%# not2 howe+er2 a)%#e un"ha((en.e#,
The "ru"%a( #%&&eren"e )etween an"%ent 'o(%t%"a( thou.ht an# the 'o(%t%"a( thou.ht
o& the e%.hteenth2 n%neteenth2 twent%eth2 an# twenty &%rst "entur%es %s the )reak#own o&
the "onsensus that the a%$ o& the 'o(%t%"a( "o$$un%ty %s to %$'ro+e 'eo'(e an# the%r
(%+es 3D(asso'ou(os2 20102 ', 1804, Mu"h o& th%s sh%&t has %ts roots %n the se"u(ar
$o+e$ent o& the ena%ssan"e, The thou.ht o& th%s $o#ern 'er%o# "an )e "hara"ter%se#
thus0
The a%$ o& 'o(%t%"s shou(# not )e the $ora( &or$at%on o& "%t%Bens2 the 'ursu%t
o& the "o$$on .oo#2 or the "reat%on o& "on#%t%ons &or the atta%n$ent o& .(ory
an# the e1er"%se o& +%rtue? %nstea#2 'o(%t%"s ha# on(y the %nstru$enta( ro(e o&
se"ur%n. the natura( r%.hts o& "%t%Bens,,, 3ibid,4,
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In s%$'(e ter$s2 the "o$$una( 'ursu%t o& the .oo# (%&e was a)an#one#2 re'(a"e#
)y a "on"e't%on o& 'o(%t%"s an# $ora(%ty wh%"h was to )u%(# u'on the natura( +a(ue o&
'r%+ate 'ro'erty, Th%s was (e.%t%$%se# )y the u(t%$ate ena%ssan"e "onstru"t 5 the %#ea
o& so"%ety )e%n. a $a"h%ne wh%"h &o((owe# natura( an# o)*e"t%+e ru(es2 an# that %t wou(#
"ont%nue to work re.ar#(ess o& the %ntent%ons o& the %n#%+%#ua(s that "o$'r%se# %t, Eust
so$e o& the ra$%&%"at%ons o& the En(%.hten$ent %n"(u#e0 A#a$ S$%th!s 'h%(oso'h%"a(
(e.%t%$%sat%on a (%$%te# 'o(%t%"a( s'here2 an# the %#ea that o)*e"t%+e ana(ys%s "ou(# re+ea(
the (aws wh%"h .o+ern hu$an )eha+%our 5 a(( resu(t%n. &ro$ our hu)r%s %n )e(%e+%n. that
hu$an reason "an &u((y 'er"e%+e the work%n.s o& the natura( an# so"%a( wor(#s 3Ae"k2
19680 84, The an"%ent wor(#Fs a''roa"h to the stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s #%#2 howe+er2 sur+%+e,
The roots o& the $o#ern #%s"%'(%nes o& Po(%t%"a( Theory an# Po(%t%"a( Ph%(oso'hy are %n
the r%"h "(ass%"a( tra#%t%on, A )r%e& e1'(orat%on o& those "onte$'orary a''roa"hes 5
a''roa"hes wh%"h $any st%(( a%$ to e1"(u#e 5 w%(( now &o((ow,
Political Theory and Philosophy
Po(%t%"a( theory an# 'o(%t%"a( 'h%(oso'hy are )oth a''roa"hes to the stu#y o&
'o(%t%"s wh%"h are )ase# on the eth%"a( a''roa"h o& the "(ass%"a( th%nkers, That %s to say
they are )oth %nherent(y "r%t%"a( an# nor$at%+e $o#es o& stu#y, In th%s sense there %s a
#%"hoto$y )etween 'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e on the one han#2 an# theory an# 'h%(oso'hy on the
other, That sa%#2 so$e $ake a #%st%n"t%on )etween theory an# 'h%(oso'hy2 rather than
"on&(ate the two,
C%rst(y2 we ha+e 'o(%t%"a( theory2 wh%"h %s to )e seen as !"r%t%"a(2 syste$at%"
re&(e"t%on a)out 'ower %n %ts 'u)(%" an# 'r%+ate &or$s2 'art%"u(ar(y a)out the "(a%$s o&
.o+ern$ent to 'ossess (e.%t%$a"y an# author%ty? an#2 $ore .enera((y2 su"h re&(e"t%on
a)out the '(a"e o& 'o(%t%"s %n so"%a( (%&e! 3ee+e2 20092 on(%ne4, Po(%t%"a( theor%sts w%((
"ons%#er -uest%ons re.ar#%n. the 'ur'ose o& .o+ern$ent 5 so$e2 &or e1a$'(e2 $%.ht
ar.ue that 'ur'ose %s "o((e"t%+e a"t%on %n 'ursu%t o& !the .oo# (%&e! 5 an# then2 )u%(#%n. on
ana(ys%s o& that 'ur'ose an# (e.%t%$a"y2 they wou(# then su..est the )est way to 'ursue
or "reate that %#ea( 3P(a$enatB2 19670 199204, The "onne"t%on )etween th%s nor$at%+e
un#erstan#%n. o& the #%s"%'(%ne2 an# the nor$at%+e nature o& Ar%stote(%an 'o(%t%"s shou(#
)e note#,
Po(%t%"a( 'h%(oso'hy2 howe+er2 %s so$ewhat $ore a)stra"t an# "onstru"t%+%st,
= o& 18
INTS401H 220086769
Po(%t%"a( 'h%(oso'hers o&ten take the t%$e to "r%t%"a((y a''ra%se those assu$'t%ons that
'o(%t%"a( theory a"know(e#.es2 )ut $ere(y .(an"es o+er, Th%s %s su$$ar%se# )y S$%th0
!;'<o(%t%"a( 'h%(oso'hy %s not a $etho#o(o.y2 a #o"tr%ne2 or a wor(# +%ew2 )ut an
asse$)(a.e o& 'ro)(e$s that "an he(' to #ee'en2 en(%+en2 an# .u%#e our %n+est%.at%onsF
3S$%th2 20000 1904, The 'ur'ose o& su"h a #%s"%'(%ne %s to 'ro+%#e a yar#9st%"k &or 'u)(%"
"on#u"t? the 'ro+%s%on o& su%ta)(e eth%"a( #e&%n%t%ons &or "ontent%ous 'ro)(e$s, Eust one
su"h %ssue wh%"h "annot )e a##resse# w%thout re&eren"e to 'o(%t%"a( 'h%(oso'hy %s the
#%str%)ut%on o& s"ar"e resour"es 3Cree#en2 20040 64 5 there are2 o& "ourse2 $any $ore,
/h%(e there are su)t(e #%st%n"t%ons )etween these two r%"h tra#%t%ons o& 'o(%t%"a(
thou.ht2 those #%&&eren"es "an )e )y'asse# so$ewhat %n $y #%s"uss%on, The two "an )e
)rou.ht to.ether as +a(ue9(a#en2 "r%t%"a(2 an# nor$at%+e a"a#e$%" a''roa"hes to the
stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s 3ee+e2 20092 on(%ne42 wh%"h "ontrast #%re"t(y w%th the !o)*e"t%+e!
a''roa"h o& 'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e 5 the a''roa"h e1e$'(%&%e# )y the %n%t%a( -uotat%on,
The "on&(at%on o& the two %s not on(y (e.%t%$%se# )y the%r "o$$on a''roa"h o&
e+a(uat%on an# nor$at%+%ty2 )ut a(so s%n"e the "r%t%"%s$s )rou.ht a.a%nst the$ )y
!'o(%t%"a( s"%ent%sts! are o&ten the sa$e, Those 'ursu%n. o)*e"t%+%ty ha+e su..este# !that
$any o& the 'ro)(e$s wh%"h e1er"%se# the .reat 'o(%t%"a( th%nkers o& the 'ast were
s'ur%ous2 rest%n. on "on&us%ons o& thou.ht an# the $%suse o& (an.ua.e! 3P(a$enatB2
19670 194, Gthers "(a%$ that !'o(%t%"a( theor%sts ha+e &a%(e# to kee' u' w%th the t%$es2
an# ha+e not en.a.e# %n su&&%"%ent +a(ue9&ree theoret%"a( stu#y o& the raw #ata o&
'o(%t%"s! 3Penno"k2 19=10 10814, The "r%t%"%s$ %s o&ten that the -uest%ons )e%n. aske# )y
'o(%t%"a( theor%sts an# 'h%(oso'hers %n the twenty9&%rst "entury are the sa$e ones that
'uBB(e# th%nkers hun#re#s o& years a.o, In our neo(%)era(%se# un%+ers%t%es the -ua(%t%es o&
th%s $o#e o& resear"h are tr%+%a(%se#2 %n 're&eren"e o& the !sw%&t an# #ra$at%" 'ro.ress!
3@%n.2 20140 16=4 o&&ere# )y resear"h wh%"h e$u(ates that o& the natura( s"%en"es,
These on.o%n. #e)ates shou(# not2 howe+er2 )e seen as tr%+%a( or %rre(e+ant to
$o#ern 'o(%t%"s, G& "ourse2 -uest%ons a)out the nature o& the %#ea( state w%(( )e on.o%n.,
Aut as the stan"es o& the (%)era( an# the "onser+at%+e are hea+%(y %n&(uen"e# )y #%&&erent
"on"e't%ons o& that %#ea(2 a !s"%en"e! wh%"h seeks to un#erstan# the%r $ot%+at%ons an#
+a(ues 5 w%thout "r%t%"a((y en.a.%n. w%th the 'h%(oso'h%"a( #%s"ourse 5 w%(( &a%( to
un#erstan# %ts su)*e"t $atter 3C(ark2 20080 1684, The %((o.%"a(%ty o& e1"(u#%n. the
a''roa"hes o& Po(%t%"a( Theory an# Po(%t%"a( Ph%(oso'hy &ro$ the stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s %s to
)e #%s"usse# at (en.th )e(ow, C%rst2 howe+er2 we $ust un#erstan# $ore
6 o& 18
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"o$'rehens%+e(y the a''roa"h o& the 'o(%t%"a( s"%ent%st,
Political Science
As has )een the "ase w%th $any o& the key ter$s #%s"usse# so &ar2 !'o(%t%"a(
s"%en"e! has $any usa.es an# asso"%at%on, Here%n 'o(%t%"a( s"%ent%sts are taken to )e
those who a#+o"ate a s"%ent%&%" a''roa"h to the a"a#e$%" stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s0
A$er%"an $etho#s ha+e "ons"%ous(y as'%re# to the $o#ern "on"e'ts o&
natura( s"%en"e, There has )een an a#+o"a"y o& an %nte.rate# s"%en"e o&
so"%ety rest%n. es'e"%a((y on "on"e'ts #rawn &ro$ $o#ern 'hys%"s2 )%o(o.y2
an# 'sy"ho(o.y2 an# on a $arke# #%s'(a"e$ent o& s'e"u(at%+e an# h%stor%"a(
stu#y,,,, The e1tre$e $e$)ers o& the s"hoo( (ook &orwar# to the e(%$%nat%on
o& eth%"a( 'ro)(e$s )y s"%ent%&%" $etho#2 an# +%ew #e$o"ra"y as %n %tse(&
$ere(y the s"%ent%&%" $etho# o& hy'othes%s an# e1'er%$ent 3Cr%"k2 19=40
80898094,
The a''roa"h #es"r%)e# here2 wh%"h "an a(so )e #es"r%)e# as !)eha+%oura(%st!
2
2 rose to
$etho#o(o.%"a( #o$%nan"e %n the 'ost9/or(# /ar "onte1t2 an# $a%nta%ne# that
#o$%nan"e throu.h to the 1970!s, Aeha+%oura(%s$ %s #e&%ne# )y e$'%r%"a( $etho#s2 w%th
state$ents resu(t%n. &ro$ resear"h ha+%n. to s"%ent%&%"a((y "on&%r$a)(e 3Aook$an2 19700
1791842 $ean%n. that +a(ues an# eth%"s ha+e no we%.ht, The a''ea( o& a !+a(ue9&ree!
s"%en"e %s un#erstan#a)(e0 !o)*e"t%+%ty 'ro#u"es "re#%)%(%ty? "re#%)%(%ty esta)(%shes
(e.%t%$a"y? (e.%t%$a"y %s the )as%s o& a''(y%n. so"%a( s"%en"e know(e#.e to so"%a(
'ur'oses an# 'o(%t%"a( .oa(s, The "%r"(e %s "o$'(ete! 3Prew%tt2 200=0 214, G& "ourse2 there
were so$e a"a#e$%"s who "ont%nue# to %n"(u#e nor$at%+e an# e+a(uat%+e as'e"ts %n
the%r resear"h2 )ut they were $ar.%na(%se#2 es'e"%a((y %n North A$er%"a 3Ca(houn2 20022
on(%ne4,
The task here %s not an e1haust%+e h%story o& the #e+e(o'$ent o& th%s a''roa"h to
the stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s2 an# as su"h the nuan"es o& that h%story w%(( )e )y'asse# so$ewhat,
Th%nkers who '(aye# a 'art %n that %nte((e"tua( *ourney %n"(u#e0 Ma"h%a+e((%2 Co$te2
M%((2 To"-ue+%((e2 Mar12 /e)er2 Ho))es2 Hu$e2 an# others 3A($on#2 19960 6=4,
Hn&ortunate(y the%r "ontr%)ut%ons "annot )e e1'(ore# %n#%+%#ua((y, To take the ar.u$ents
2 Th%s sh%&t to e$'%r%"a( $etho#s %n our stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s has ha# w%#e9ran.%n. e&&e"ts on other #e)ates %n the
#%s"%'(%ne, As *ust one e1a$'(e2 o)ert Iah(!s "on"e't%on o& !'ower! reste# on th%s new $etho#o(o.%"a( a''roa"h
3Isaa"2 19870 =4,
7 o& 18
INTS401H 220086769
o& *ust one o& those th%nkers 5 /e)er 5 as %n#%"at%+e o& the .enera( tren#2 we "an see %n
$ore #eta%( the 'ro*e"t that %s %$'(%e# )y the 'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e a''roa"h, A""or#%n. to
7eo Strauss2 %t was /e)er who (e.%t%$%se# the $o#ern a''roa"h to so"%a( s"%en"e wh%"h
se'arate# so "(ear(y &a"t an# +a(ue, /e)er!s sear"h &or o)*e"t%+%ty 'ro#u"e# an
e$an"%'at%on &ro$ $ora( *u#.e$ents,,, The ha)%t o& (ook%n. at so"%a( or
hu$an 'heno$ena w%thout $ak%n. +a(ue *u#.e$ents has a "orro#%n.
%n&(uen"e on any 're&eren"es, The $ore ser%ous we are as so"%a( s"%ent%sts2
the $ore "o$'(ete(y we #e+e(o' w%th%n ourse(+es a state o& %n#%&&eren"e to
any .oa(2 or o& a%$(essness an# #r%&t%n.2 a state that "an )e "a((e# n%h%(%s$
8
3Strauss2 19=92 %n A($on#2 19960 794,
Th%s tren# was then "ont%nue# )y an a''roa"h so$et%$es ter$e# !(o.%"a( 'os%t%+%s$!2 the
e'%ste$o(o.y o& wh%"h "an )e #es"r%)e# thus0
7o.%"a( 'os%t%+%s$,,,, re&(e"te# a #ee' &a%th %n s"%ent%&%" un#erstan#%n. an#
su..este# that 'ro'os%t%ons that are not e$'%r%"a((y +er%&%a)(e are s%$'(y
$ean%n.(ess, Nor$at%+e "on"e'ts su"h as !(%)erty!2 !e-ua(%ty!2 !*ust%"e! an#
!r%.hts! ;an# !the .oo# (%&e!< were there&ore #%sre.ar#e# as nonsense2 an#
;'os%t%+%sts<2 as a resu(t2 ten#e# to (ose %nterest %n $ora( an# 'o(%t%"a( %ssues
3Heywoo#2 20040 114,
Th%s a''roa"h has re"e%+e# $u"h "r%t%"%s$, To $ake one %$$e#%ate "r%t%"%s$2 the
%#ea that 'o(%t%"a( ana(ys%s $%.ht )e"o$e #%s%ntereste# %n 'o(%t%"a( %ssues see$s
r%#%"u(ous, Nonethe(ess2 %n 'ursu%t o& s"%ent%&%" status2 +a(ues an# eth%"a( a''roa"hes
$ust )e re$o+e# &ro$ the a"a#e$%" stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s, In res'onse to "r%t%"s who #e&en#
the '(a"e o& $ora(s an# eth%"s %n the stu#y o& the 'o(%t%"s2 $any 'ra"t%t%oners ha+e
hera(#e# te"hno(o.%"a( a#+an"es %n #ata "o((e"t%on an# ana(ys%s 5 'o'u(ar(y re&erre# to
as the !)%. #ata! re+o(ut%on 5 as (e.%t%$%sat%on o& the%r s"%ent%&%" a''roa"h 3Cor)es2 20040
on(%ne4,
So$e $ay ar.ue 5 %n res'onse to the a)o+e "hara"ter%sat%on 5 that the #%+%s%on
)etween 'o(%t%"a( theory an# s"%en"e has )roken #own s%n"e the t%$e o& Strauss an#
Cr%"k2 an# that "r%t%"a( ana(ys%s %s now 'art o& a theory9s"%en"e synthes%s, Jet %n 19942 74
'er "ent o& art%"(es 'u)(%she# %n the (ea#%n. *ourna( American Political Science Review
were )eha+%oura( or e$'%r%"a( %n the%r $etho#o(o.y 3Tansey 6 Ea"kson2 20080 84, E+en
$ore re"ent(y Har+ar#!s Pro&essor :ary @%n. note#
8 Curther on Stauss -ua(%&%es th%s state$ent2 su..est%n. that the resu(t o& /e)er%an 'os%t%+%s$ was $ore !"on&or$%s$
an# 'h%(%st%n%s$!2 rather than n%h%(%s$,
8 o& 18
INTS401H 220086769
the so"%a( s"%en"es are %n the $%#st o& an h%stor%" "han.e2 w%th (ar.e 'arts
$o+%n. &ro$ the hu$an%t%es to the s"%en"es %n ter$s o& resear"h sty(e2
e$'%r%"a( $etho#s2 su)stant%+e un#erstan#%n.2 an# the a)%(%ty to $ake sw%&t
an# #ra$at%" 'ro.ress 3@%n.2 20140 16=4,
Th%s wou(# su..est that e$'has%s on the -uant%tat%+e has not yet rea"he# %ts h%.h9water
$ark, It %s -u%te "(ear that 'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e %s st%(( #o$%nant2 es'e"%a((y %n the HS2 an#
that "o9o'erat%on )etween the s"%ent%&%" a''roa"h an# the 'h%(oso'h%"a( a''roa"h %s
!$ar.%na(!2 at )est 3#e Sha(%t2 20090 414,
Exclusions and Implications
As note# a)o+e2 the $ost trou)(%n. %$'(%"at%on e$)e##e# w%th%n the 'ro+%#e#
-uotat%on %s that the a"a#e$%" stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s %s synony$ous w%th o)*e"t%+e 'o(%t%"a(
s"%en"e, Th%s 'ers'e"t%+e e1"(u#es $ore "r%t%"a( an# nor$at%+e a''roa"hes2 su"h as
'o(%t%"a( theory an# 'o(%t%"a( 'h%(oso'hy, Th%s %$'(%"at%on %s then $a#e e1'(%"%t2 )y
(a)e((%n. the Ar%stote(%an "on"e't%on o& 'o(%t%"s 5 %ts stu#y an# %ts 'ra"t%"e 5 as a
!#%stra"t%on!, Cro$ th%s 'ers'e"t%+e a"a#e$%" stu#y wh%"h "ons%#ers eth%"a( -uest%ons
a)out the nature o& the .oo# (%&e 5 "ons%#erat%ons wh%"h are )oth "r%t%"a( o& the status
uo2 an# a(so nor$at%+e %n 'ro+%#%n. 'res"r%'t%ons &or an a(ternat%+e syste$ 5 are to )e
e1'un.e# &ro$ the #%s"%'(%ne, Most #%s"on"ert%n.(y2 th%s %s not a &%"t%t%ous 'ers'e"t%+e
'(ay%n. out %n an %$a.%ne# wor(#? rather2 %t %s %n#%"at%+e o& the state o& the #%s"%'(%ne2 as
%((ustrate# )y @%n. a)o+e, /e turn now to "ons%#er the ra$%&%"at%ons su"h an a''roa"h
wou(# ha+e on the a"a#e$%" stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s as a who(e,
The Political Sub!ect
Here %t shou(# )e note# that there %s a "(ear reason why the +ery &%rst th%nkers
"ons%#ere# 'o(%t%"s an eth%"a( epistime 5 that reason %s the +ery su)*e"t $atter that we are
"on"erne# w%th, Po(%t%"s %s a stu#y o& 'eo'(e an# o& so"%ety2 an# the (o.%"a( a''roa"h to
su"h a stu#y %s that o& the hu$an%t%es 3A((%son2 20092 on(%ne4, Jet the 'o(%t%"a( s"%ent%st
wou(# try an# un#erstan# the 'o(%t%"a( rea($ w%thout "ons%#er%n. the +a(ues wh%"h
$ot%+ate 'o(%t%"a( a"tors %n a $ore $ean%n.&u( way than e+er9$ore9so'h%st%"ate#
'o((%n., The e&&e"t o& th%s %s to ren#er the #%s"%'(%ne %n"a'a)(e o& "ontr%)ut%n. to
so"%etyFs "o((e"t%+e know(e#.e %n any s%.n%&%"ant way, Th%s "on"ern %s e"hoe# )y
Stretton0 !;t<o a)stra"t the o)ser+a)(e a"t &ro$ %ts un#erstan#a)(e ru(es w%(( not $ake the
9 o& 18
INTS401H 220086769
stu#y o& so"%ety $ore s"%ent%&%"? %t w%(( a+o%# the stu#y o& so"%ety a(to.ether! 3Stretton2
19690 2224, The %((o.%"a(%ty o& a 'ure(y !s"%ent%&%"! so"%a( s"%en"e %s $a#e e1'(%"%t )y
S'ra.ens Er,0
Th%s re%nte.rat%on o& the theoret%"a( enter'r%se %n 'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e %s a
ne"ess%ty )e"ause 'o(%t%"s %s the %nterse"t%on o& or#er an# 'ower, The (atter
"annot )e who((y a)stra"te# &ro$ the &or$er2 howe+er #%(%.ent the e&&ort2 an#
the &or$er "annot )e #es"r%)e# a'art &ro$ 'atters an# stan#ar#s wh%"h are
'er"e'tua(2 %nter'retat%+e nor$s 3S'ra.ens Er,2 19780 1684,
In short2 %& eth%"a( "ons%#erat%ons are e1"(u#e# &ro$ the a"a#e$%" stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s then
an a"a#e$%" un#erstan#%n. o& 'eo'(e an# the%r a"t%ons %n the 'o(%t%"a( s'here 5 a"t%ons
)ase# u'on the%r +a(ues2 "on"erns2 $ot%+at%ons2 an# %n&(uen"es 5 %s %$'oss%)(e,

The %$'(%"at%ons o& a un%+ersa( a""e'tan"e o& the o)*e"t%+e a''roa"h to the stu#y
o& 'o(%t%"s are "on"ern%n., She(#on /o(%n 319694 (a)e((e# th%s a''roa"h !$etho#%st! 5 %n
the sense that the a''roa"h %s #%re"te# )y %ts $etho#o(o.y, Pau( Mart%n an# Ionna Cra%.
a(so art%"u(ate a "on"ern &or the state o& resear"h %n the &a"e o& $etho#o(o.%"a( !'ur%ty!2
an# a(thou.h the%r work %s )ase# %n 7aw2 %t s'eaks to the 'o(%t%"a( #%s"%'(%ne as we((0
Many o& the key -uest%ons are $u(t%&a"ete#, S%$'(%&y%n. the %ssues so that
they "an &%t w%th%n an e$'%r%"a( $etho#o(o.y %s har#(y (%ke(y to re'resent a
s%.n%&%"ant a#+an"e, The r%sk o& a tyranny o& $etho#o(o.%"a( 'ur%ty o+er
resear"h $ean%n.&u(ness %s not so$eth%n. that "an )e (%.ht(y #%s$%sse#
3Mart%n 6 Cra%.2 2014 3&orth"o$%n.40 84,
Put another way2 the su)*e"ts &or resear"h are "hosen &ro$ those wh%"h are
"on.ruent w%th th%s 'art%"u(ar $etho#o(o.y, To "ons%#er th%s %n "ontrast2 the a''roa"h o&
the hu$an%t%es %s ty'%"a((y to "ons%#er the $ost re(e+ant an# 'ress%n. -uest%ons )e%n.
aske# at that 'art%"u(ar t%$e, An#2 as $ent%one# ear(%er %n th%s 'a'er2 o)*e"t%+e 'o(%t%"a(
s"%en"e resear"h wou(# then )e #es"r%'t%+e %n "hara"ter2 rather than e+a(uat%+e or
nor$at%+e, Th%s s'eaks to the 'o+erty o& su"h a #%s"%'(%ne2 an# the %na)%(%ty o& that
#%s"%'(%ne to $ake a $ean%n.&u( "ontr%)ut%on to the so"%ety wh%"h %t stu#%es,
G)*e"t%+%s$ %.nores the &un#a$enta( nature o& %ts su)*e"t $atter, It a(so r%sks
answer%n. the wron. -uest%ons2 #ue to %ts $etho#%st a''roa"h2 wh%(e )e%n. (%$%te# to
$ere #es"r%'t%on o& 'o(%t%"a( 'heno$ena2 rather than e+a(uat%on, uth :rant 'oses a
"ha((en.%n. )ur#en o& 'roo& to those who wou(# %.nore the #%stra"t%ons o& eth%"a(
-uest%ons0
10 o& 18
INTS401H 220086769
Can we know what %s worth know%n. a)out 'o(%t%"s throu.h s"%ent%&%"
resear"h $etho#s a(one> K Is resear"h %n 'o(%t%"a( theory worth #o%n.2 or "an
'o(%t%"s )e a#e-uate(y un#erstoo# w%thout %t> 3:rant2 20020 =784,
Certa%n(y2 S$%thFs 'ers'e"t%+e o&&ers a #%re"t answer to that -uest%on,
Po(%t%"s %s a)out %#eas, No one w%(( e+er )e a)(e to un#erstan# &un#a$enta(
'o(%t%"a( 'heno$ena (%ke war or re+o(ut%on w%thout &%rst un#erstan#%n. the
%#eas that $ot%+ate the "entra( 'o(%t%"a( a"tors 3S$%th2 20000 1914,
The 'ers'e"t%+e re'resente# )y the o'en%n. -uotat%on %s one that seeks to re$o+e
a(( eth%"a( "on"erns &ro$ the a"a#e$%" stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s, Th%s wou(# (ea+e on(y the
o)*e"t%+e a''roa"h o& the 'o(%t%"a( s"%ent%st %n the a"a#e$%" "onte1t, The %$'(%"at%on o&
th%s &or the -ua(%ty o& the #%s"%'(%ne2 an# the a)%(%ty o& that #%s"%'(%ne to $ean%n.&u((y
un#erstan# %ts su)*e"t2 %s -u%te #%re, Th%s "on"ern %s e"hoe# )y Penno"k0 !A(( o& the
e$'%r%"a( 'ro'os%t%ons o& 'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e that "an )e #%s"o+ere# $ay )e worse than
use(ess %& they are 'ut to the ser+%"e o& the wron. +a(ues! 3Penno"k2 19=10 10884, Not
on(y wou(# our un#erstan#%n. )e (%$%te#2 )ut %s $%.ht )e !worse than use(ess!2 as w%(( )e
#%s"usse# )e(ow,
Mu"h o& th%s $%.ht see$ to )e a "r%t%"%s$ o& 'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e %tse(& 5 %n#ee#2 a
'o(%t%"a( s"%ent%st rea#%n. th%s 'a'er $%.ht )e a)out to su..est the $any -ua(%t%es wh%"h
'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e 'ossesses2 an# the "ontr%)ut%ons %t $%.ht $ake to the work o& 'o(%t%"a(
'h%(oso'hers an# theor%sts, The "r%t%"%s$ )e%n. $a#e2 howe+er2 %s not #%re"te# at
'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e2 )ut rather at those who th%nk only 'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e %s nee#e#, It %s a
"r%t%"%s$ wh%"h %s e"hoe# oy Ahaskar0
we w%(( on(y )e a)(e to un#erstan# 5 an# so "han.e 5 the so"%a( wor(# %& we
%#ent%&y the stru"tures at work that .enerate those e+ents or #%s"ourses, Su"h
stru"tures are %rre#u"%)(e to the 'atterns o& e+ents an# #%s"ourses a(%ke
3Ahaskar2 20110 24,
The a''roa"h that Ahaskar a#+o"ates %s known as L"r%t%"a( rea(%s$F, Cr%t%"a(
rea(%s$ %s )ase# u'on an un#erstan#%n. that so"%ety %s an !e$er.ent ent%ty w%th $ater%a(
an# %#eat%ona( as'e"ts!2 an# that any se'arat%on )etween the e$'%r%"a( an# the theoret%"a(
w%(( (ea# to a #%storte# 'er"e't%on o& )oth 3Pato$ak% 6 /%.ht2 20000 28=? C(arke2 20080
1284, It %s an a''roa"h wh%"h atte$'ts to $o+e 'ast the 'os%t%+%st9'ost'os%t%+%st
#%"hoto$y wh%"h th%s !o)*e"t%+e 'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e! #e)ate o&ten re+o(+es aroun#2 wh%"h
su''orts the ar.u$ent )e%n. $a#e here 5 that the (%$%tat%on o& %n-u%ry to a s'e"%&%"
$etho#o(o.y w%(( resu(t %n the 'o+erty o& that resear"h, Ae&ore the "ase &or e$'%r%"%s$
11 o& 18
INTS401H 220086769
w%th%n 'o(%t%"a( theory %s $a#e2 howe+er2 &%rst (et us "ons%#er the 'o(%t%"a( rea(%ty o& a
'ure(y o)*e"t%+e #%s"%'(%ne,
Political outcomes of "b!ectivity
/o(%n 319694 ha# another "on"ern w%th o)*e"t%+e 'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e2 )eyon# the
%na)%(%ty o& su"h an a''roa"h to "o$'rehen# %ts su)*e"t $atter? he was "on"erne# that2
%n a%$%n. on(y to #es"r%)e2 rather than to "ha((en.e2 !o)*e"t%+%ty! a"tua((y '(aye# a
'o(%t%"a( 'ur'ose %n su''ort%n. the status uo, In the 'ursu%t o& s"%ent%&%" $etho#o(o.y2
the 'o(%t%"a( s"%ent%st on(y e+er #es"r%)es 'o(%t%"a( 'heno$ena2 )e"ause a "r%t%"a(
e+a(uat%on o& "urrent nor$s wou(# e$'(oy the +a(ues o& the resear"her, Th%s $eans that
there "an )e no $ean%n.&u( "r%t%"%s$ o& "urrent 'o(%t%"a( or.an%sat%on e$anat%n. &ro$
those en.a.e# %n the a"a#e$%" stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s 3#e Sha(%t2 20090 894, Certa%n(y2 there
$ay )e so$e "r%t%"%s$ &ro$ *ourna(%sts an# other 'o(%t%"a( a"tors, Aut2 w%th the +o%"es o&
the $ost e#u"ate# o& our 'o(%t%"a( th%nkers &a((%n. s%(ent %n e+a(uat%on o& 'o(%t%"a(
'ro"esses2 sure(y the "onstant 'ush &or 'ro.ress %n so"%ety w%(( s(ow, The "on"ern that
the "ontr%)ut%on o& a"a#e$%a to the 'o(%t%"a( s'here w%(( 5 an# %s 5 (essene# )y the -uest
&or o)*e"t%+%ty %s $%rrore# we(( )y Stretton0
So"%a( e+%(s "an sur+%+e w%thout e1"uses2 whether )y a'athy2 honest $%stake
or se(&%sh %ntent,,, S"%ent%st%" se(e"t%on a+o%#s the ra#%"a( %$a.%nat%on or
#%s"o+ery o& 'oor $en!s "han"es &or so"%a( "ho%"e or "han.e or
"onser+at%on,,, Aut others! +a(ues shou(# e-u%' the$ to see %n the
$etho#o(o.%"a( #%s'utes a)out s"%ent%s$ a rea( so"%a( "on&(%"t0 a "o$'et%t%on
&or the ta(ent2 "ons"%en"e2 *u#.e$ent an# re"ru%t$ent o& s"%ent%sts an#
stu#ents2 the a#+%sers an# the ne1t %nher%tors o& 'ower 3Stretton2 19690 4814,
Not on(y #oes a s"%ent%&%" a''roa"h to the a"a#e$%" stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s $ean that that
se"t%on o& so"%ety &a((s s%(ent %n the 'o(%t%"a( #%s"ourse2 )ut %t a(so $eans that ra#%"a(
a(ternat%+es are (ess (%ke(y to )e %$a.%ne#, G)*e"t%+%ty has %na#+ertent(y su''orte#
"ont%nuat%on o& the status uo, Thus the 'ro+%#e# -uotat%on is itself a political statement,
@eynes o&&ere# %n The #eneral Theory of Employment, $nterest and %oney that !%t %s
%#eas2 not +este# %nterests2 wh%"h are #an.erous &or .oo# or e+%(! 3@eynes2 1978 ;1986<0
8844, Not on(y are %#eas2 or +a(ues2 %nte.ra( %n our un#erstan#%n. o& 'o(%t%"s? to %.nore
the$ %n our a"a#e$%" stu#%es %s to .rant the$ e+en $ore 'ower %n the 'u)(%" #%s"ourse,
12 o& 18
INTS401H 220086769
The case for empiricism
There %s no #ou)t that2 o+er the "ourse o& the twent%eth "entury2 there ha+e )een
hu.e a#+an"es %n not on(y the a+a%(a)%(%ty o& "o$'rehens%+e #ata sets o& use to the
'o(%t%"a( s"%ent%st 3@%n.2 201442 )ut a(so %n the stat%st%"a( too(s we ha+e to ana(yse that
#ata, Those a#+an"es ha+e e+en )een "%te# %n #e&en"e o& the !s"%ent%&%"! a''roa"h o& the
so"%a( s"%en"es, It %s %$'ortant to note2 howe+er2 that ar.u%n. a.a%nst the e1"(us%on o& the
eth%"a( w%th%n the a"a#e$%" stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s #oes not then e1"(u#e the e$'%r%"a(, The
"ase )e%n. $a#e here %s not that e$'%r%"a( a''roa"hes )e a)an#one# "o$'(ete(y? rather
%t %s that $etho#o(o.y shou(# not )e a((owe# to #%re"t the s"o'e an# #%re"t%on o&
resear"h, The '(a"es &or e$'%r%"%s$ %n "r%t%"a( an# nor$at%+e ana(ys%s %s 5 an# a(ways
has )een 5 "(ear0
Certa%n(y2 'o(%t%"a( theory has ne+er #%+or"e# %tse(& &ro$ know(e#.e o&
e$'%r%"a( rea(%ty an# ar.u$entat%on on the )as%s o& h%stor%"a( e+%#en"e,
Ar%stot(e!s #%s"uss%on o& re.%$e ty'es %n the Politics shou(# su&&%"e as ty'%"a(
%((ustrat%on 3:rant2 20020 =804,
The %$'ortan"e o& e$'%r%"%s$ )e%n. use# %n "on*un"t%on w%th nor$at%+e ana(ys%s %n
so"%a( resear"h %s $a#e )y Tho$as P%ketty2 the new(y9&a$ous e"ono$%st2 %n &apital in
the Twenty'(irst &entury0
/%thout 're"%se(y #e&%ne# sour"es2 $etho#s2 an# "on"e'ts2 %t %s 'oss%)(e to
see e+eryth%n. an# %ts o''os%te,,, :%+en th%s #%a(o.ue o& the #ea&,,,, there %s a
ro(e &or resear"h that %s at (east syste$at%" an# $etho#%"a( %& not &u((y
s"%ent%&%",,, ;So"%a( s"%en"e< "an he(' to re#e&%ne the ter$s o& the #e)ate2
un$ask "erta%n 're"on"e%+e# or &rau#u(ent not%ons2 an# su)*e"t a(( 'os%t%ons
to "onstant "r%t%"a( s"rut%ny 3P%ketty2 20142 on(%ne4,
There %s a +ery stron. "ase &or the ro(e o& e$'%r%"a( $etho#s %n the a"a#e$%" stu#y
o& 'o(%t%"s2 as P%ketty %((ustrates, In#ee# $any o& the "on"erns P%ketty %((ustrates here are
the true "on"erns o& the 'o(%t%"a( s"%ent%st, Eust as there are s%.n%&%"ant #an.ers %n
ut%(%s%n. on(y s"%ent%&%" $etho#o(o.%es2 there are #an.ers %n e1"(us%+e(y ut%(%s%n. the
$etho#o(o.%es o& the hu$an%t%es, Th%s %s not an ar.u$ent a.a%nst 'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e2 )ut
an ar.u$ent a.a%nst the e1"(us%+e use o& *ust one $etho#o(o.y, The rea( %ssue %s how the
two $ay )e synthes%se#,
G&ten at the "on"(us%on o& an essay su"h as th%s2 there w%(( )e a '(at%tu#%nous
18 o& 18
INTS401H 220086769
"a(( &or "oo'erat%on )etween the two s"hoo(s0 a "ru#e2 two9#%$ens%ona( synthes%s, As #e
Sha(%t note# a)o+e2 atte$'ts to st%$u(ate #%s"uss%on )etween the two ha+e resu(te# %n
on(y !$ar.%na(! "oo'erat%on, The rea(%ty %s that the 'ers'e"t%+e that !+a(ues ha+e
a)so(ute(y no '(a"e %n a"a#e$%a! %s a &r%n.e +%ew2 an# that the eth%"a( a(rea#y s%ts )es%#e
the s"%ent%&%", The %ssue %s2 rather2 wh%"h (ens %s a''(%e# in the first instance, In the
Hn%te# States2 the (ea#%n. .rou' &or 'o(%t%"sF a"a#e$%"s %s the A$er%"an Po(%t%"a(
S"%en"e Asso"%at%on, The (ea#%n. *ourna( %s the American Political Science Review. Ay
so$e rank%n.s o& 'o(%t%"a( *ourna(s2 the &%rst *ourna( wh%"h #oesn!t &o"us on 'o(%t%"a(
s"%en"e2 the )ournal of Theoretical Politics2 %s ranke# n%neteenth a$on. %ts 'eers,
Po(%t%"a( Ph%(oso'hy an# Po(%t%"a( Theory e1%st as #%st%n"t #%s"%'(%nes2 )ut they are a
$%nor%ty2 as "o$'are# w%th Po(%t%"a( S"%en"e,
The synthes%s o& eth%"a( an# e$'%r%"a( a''roa"hes wh%"h th%s 'a'er wou(# su..est
%s a re9or#er%n. o& 'r%or%t%es, Po(%t%"a( Theory 5 w%th eth%"a( -uest%ons a)out the nature o&
the .oo# (%&e 5 $ust )e the $aster #%s"%'(%ne, The r%.orous too(s o& the 'o(%t%"a( s"%ent%st
shou(# )e "a((e# u'on when they are re(e+ant2 wh%(e other -uest%ons $%.ht re-u%re the
ana(ys%s o& an e"ono$%st2 'sy"ho(o.%st2 or (awyer, As $ent%one# a)o+e2 a use&u( (ens to
throu.h wh%"h to "ons%#er the %nte.rat%on o& e$'%r%"a( an# eth%"a( a''roa"hes %s "r%t%"a(
rea(%s$0
Cr%t%"a( rea(%s$,,, re"onne"ts the wor(# o& eth%"a( #e(%)erat%on w%th the wor(#
o& rea( "ausa( 'ro"esses an# h%.h(%.hts the $anner %n wh%"h we a"t %n th%s
wor(# as a resu(t o& the know(e#.e we 'ossess o& that wh%"h we +a(ue an# that
wh%"h we "an #o 3Pato$ak% 6 /%.ht2 20000 28=4,
H(t%$ate(y2 the -uest%on at han# shou(# #%"tate the $etho#o(o.y to )e ut%(%se#2 an#
not the other way roun#,
The reso(ut%on o& "entur%es o& #e)ate aroun# the a''ro'r%ate way to stu#y 'o(%t%"s
%n the a"a#e$%" s'here %s so$ewhat outs%#e o& the s"o'e o& th%s 'a'er, An# wh%(e "r%t%"a(
rea(%s$ o&&ers so$e 'ro$%se towar# that en#2 that 'oss%)%(%ty $ust )e e1'(ore# %n %ts
own &oru$, Gur task was to "ons%#er the 'ro+%#e# -uotat%on? to "ons%#er the 'ers'e"t%+e
%t %$'(%es2 what %s e1"(u#e# %n the a#o't%on o& su"h a stan"e2 an# what that $%.ht $ean
&or our #%s"%'(%ne as a who(e, Gn a )roa#er (e+e(2 the 'ur'ose was s%$'(y to .a%n a $ore
nuan"e# un#erstan#%n. o& the #e)ates that ha+e sha'e# our #%s"%'(%ne 5 #e)ates wh%"h
are on.o%n., The +%ew re'resente# )y the %n%t%a( -uotat%on %s not a hy'othet%"a( one,
14 o& 18
INTS401H 220086769
Aeha+%our%sts2 (o.%"a( 'os%t%+%sts2 an# those who str%+e &or e+er $ore !s"%ent%&%"! $etho#s
ha+e a(ways seen eth%"a( "ons%#erat%ons as #%stra"t%ons, To "ons%#er a.a%n uth :rant!s
"ha((en.e0
Can we know what %s worth know%n. a)out 'o(%t%"s throu.h s"%ent%&%"
resear"h $etho#s a(one> K Is resear"h %n 'o(%t%"a( theory worth #o%n.2 or "an
'o(%t%"s )e a#e-uate(y un#erstoo# w%thout %t> 3:rant2 20020 =784,
The answer $ust )e a resoun#%n. !no!,
Conclusion
The task here has )een to "ons%#er the e1"(us%ons an# %$'(%"at%ons o& a#o't%n. the
'os%t%on that
;t<he a"a#e$%" stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s shou(# )e o)*e"t%+e, The 'o(%t%"a( s"%ent%st
shou(# not )e #%stra"te# )y eth%"a( -uest%ons a)out the nature o& the .oo# (%&e,
The "ore %ssue w%th th%s stan"e %s the %$'(%e# e1"(us%on o& a(( eth%"a( 5 "r%t%"a( an#
nor$at%+e 5 "ons%#erat%ons2 (ea+%n. the a"a#e$%" stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s the e1"(us%+e #o$a%n
o& the o)*e"t%+e 'o(%t%"a( s"%ent%st, A&ter a "(ar%&%"at%on o& ter$s2 the short"o$%n.s o& the
!o)*e"t%+e! a''roa"h were then "ons%#ere#,
Not on(y #oes %.nor%n. +a(ues an# nor$s "reate the worry%n. s"enar%o %n wh%"h
'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e "annot e1'(a%n the a"t%ons o& 'o(%t%"a( a"tors2 )ut2 %n &a%(%n. to "r%t%"%se
the$ %n "o$'ar%son to so$e k%n# o& %#ea(2 the resu(t %s a de facto su''ort &or the status
uo, A(thou.h %n+est%.at%n. the 'oss%)%(%ty o& "ausat%on )etween the ortho#o1y )e%n. a
!+a(ue9&ree! a''roa"h to the stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s an# "onte$'orary #%s%((us%on$ent w%th the
'o(%t%"a( 'ro"ess %s outs%#e the s"o'e o& th%s #%s"uss%on2 se+era( "o$$entators ha+e
note# a "orre(at%on )etween the two 3He(# 6 7e&tw%"h2 1984? Hay2 2007? #e Sha(%t2
20094,
The ar.u$ent $a#e )y Stretton 319694 an# :rant 320024 %s re'eate# here,
E$)ra"%n. the eth%"a( %n our a"a#e$%" stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s #oes not %$'(y that e$'%r%"a(
$etho#s $ust )e a)an#one#, I& there %s so$eth%n. wh%"h "an )e o)*e"t%+e(y2 e$'%r%"a((y2
or stat%st%"a((y ana(yse#2 then ut%(%se those too(sM Aut to ar.ue &or a #%s"%'(%ne wh%"h
a)an#ons those eth%"a( !#%stra"t%ons! wou(# )e a 'art%"u(ar(y use(ess 'ursu%t, Su"h a
#%s"%'(%ne wou(# )e "o$'(ete(y %n"a'a)(e o& "ontr%)ut%n. to the )roa#er 'o(%t%"a(
1= o& 18
INTS401H 220086769
#%s"ourse anyth%n. other than e+er9$ore9so'h%st%"ate# 'o((%n. stat%st%"s, I& the a"a#e$%"
stu#y o& 'o(%t%"s atte$'ts on(y to answer -uest%ons wh%"h are answera)(e )y a s'e"%&%"
$etho#o(o.y2 then %t r%sks )e"o$%n. a #%s"%'(%ne "o$'r%se# o& !%#%ot sa+ants!2 whose
te"hn%"a( e1'ert%se has (%tt(e re(e+an"e to the rea( wor(#, Th%s wou(# )e #%s"%'(%ne wh%"h
"ou(# #o (%tt(e to #%s'e( "onte$'orary 'o(%t%"a( #%sen"hant$ent,
eference !ist
A((%son2 7, 20092 !'o(%t%"a( s"%en"e!2 %n I, M"7ean an# A, M"M%((an 3e#s42 The &oncise
16 o& 18
INTS401H 220086769
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18 o& 18