Sam Wit 2013

1
SAMWIT JOURNAL Vol. 1, No.1 Oct. 2013

A Publication of
DAV Sushil Kedia Vishwa Bharati
Jawalakhel, Lalitpur, Nepal
Tel : 5536626, Fax : 5546440
E-mail : [email protected], Website : www.davnepal.com
Religion Sets us not apart
it teaches peace and purity of heart.
- Gurujis address in United Nations
- DAVSKVB Family
We are deeply saddened
by the sudden demise of
Vishwa Vipassana Acharya
Shree Satya Narayan Goenka.
He passed away peacefully at the age of 90
at his residence on Sunday,
29th September 2013 at 10:40pm
Words of Recognition
Late Sushil Kedia
(7.10.66-26.10.85)
For your thirst to explore the society,
For your capability to solve the problems,
For your eagerness to understand the root cause,
For your divine presence in the school campus and
For guiding us to the noble path of success,
We, DAVians dedicate this issue of SAMWIT JOURNAL
To you on the Auspicious Occasion of your 47th
Birth Anniversary
Principals Message
DAV School family is proud to announce the publication of the
third volume of the SAMWIT in the new form of research journal. T is
journal provides a glimpse into a few of the many research activities
heeded by the talented faculty at D.A.V. Sushil Kedia Vishwa Bharati
Higher Secondary School.
T is journal is a compilation of outstanding papers from numerous
faculty members who believe that academic research has a direct and
positive impact on the students-teachers learning environment.
SAMWIT as the name suggests its a tree with diverse branches of
knowledge. SAMWIT hosts a huge opportunity for the faculty members
to publish their research articles for the good of the entire teaching
community.
I would like to thank all the contributing teachers for providing
such a rich variety of outstanding research articles on a board range of
exciting topics. And I also believe that SAMWIT- an academic journal will
also encourage the faculty members who have not yet emerge themselves
in research and writing.
Wishing all the readers a happy time with SAMWIT, I stay back to
listen from each one of you, your valuable comments and suggestions, so
that in coming future we can ref ne the editions of SAMWIT.
- Mrs. Bhubaneswari Rao
Message
Patron
Mr. Anil Kedia, Chairperson
Advisor
Mrs. Bhubaneswari Rao, Principal
Mr. Ramchandra Khanal, Vice-Principal
Editor in Chief
Mr. Janardan Ghimire
CAO
Editors
Mr. Amit Koirala
Mr. Bigyan Subedi
Copy Editor
Mr. Umesh Saud
Contributing Editor
Ms. Sangita Subedi
Web developer& Designer
Mr. Prabesh Acharya
All rights reserved. No part of this Journal may be reproduced in any form
or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher,
except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in a review.
Publisher & Distributor : DAV Media Center
Price: 50/-
ISSN: PRINT 2350-8698
ONLINE 2350-8701
E-mail Address : [email protected]
For article submission and other information
DAVSKVB Media Center
DAV Sushil KediaVishwa Bharati
Jawalakhel, Lalitpur, Nepal
One learns how to write when he writes
Generally, we have seen the journals published by the Universities and esteemed academic
institutions. Because, writing the article in journal requires the intensive research, thorough
investigation, analytical capacity of the resources, sound and infuencive knowledge of the subject,
highly sensitive nose to fnd out the research area and so on. Is it possible from the school teachers? It
is a big question to answer.
We, the DAVSKVB teachers were publishing SAMWIT in the form of magazine before. Tis
is the frst attempt to publish it in the form of journal. For this, we had issued a one month prior
notice to the teachers to submit their research articles. Some of them argued that the time provided
to submit the article is very less as it takes minimum three months to complete a research paper.
We started it and the fow of article that we receive is really praiseworthy. Some of the articles
may not follow the hard and fast rules of research methodology, but the learners will consider them
as the frst attempt in this issue.
It we talk of our own institution, DAVSKVB has contributed a lot for the enhancement of
knowledge-economy in the country. Te diverse nature of the institution really motivates anyone who
enters inside the campus. So, we thought to mobilize whole the team of teachers community for the
beneft of our educational society.
Firstly, the editorial board pays its high respect to Mrs. Bhubaneswari Rao for taking initiation
for the separate publication for teachers community. We feel grateful to Mr. Anil Kedia, Chairperson
for showing extreme positiveness for any new attempt for the beneft of the institution. Mr. Kedia
even has provided his noble ideas for this Journal.
Te success of any academic institution is proved when it starts to contribute not only by
imparting the knowledge but by leading the societies into the feld of research and creation.
Lets hope that the teachers' community of DAVSKVB will fulfll this vacuum in the educational
feld by their innovative practices in the diverse felds they belong to.
Editorial
1. Impact of the extension and expansion ..... 1
Anil Kedia
2. Metalanguage of P ini, encoding Sanskrit 3
Janardan Ghimire
3. Street Children: A Global Phenomenon 5
Vijaya Tater
4. Literature review on earthquake prediction 7
Madhav Upadhayaya
5. A scenario of climate change literature ......... 8
Bijaya Kumar Pokhrel
6. Gaps in Nepals school Sector ......... 12
Amit Koirala
7. Socio economic status of blind people 16
Sapana Shrivastav
8. The social Benets of Education 21
Tritharaj Khatiwada & Amit
9. Socio political and cultural realities.......... 25
Dil Prasad Prajapati
10. Proxy war between media and politicians 29
Bigyan Subedi
11. =|=| v||| r xizir=|| :-
r|= =|=
12. =|ri=+ ar=| |i|= imv||+| =|iarr :x
=|r|| iaz|
13. |a=r=ar i=|rr =ia+ |=|== :v
r|ir||r| iai=i-==|
14. ir| v||| +| =|+ia| x
iz-=|r|= m=|
15. =| zx= aa i=r|=|+= xx
=|a| =|
Table of Content
1 SAMWIT JOURNAL Vol. 1, No.1 Oct. 2013
Situation:
Scholars had started to discuss over the issue raised by
globalization which has been made possible by the expansion
of road and technology from the decade of 1980s. In 1999, an
international panel of experts met in the Hague to hold public
hearing on cases of signicant threat to linguistic human
rights where 90 percent of oral languages in Asia, Africa
and the America will disappear in the next century. In the
same context, scholar discussed that linguistic diversity is as
essential to human future as biological diversity (Milinkovic,
1999).
Looking from the theory of Charles Darwin's
'Survival of The Fittest', it has been predicted that how minority
language will be in shadow in the competitive world. Major,
2012, states that, good ideas and innovation travel easily and
far. Historically, these ideas spread along trade routes. The
great Eurasian silk-road established as a transmitter of people,
goods, ideas, belief and inventions.
In the 1920s and 1930s new highway began to affect
peoples' lives in America. Some Americans used highways to
migrate; others earned a living on the road or by its side running
business and many took highway as a pleasure. Travelers often
saw the highway as a symbol of independence and freedom,
(The peoples move, n.d.)It shows the tendency of migration
in well facilitated area within the touch of roads and highways
is high. In an area where different origin people settle have
a heterogeneous cultural effect whereas the place occupied
by particular tribe or ethnic community have homogenous
cultural effect. The competition of cultural existence between
different culture in heterogeneous societies leads over the
victory of global culture or the culture followed by majority
while inter cultural competition within homogenous societies
is impossible.
With the expansion and extension of road, roadside
cultural heritage have been destroyed which has ultimately
effected on their life style can be found BEIZE City Belize.
A construction company destroyed one of the Belize's largest
Mayan Pyramids with backhoes and bulldozer to extract
Impact of the Extension and Expansion of the Road on
Local Culture
Mr. Anil kedia
1
Abstract:
Road as the basic infrastructure of development has been supposed to be magnier of growth and development. It has
been accepted even in the international arena. There is debate between so called developed societies and developing societies
that developed societies advocate over the western model of development will take developing societies to the level of developed
society. In contrast to the idea of developed society, developing societies advocate that western development will impose
their culture, beliefs and values with the launch of development project which will deteriorate their ancient culture. Recently,
Government of Nepal is extending the roads of capital city Kathmandu which is also the cultural capital of the country. Within
this scenario it is necessary to study the impact of roads on local culture comparing to the other countries.
crushed rock for a road-building project under authorities
direction after 2,300 years of its construction (msn news,
2013).
In Nepal, Sonami Lamas of Gorkha watch
development of roads in a peculiar way where they opine,
when greed drives roads, it can destroy the economy, culture
and environment of fragile and remote valleys like Tsum
(ancient cultural center of Gorkha) . The Lamas of Gorkha
follow Buddhism as the guiding principle. With the extension
of roads that surpasses the infrastructure and technological
advancement including believes, values and culture have either
oated national or global culture in the area where there was
deep ethnic culture previously in different rural parts of Nepal.
The dominant paradigm of development which opines to be
developed is to be like a west in all level has been observed
from the peoples' comparative change in languages, dresses,
thinking, festivals etc. in Nepal.
In a theme, Bigger roads not a boon, former Mayor of
Bogota Enrique Penalosa writes, trying to solve trafc jams
by building bigger roads is like trying to put out a re with
gasoline' As Penalosa said, building bigger roads would further
aggravate the problem as it would attract more people to use
private vehicles, discourage walking, cycling and using public
transport. He further opines that such projects deteriorate the
livability of a city with increasing congestion, pollution and
road fatalities (Khanal, 2013).
People dwelling in a small road area are mostly
guided by the same thinking besides some exceptional cases.
In a BBC report, when the journalist asked over the name
of the state head of Nepal including the current affairs on
political culture, the representative people of Karnali were not
interested at all but they demanded basic requirement of living
a life but in a community drama of BBC Public Trust, katha
mitho sarangiko, about their local culture they were informing
well to the BBC journalist and are conserving best (BBC
Nepali Service, n.d.). There is less inuence of global culture
as the area is relatively low in roadways compared to other city
areas.
1. Corresponding author, chairperson, DAVSKVB
There have been different perceptions regarding
of the inter relationship between road and culture. Online
Portal, Travel China Guide states that the ancient Silk-road
contributed greatly to the cultural exchange between China
and the west as the cultural bridge in between 2
nd
century
to 15
th
Century. In the Kathmandu, Nepal, local culture and
festivals are celebrated much in the congested road community
e.g. Asan, Mangalbazar, Lagankhel, Panga, Baghbhairav and
Thimi compared to the large road areas such as Baneshwor,
Kalanki, Durbarmarg and Kotheshwor. In the large road areas,
Christmas day and New Years Eve celebration of English
Calendar which are accepted as a global culture are celebrated.
It can be found in Durbarmarg of Kathmandu as well.
Cultural values and belief are established as the
valuable asset of a country. Roads and highways have two way
effect; i.e. advantages and disadvantages in culture. The central
issue remains how a country can establish the local culture as
the economic pillar rst, if

not how a country makes all round
development accepting a global culture. The next term glocal
(global + local) culture would serve in a better ways which
is a hybrid concept giving equal positions to local and global
culture.
Hybrid Culture:
The term Glocalization rst appeared in the late 1980s
in an article by Japanese Economists in the Harvard Business
Review. According to the sociologist Ronald Robertson, who
is credited with popularizing the term, glocalization describes
a new outcome of local conditions towards global pressure.
Within the scenario of restaurant culture it can be pointed out,
the increasing presence of McDonald's restaurants worldwide
is an example of globalization. Whereas, the restaurant chains
menu change is an attempt to appeal to local plates is an
example of glocalization. For more examples, McDonald's
tried to satisfy the tastes of Korean consumer by making
Korean- Style of hamburger such as Bulgogi burger and
Kinchi burger. Starbucks is also trying out locally designed
franchise in stores (Wikipedia, 2013). These gures show
how local and global culture can be mixed together in forming
a new culture. In the same way in India, entertainment TV
channels are giving eastern content in western format and
are becoming popular recognizing the identity of the country
as well which is a good example of the implementation of
establishing local culture globally. Mass media which is the
cultural industry itself are implementing the glocal concept
in delivering in the same way in Nepal and other countries
rst for the identity and second for the competition. Within
same context, in Jatras celebration, the citizens of Kathmandu
valley have started to wear western dresses leaving their local
Newari dresses now a day which is also hybrid culture as they
are accepting both local festival and western fashion.
Conclusion:
Cultural changes take place with the passage of time,
simultaneously different genres of cultures also emerge which
has been observed in the different epochs in the history as well.
With the expansion of roads, local culture which is celebrated
in certain community cannot exist in the large highways and
exposes bigger identity as in congested small road areas.
Likewise, where there are bigger road, public walking will
be less and will also weaken audience support. Hence, the
community will lead to global individual culture of western
world where community gatherings in a social festival will
be very less. Nepal is recently expanding and extending the
roads and before this global, local and glocal cultures have
been already tested. Other consequences will be seen with the
passage of time. Whatever the cultural shift may take place,
let's hope the consequences will benet Nepali Citizen and
Nepal in the long run.
References:
Milinkovic, B. (1999). Language Die of Globalization and
Intolerance. Junio.
Major, J. (2012). Spreading ideas and innovation. Asia
society. Retrieved from http://asiasociety.org/
countries/trade-exchange/silk-road-spreading-ideas-
and-innovations
The peoples' move.(n.d.). America on the Move. Online
Portal
MSN news (2013). Workers bulldoze Mayan pyramid, use
rock to build road. Retrieved from
htp://news.msn.com/world/workers-
bulldoze-mayan- pyramid-use-rock-to-build
-road?stay=1
Khanal, P. (2013). Bigger road not a boon. Retrieved from
http://www.ekantipur.com/2013/08/06/development/
bigger-roads-not-a-boon/375954/
BBC Nepali service. (n.d.). Katha Mitho Sarangiko: BBC
Public Trust. Radio Programme.
Wikipedia. (2013). Globalization. Retrieved from: htp://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalizaton
Paninis Metalanguage
Any native or general speaker of Sanskrit does not
understand Paninian language until and unless the learner
internalizes his pattern. The concept that Panini applies in his
Stras are highly idiosyncratic. For example
=--=+-===- +z- --
- = +=-=+ =
=++-=+=+=-
~-=z
These Stras formulated as a fully close axiomatic
System. By observing these, no one can deny the fact that
Panini did not work in an intellectual Vaccum (Seghdha,
2004, P.6) in his vision metalangauge can be taken as logical
language and the object-langauge can be expressed as natural
language.
At the time of explaining -- =+ -==- stall also
accepts Pninis concept of Metalanguage and the Object-
language (Staal, 1965 P. 165)
Specially Pnini made one of his stras -- =+
-==- (1.1.68) which discusses about the metalinguistic
approach. The meaning of this sutra as described by Joshi and
Roodbergen, 1991, is as follow:
When a metalinguistic item is metioned in a rule for
purposes of grammatical operation, then) the
own (Phonetic) form of the meta-linguistic item (is to be
understood), with the exception technical name for the
metalinguistic item (P.121).
Technical Terminologies of P ini
* Pnini develops the concept of Pratyhra through the Stra
==- =--(1.1.71) to facilitate optimally concise phonemic
generalisations.
*Panini uses different meta-linguistic Symbols =-+ to make
his Grammar systematized and technical.
* All the roots are Governed by the special vocabulary code of
=+, specially invented term.
By looking these all Peterson (2003: 119-20) has given set-
theoretic demonstration of Cturdasastra. His comparative
P inian Approach of Metalanguage and Encoding
Sanskrit
Janardan Ghimire
1
Abstract
Metalanguage and object-Language are the concepts coined at rst in Mahbhsya of Pata jali as =--+ and ==-+
Even though these two words were taken as opposite sense to each other. In the primitive stage of western world but how Pnini
constructed both the approach in compartmental and supportive way is the main focus of this article.
Studying the critical interpretation on Panini by Joshi and Roddbergen (1991), Diarmuid Saghdha in his book
object- language and Metalanguage in Sanskrit Grammatical Texts (2004) compares Astdyy as the black box or with
computer programme (Saghdna, 2004, P.1)
Structural techniques described in rautaSutras like anuvrtti, paribhasa and adhikra are similar but Panini applies these
rigorously rather than any other previous authors.
expression is A= and a total order < on A(Peterson,
2003).
According to Kapoor, 2005, linguists Categorized Paninis
metalanguage with two aspects
The metalinguistic use of ordinary language
The technical terminology invented specially to the
astra.
Guna, Vrddhi, Dhatu, Pratyaya etc are the words
which are commonly used in ordinary Sanskrit language
but Panini made metalingustic use of them. Where Guna
(Astdhyy 1.1.2) means =, |, = and Vrddhi means =, |,
= There are the examples of metalinguistic use of ordinary
language. In General Sanskrit use Nad means river but what
it is explained in Astdhyy about Nad (Astdhyy 1.4.3) is
the feminine or ending words.
Similarly ti, (1.1.64) ghu, (1.1.20) bha (1.4.98) thak,
(4.4.1) cha, (4.2.114) etc. are the technical Terminologies that
Pnini had invented in his sastra.
Metalanguage and object- Language
Alfred Tarski introduced the terminology of
metalanguage for the rst time in 1993. His article The
concept of truth in the language of the deductive Sciences was
rst published in Polish language. After that German expanded
version published in 1935 from which the English translation
appeared in 1956.
Tarskian approach did not cover much about the
metalanguage practice of Pnini. The opposite word of Meta-
Lantuage is object- language and the rst user of this concept
is Katyyan. =v=v|| |+r|=(Mahabhysyam Pa pa hnik-
14) is the Vrtik where this concept is put forward. After
Ktyyan, Pata jali was also very clear about metalanguage
so he interpretes in his Mahabhasya - = =+ - =+- which
means that grammar contains items that are not used in the
world. But Scharfe opines that Pnini treats the metalanguage
and object- language as separate languages (Scharfe, 1971,
P.4). In his vision metalangauge can be taken as logical
language and the object- language can be expressed as natural
language.
1. Corresponding author, CAO, DAVSKVB
Construction of Metagrammar
According to Tripathi, 1991, P.5, construction of
metagrammar are as follows
Pninis Metagrammar consists of seven types of ophorisms.
They are denitions -=-=+Metarules+~=+ headings
=++=+ Operational rules -+=+ restrictions-===+
extension rules =-=+ and negation rules -+=+
Denitions=-=+are divided into three divisions
=- -:, =-, ===, =--=+, +=-=, =, , ~, =:, +, ~, etc.
- ==- -~, =+, =+, +=-,+-, +-, =+-, ==+-, =++- etc.
+==- =a, =-a, ---, ---, , =- -, , =-=-, =++etc.
But Candragomin is the rst grammarian who attempted to
introduce a text on grammar excluding the technical terms
in order to avoid ambiguity (Namboodiri.2004 P.88)
Metarules+~ of Pnini can be divided into three
divisions i)-=+-ii)-++=:- iii) ===:-
Operational rules -+=+ can be divided into ve divisions
i)+==ii)===iii)= IV)-+= & V)=+
Negation rules of Pnini can be divided into two divisions-
i)+==ii)+==
Heading =++=+ is made by Pnini of three kinds.
==+---- Generally by proceeding ahead in subsequent
rules like the stream of a river.
- =-:+=--- Sometimes by Jumping like a frog omitting a
rule or more.
=--=+--- rarely by proceeding backwards with a lions
glance
Restrictions -===+is divided by Pnini into three division
i)+-ii)=+-iii)=~=+
Digitalizing Sanskrit
The systematic and organized structure of Pnini in
his grammar is highly scientic. Now, the scholors of Sanskrit
are trying to implement it in computer.
For the same, the book Linguistic Issues in Encoding
Sanskrit written by Peter M. Scharf and Malcolm D. Hymn
deals specially on existing encoding system for Sanskrit and
sound-based as well as script- based encodings.
The last few years have witnessed a burgeoning of
digital images of Sanskrit manuscripts and books hosted on-
line. For example, the University of Pennsylvania Library,
which houses the largest collection of Sanskrit manuscripts
in the western hemisphere, has made digital images of two
hundred ninety-seven of them available on the web. The
Universal Digital Library, and Google books have made
digital images of large numbers of Sanskrit texts accessible as
part of their enormous Library digitization projects. Digitized
Sanskrit documents include machine-readable text and images
of Lexical resources such as those of Cologne Digital Sanskrit
Lexicon project (CDSC), and the University of Chicagos
Digital Dictionaries of South Asia Project ([DDSA], Scharf
and Hymn, 2012)
Likewise Peter M. Scharf in another article on Is
Pnini Grammar mechanistic ? opines The author of the
present paper is working to develop such a computational
model, as are other colleagues in the Sanskrit Computational
Linguistic Constorium (Scharf, 2009, P. 350).
Conclusion
Pninian Grammar of Sanskrit is famous for its micro
to macro level management of Sanskrit words. His technical
terminologies for the purpose of his grammar are typical
and wonderful for western readers. It is so mechanic that the
scholars of western world have started to think of using it in
the super computer. Lets hope the encoding of Sanskrit will be
successful one day and the efforts put in by Pnini in this eld
will be rewarded.
References
S anskrit Text
-== =-~==, --= == ++-
-= -=+-=:-+=, = -+ (Eds.) -= +== +=+
=
Other Text
Joshi S.D, & Roodbergen , J.A.F. (1993). The Astdhyy of
Panini with translation and explanatory Notes, Vol. II
(1.2.1-1.2.73). New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi.
Kapoor, K. (2005). Dimensions of Pnini Grammar, New
Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd
Namboodiri, P. N. (2004). Pnini to Pata jali. In Ray, B.L.
(Eds), New Delhi: Parimal
Publication, P.80- 94.
Saghdha, D.(2004). Object-language and Meta Language in
Sankrit Grammatical Texts;
Retrieved from www.CL.cam.ac.uk/do242/papers/
metaprogress.pdf
Stall, F. (1995). The Sanskrit of Science. Journal of India
Philosophy 23(1) 73-127
Scharfe, H. (1971). Pninis metalangauge. Memories of the
American Philosophical Society No.89. Philadelphia:
American Philoshopical society .
Scharf, P.M. and Hyman M.D. (2012). Linguistic issues in
Encoding Sanskrit. Delhi; Motilal
Banarasidas
Scharf, P.M. (2009). Studies in Sanskrit Grammar. Cardona
G. Aklujkar A, Ogawa H (Eds). IS Pninian Grammar
Mechanistic? P. 319-350
Tripathi, K.P. (1991). Arrangements of rules
inpninisastdhyy. Delhi: Parimal Publication
Denition:
Street children are the children who due to an array of
socio-economic reasons nd themselves living on the streets of
a town or city. Street children are found in many countries. In
spite of numerous efforts for their development by national and
international organizations, they are signicantly marginalized
everywhere. In many areas they are even victimized by local
police and municipalities, particularly when the city has to
host some international conference or sports event. Authorities
care more for prestige and image than the welfare of the street
children (UNICEF, 2011).
Causes:
It has been found that the causes of this phenomenon
are varied, but are often related to domestic, economic or
social disruption; including poverty, breakdown of families,
domestic violence, political unrest, acculturation, or simply
being lured away by pimps. Children end up on the streets due
to cultural factors also. For example in parts of Congo and
Uganda, some children are made to leave their family because
they are suspected to be witches who would bring bad luck
upon their family. In Afghanistan, young girls who refuse an
arranged marriage or have performed some "honor crime" are
forced to leave their homes (UNICEF, 2011).
Some street children live on the streets during the
day time, often begging or working, and return home at night.
There are others who are completely detached from their
original home and live on the streets full-time (Dowson, 2003).
Distribution worldwide:
Street children can be found in a large majority of the
world's cities, with the phenomenon more prevalent in densely
populated urban areas of developing or economically unstable
regions, such as countries in Africa, Eastern Europe and South
East Asia (UNICEF, 2012).
Street Children: A Global Phenomenon
- Vijaya Tater
1
Abstract:
Much as we see many children in miserable condition around us, the problem is not only in Nepal. It is a global
phenomenon. The plight of street children has been found to be documented as far back as in 1848 AD. Mostly they live on
the streets of urban areas of big cities in very miserable condition. Often they are physically and psychologically tortured and
abused by the authorities. In spite of so many NGOs and other organizations involved for their betterment, the problem cannot
be eradicated any time soon due to the lack of basic needs like: shelter, drinkable water, and health care. They receive dog bites,
cuts, wounds on their bodies perpetually and so many of them die untimely.
The World:
According to the UNICEF, 2012, estimate there are
about 100 million children growing up on the urban streets
around the world.
Russia:
Alan Ball, in the introduction to his book on the
history of abandoned children in the erstwhile Soviet Russia,
And Now My Soul is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet
Russia, 1918-1930 states: Orphaned and abandoned children
have been a source of misery from the earliest times. By 1922
there were at least seven million homeless children in Russia
due to the devastation from World War I and the Russian Civil
war (Dowson, 2003).
Latin America:
There are two categories of street children in Latin
America: home-based and street-based. Home-based street
children have homes and families to return to, chiey at night.
But the street-based children do not have any other place to go.
A majority of street children in Latin America are home-based.
A majority of them are males between the ages of 10 and 14
(UNICEF, 2012).
Indonesia:
After the 1997 nancial crisis, many children in
Indonesia began living on the streets. Girls living on the
street face more difculties than boys living on the street in
Indonesia. Girls on the street are often abused by the street
boys because of the patriarchal nature of culture. The street
children in Indonesia are seen as a public nuisance. They are
detained and subjected to verbal and physical abuse (UNICEF,
2012).
Pakistan:
It has one of the world's largest street children
populations. In spite of efforts initiated by Unicef and
1. Corresponding author, CAO, DAVSKVB
various NGOs to assist the children in need through various
programmes and rehabilitation centres, the situation remains
as a prominent socio-economic issue in Pakistan in the 21
st

century (UNICEF, 2012).
India:
India is the seventh largest and second most
populated country in the world. More than thirty-two percent
of the population is living below the poverty line. Owing to
unemployment, increasing rural-urban migration, temptations
of city life, and a lack of political will, India has developed
one of the largest child labour forces in the world. It has
an estimated one million or more street children in each of
the following metropolitan cities: New Delhi, Mumbai and
Kolkata, and their average age are fourteen (UNICEF, 2012).
Nepal:
It has been found that most of the street children of
Nepal had left their homes at the tender age of eight due to
various problems that occurred in their families. Some of the
main problems are: lack of food, loss of one or both parents,
torture by stepmother or drunken father, and temptation
of better life. Some children leave their homes in search of
better opportunities in the big cities. But they cannot nd good
paying work and end up as petty workers in constructions
sites or lowly paid porters. Others have to depend on begging
(UNICEF, 2012).
Children remain easy prey for violence and exploitation:
Street children are the most vulnerable lot; none
can get safely away from this cauldron of suffering. Almost
all of them get abused physically and psychologically. The
method of torture includes: kicking, punching forcing metal-
nails under toenails, and beating with plastic pipes. With all
these problems and tensions, they lead their complex life of
acute misery. They spend their days collecting rags, plastics
and other items from the garbage. They do not get access to
any of the basic needs: drinkable water, food, safe shelter,
basic health care, or education. Due to hunger and frustration,
majority of them start using drugs indiscriminately. They want
to forget hunger, cold and above all fear. Through drugs, they
dream to meet with a nonexistent mother who would cuddle
and protect them. Glue is the most common drug because it
is cheap and easy to get. But, snifng glue is very dangerous
to health. It destroys various organs including brain, nervous
system, eyes, blood, liver, lungs and heart. It may even cause
death (UNESCO, 2006).
Ways to help street children and solve the problem:
Every human being needs love and care; so do street
children. Let us spend some time with them. Let them feel
family attachment for a while. If possible, let us take their
photos, offer them some edibles, listen to their story, and talk
with them so as to reduce their anguish against the society. We
must not hate them; we should extend humanitarian behaviour,
so that they may become good citizens (UNICEF, 2012).
Giving things such as pens, candies, and clothes
may seem very helpful. But, this often leads to a whole lot
of problems. It has been found that such charity breeds
materialism; it also promotes unhealthy competition and
makes them view begging as a 'fun'. So, education is one of
the most important factors that play an important role to bring
the street children to the main stream.
References
Dowson, A. (2003). The health, risks and consequences of
trafcking in women and adolescence. London:
London school of hygiene and tropical medicine.
Unesco. (2006). Improving Learning Opportunities for Street
Children, Bangkok, Retrieved from http//.
www2.unescobkk.org/elib/publications/.../Street_
children.pdf
Unicef. (2011). The State of the World's Children 2011:
Adolescence. New York: Author Retrieved from
http://. www.unicef.org/sowc2011/.../SOWC-2011-
Main-Report_EN_02092011.p...
Unicef. (2012). The State of the world's
children 2012: children in an urban. Retrieved from
http//.www.unicef.org/sowc/.../SOWC_2012-Main_Report_
EN_21Dec2011.pdf
A Literature Review on Earthquake Prediction
- Madhab Upadhyaya
1
1. Corresponding author, Secondary Co-ordinator, DAVSKVB
Introduction
Is it really possible to predict an earthquake? Many
scientists believe that getting enough resources and studying
the causes, prediction of earthquake might be possible; while
for many others prediction is inherently impossible. Most
importantly, prediction must be reliable.
Earthquake prediction is usually dened as the specication
of the expected magnitude, geographic location and time of
occurrence of a future earthquake within stated limits.
An earthquake is a very complex geological process. To
know the reasons for an earthquake and to predict it, various
researches have been done. Specially, accurate short term
predictions are the goal of todays researchers.
Study and Prediction
According to one of the initial theories, it was
explained that due to the very high pressure on the rocks, a
kind of fractures and fault in the rock are formed which nally
results in earthquake. In 1910, Harry Reid put forward a theory
and according to it predication of earthquake is possible if
the magnitude of the pressure formed in the fault is known
(Simpson, D.W. & Richards, P.G. 2008).
After the strong earthquake in Siberia in 1949, in
which around 12,000 people were died, Russian scientists
started the research and study on the earthquake. They worked
on it for two decades and in 1971 the research work was
presented in the international conference in Moscow. In the
presentation it was reported as By monitoring the seismicity
caused by natural earthquakes, mining blasts and nuclear test,
it is possible to predict major earthquakes. (Barua ,S. Kalita,
A. & Kumar, P. 2013)
According to Wilson, 2006 seismograph measures the
intensity of the earthquake. For the earthquakes multiple kinds
of seismic waves are radiated. The P. waves (longitudinal
or primary waves) travel through the earths crust about twice
as fast as the S-waves (transverse or secondary waves),
so they arrive rst to the seismograph. The time difference
between the arrivals of these two waves is known as lead time.
According to the Russian seismologists when the lead time
starts decreasing, it yields to a strong earthquake.
A group of scientists in MIT, USA worked under the
guidance of William Brace and reported that when a rock is
stressed, it begins to change physically. It has been observed
that a rock starts to expand (to dilate) due to some micro-cracks
and fractures in it and becoming larger when it is shift towards
the breaking point. As a result, it transmits seismic waves of
changing speeds; magnetic properties can be changed. Hence,
electrical resistance of such a rock will also vary. This may
lead to an uplifting of the ground surface or a change in the
groundwater pressure and levels resulting an earthquake. This
phenomenon is known as Dilatancy Most of the earthquake
prediction research is centered on the Dilatancy theory (Toshi,
2005).
Abstract
This article focuses on the brief study on the prediction of earthquakes experienced in different periods and places in the history.
Though the prediction of earthquake is not accurate all the times but its study and research is still going on.
Toshi, 2005, also state that S.A. Fedotov, a Russian
scientist studied on the issue of earthquake prediction in
Japan, put forward a theory known as Seismic Gap Theory.
According to this theory, - active regions that have been
seismically quiet or inactive for some time are probably
building up excessive elastic strain and becoming the seismic
potential region for future earthquakes. And for longer time
interval if there is no seismic activity, the elastic strain in being
built up more and more resulting a longer earthquake.
One of the ways used specially by Chinese to predict
the earthquake is observing the animal behavior. The Chinese
have observed and claimed that animals, birds and insects
seem to change their normal behavior to abnormal behavior
before an earthquake. At the end of the year 1974, Chinese
scientists observed that snakes were coming out of hibernation
and freezing to death on the cold ground. On January 1975,
they received even more strange report about the abnormal
behavior of animal. According to the report, cattle and horses
became restless, refused to get inside the building and scared
for no obvious reason. In the next month, i.e. on February of
the same year a major earthquake struck. The epicenter was
in Haieheng, the same area from where most of the reports
about the abnormal behavior of animal were received. The
reason could be that some animals are very sensitive to sound,
temperature, touch, light intensity, even to magnetic eld and
it may be possible that may be possible that they can detect the
seismic activity which precede an earthquake (Wilson, 2006).
Simpson, D.W. & Richards, P.G. ,2008, states that
to know and discuss this issue, in 1975 and in 1979, the
organization United State Geological Survey conducted two
international seminars on the topic Abnormal Behaviour
Prior to Earthquake.
Conclusion
Despite years of research, the use of advanced seismic
recording equipment and hard works of many dedicated
scientists, the prediction of earthquake is still uncertain. Many
theories are developed and put forward but none have been
found to be reliable.
References:
Barua ,S. Kalita, A. & Kumar, P. (2013). Earthquake: is
prediction possible? Assam: Prantik
Simpson, D.W. & Richards, P.G. (2008). Earthquake
prediction: An international Review. London: oxford
university press.
Toshi, A. (2005). Earthquake prediction, Techniques- Their
application in Japan. London: oxford university
press
Wilson, P. (2006). Seismic gaps and earthquakes. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 45(6), 112- 131
Background of the Study:
Climate change and its control is one of the burning
issues of the 21
st
century and has been global concern today.
The media inform us almost daily about oods, droughts, over
heating or cooling, expanding deserts or others somewhere in
the world. These also bring the news of the resulting property
damage, crop failures, famine or deaths. So, man is seriously
speculating on the future possibilities of climate control on a
global scale. Thus, deliberate weather modication on the micro
and macro scale has been in progress for the last many decades.
The problems involved in large-scale. Weather modication
is so numerous as to stagger imagination. However, any fair
measure of success in large-scale weather modication will
ultimately depend on how much more we know and understand
the mechanisms of general circulation through printed media.
Even if our science and technology are capable of modifying
the weather and climate to a certain desired level, we should
not forget about a number of international implications and the
possible consequence. Similarly, all these information should
be done into the case study because it is the fastest and easiest
way to deliberate and retrieve the information to the users or
researchers.
To achieve a fair measure of success in this eld,
international co-operation and agreement up to a certain level
is necessary and national and international magazines or
newspapers or any printed media in different languages should
be actively participated or involved in this matter on different
elds such as news, editorial, advertisements, cartoons,
pictures and articles or scholars opinions.
It is because of the ever-growing awareness
information about climate change, the printed media in
Nepal has been very active in bringing issues and problems
of environmental concern with climate change to publics
attention. This has contributed a lot to prompt relevant
government and private agencies to undertake projects aimed
at climate improvement. Many national and international
newspapers have frequently published climate literatures such
as articles, news, photos, editorials etc. in daily, weekly and
monthly newspapers in different languages. The printed media
have actively involved publishing the climatic literatures.
Similarly, under the leadership of the Ministry of
Environment and Nepal Academy of Science and Technology
(NAST), many I/NGOs are working in the eld of environment
A Scenario of Climate Change Literatures on the Rising Nepal:
(A Case Study of 2001 2010)
- Bijaya Kumar Pokhrel
1
ABSTRACT:
The article deals with the case study of the literature of the climate change issues on the Rising Nepal 2001 2010. 3600
newspapers have been studied to nd out the literature of climate change issues. National and international scholar's articles,
editorials, national and international news, photos, interviews, readers views, organizational message etc. are included in this
research.
The researcher has mainly focused on nding out all the types of climatic literatures and categorized them according to
their disciplines. 314 climatic literatures have been collected in 10 years period.
and its climate change, mountain ecosystem and low economic
condition. The reputed international organizations such as
DANIDA, UK DFID, GEF and UNDP Nepal are supporting
to this programme (NCCKMC, Brochure). The government
of Nepal and Government ofcial who have done and
participated many conferences, workshops, talk programme
in many times have also organized the Kalapathar Conference
in Dec. 5, 2009 and participated in Kopenhegan Conference
Dec. 12, 2009 etc. (Pokhrel, 2011, p. 5). These are the main
examples of the climate changing awareness programmes.
These programmes have shown us about how the snow is
melting and sea level is rising because of global warming
and how the developed countries have climatic exploited the
climate of underdeveloped and developing countries through
industrial activities.
The Issues and Impact of Climate Change in Nepal:
Now a days, the scenario of climate change issues
and its impact are widely discussed today throughout the
world. One can nd a urry of articles, columns and writings
in different newspapers, journals and magazines about it. As a
result, the topic has drawn the attention of the world community
because it is a big challenge facing the world today.
The world is warming. Climatic zones are shifting,
Glaciers are melting. Sea level is rising. These are not
hypothetical events from a science ction movie; these
changes and others are already taking place, and we expect
them to accelerate over the next years as the amounts of carbon
dioxide, methane and other trace gases accumulating in the
atmosphere through human activities increase (Lal, 2010,
p.431).
Now, we can say that the developing countries like
Nepal, the climate change directly impacts the mountainous
regions. Due to the global warming, the snow in the Himalayas
is melting faster. The glaciers and ponds of these areas are
going to burst. It can cause havoc and huge losses of life and
property. The climate change will fundamentally change the
human civilization as we know it. The increase in temperature
is changing ecosystems. We have already started experiencing
extreme weather conditions, resulting in food, water, energy
crises as well as natural calamities.
The Role of Media in Climate Change:
Media is the means of communication or tool used
1. Corresponding author is associated with Library Department, DAVSKVB
to store and deliver the information or data. They are as
Advertising Media, Broadcast Media, Digital media Electronic
Media, Hyper Media, Mass Media, Multimedia, News Media,
and Print Media Social Media etc.
Information plays a vital role in research and
development, planning, decision making, problem solving
and in the learning process, which is the backbone for social
progress, educational development, political development,
economic prosperity. (Karki, 2008. p.81)
Media can foster climate change awareness and encourage
people's participation in the issues of creates community
forums on climate change issue. Local projects, national trends
and the latest communication technology all can set the pace
for better understanding of the climate change.
The modern society is gradually emerging as the new
information society with he information environment. The
information society is characterized by change in education,
institutions, social structure, technology etc. (Aryal, 2009:
p.5).
The media involves a deliberate explanation of the
climate change and its components and the concerned issues
to the receiver. Tools includes television video, print media
even display, leaets, lms and talks produce and publish
so many news and information in easy, local and natural
language. People get familiar with their environment or
climate change and the conservation issue involved. The role
of media is always to promote a practiced ecologically sound
and conservationist type of interpretation. Emphasis is to be on
encouraging the receiver to nd things out in a more personal
way.
Why the Rising Nepal:
It is one of the oldest governmental printed English
National Newspaper of our country Nepal. At rst it was
published weekly in the year of 2022 B.S. (Newspaper sites).
Later it was developed into dailies because of its popularity
in national level and international level. It has covered many
subject areas including climate change issues. It can show the
ideas and views of the government on the issues of climate
change. It is run by Gorkhapapatra Sansthan, Dharmapath,
Kathmandu.
Statement of the Problem:
Nepal is one of the beautiful Himalayan countries
in the world. The attraction of the green forest, blue rivers,
water falls; Mount Everest etc. are ornaments of our country.
Culture, ecosystem and biodiversity are the key to keep the
climate in same scale. Hundreds of programmes have been
done and some news articles have been published in print
media. Few records have been compiled in bibliographical
review. Therefore, the users are bewildered or confused due
to the lack of literature and not compiled of its information.
Objectives of the Study:
Informational point of view, some literatures has been
published in the printed media but they are scattered here and
there. So, the researcher has tried to show all the literatures of
climate change issues of the year of 10 years. Similarly, some
other objectives are:
1. To nd out all type of literatures;
2. Categories the nding literatures into different disciplines.
Signicance of the Study:
To save the climate change in this polluted
atmosphere, the case study on climate change in Nepal print
media is urgently needed; as soon as possible in its collection
of informational literature. To ll this urgent need, this
research work will be very practical work for the readers and
researchers who are interested to study about the literature of
climate change in the printed media. This work will manage a
well and careful bibliography. Therefore, this work denitely
helps to state the climate change literatures and its effect in the
related eld. This research will help to nd more information
about the relationship between climate and human, climate and
civilization, climate and culture etc. It will be compilation of
the documents of the printed media in the eld of library and
information science and climate researchers. It helps the users
of researchers to save their time and resources very well.
Then the researcher, library users, information
providers, policy makers, students, etc. will take a lot of
benet from this research to make the plan, policy, budgeting,
development and construction etc.
Pictorial Representation of Climate Change Issues in
Media:
It is said that one gure has more than 1000 of
meanings to acquire and understand the knowledge in different
angles. Chinese proverb also proves that we hear we forget,
we see and we remember, we do and we understand. So, the
researcher here has kept some pictures of climate change
issues which are released in media.
Figure: 1
Climate change: Adverse Impact on Flora and Fauna

The above picture shows that the condition of climate
change issues in the of 21
st
century age. Again, these gures
express that if we do not pay more attention as soon as possible
on this issues, its impact comes to us gradually and we will be
surrounded by so danger.
Sources of Data:
All the data used here in these case studies are primary
data. The sources of this primary data are collected from the
Source: The Rising Nepal (June 24, 2006) p. 4
Photo: Ramesh Dhungana
Rising Nepal published during the time period of 2001 to 2010 A.D. To collect the data, the researcher frequently studied 3600
newspaper.
Finding the Data from the Rising Nepal:
Here, the researcher has found 314 events in the years from 2001 to 2010 from a national daily "The Rising Nepal". The
events are distributed below in 9 categories.
Table No. 1
Yearly Published Title and its Literatures on the Rising Nepal
Year Edito-
rial
National
News
Intl'
News
Photo Organization National
Scholars
Foreign
Scholar
No. of Event
in the year
2001 2 - 3 - - 11 2 18
2002 5 1 1 - 1 28 1 37
2003 5 - - - - 13 - 18
2004 - - 1 - - 18 - 19
2005 2 1 - 1 - 14 1 19
2006 1 1 2 - - 8 - 12
2007 4 4 22 - - 17 1 48
2008 3 3 14 - - 10 1 31
2009 2 10 23 - - 37 7 79
2010 2 2 6 - - 20 3 33
Total 26 22 72 1 1 176 16 314
Source: TRN (2001-2010 A.D).
The above table shows that, the newspaper has covered the most of the events in the year of 2009. It is 79 and the least
event is 12. It is in 2006. 176 articles have been published from the national scholars and 16 articles have been published from
foreign scholars. International news is in bigger number than the national news and others and so on.
Title wise Data of the Rising Nepal:
The data which the researcher has gathered from The Rising Nepal is details given below:
Table No. : 2
Contribution of Authors in the Rising Nepal
S.N. Title Number of Articles
Editorial 26
RSS 6
Reporter's News from Kathmandu Valley 12
Reporter's News from Out of Kathmandu Valley 2
AP 9
AFP 63
Photo 1
Organization 1
Male scholar's article 148
Female scholar's article 8
Foreign scholar's article 31
Foreign scholar's artcle 7
Total 314
Source: TRN (2001-2010 A.D).
In the above table, the total number of data 314 is
divided into 12 categories. Among the categories, more focus
has been given to the scholars article because the number of
their article is 148. Secondly, it has covered the international
news of AFP and AP. Less priority has been given to the photo,
organizational message and news from out of Kathmandu
valley.
Conclusion:
Media is a social institution having lots of
responsibilities and functions. The print media such as books,
periodicals, newspapers, manuscripts and other paper media
give us a lot of information and knowledge of ancient period to
up-to -a minute. The role of media in the library or information
center is so powerful like the sharp weapon because it
preserves and disseminates our culture, civilization, history of
earth and sky or hole universe and its environment contained
in the newspapers or books. The users or the researchers, or
the scholars, the policy makers or lay type of important person
can get relevant information if the news or the sources are
well managed. So, the researcher has given more priority to
the bibliography of climate change issues in Nepalese print
media. This research is completed under the national and
international news, photos, interview, and appeal and so on
from four newspapers.
There is increasing awareness of the need for reliable
environmental information to inform the users, researchers,
planners, designers through the media literatures. Then the
policy and planning about the environmental protection and
climate change can be easily and effectively implemented,
if the literatures, research papers, news of national and
international are available through the case studies.
The bibliographic list on the climate change issues is in starting
phase and it is in uncompleted condition. So, it is difcult to nd
the source and gain access to the appropriate information even
if it is existed. The relevant data are scattered and unpublished
among the organizations. So the primary conclusion of this
thesis is to conclude that the bibliographic review of climate
change issues in Nepalese print media is very much essential
to the environmental and climatic organizations or resource
centers.
The most important conclusion of this thesis is to give all types
of information related with environment and climate change
issues with saving the time. It arranges the climate change
literature issues from four newspapers in one volume. It also
helps to ll the gap and problems in data quality in data sets
because these issues have been highlighted appropriately.
This thesis with provide future researchers with a basis for
identifying new sources of data for next work and it is expected
that the identication of gaps and needs will encourage
further development of the environment and climate change
policies.
Suggestions:
After preparing the research according to the
literature review and data analysis, the researcher has got
some suggestions which he recommends below:
2. All the environmental organizations should manage
well developed library and at least one professional
librarian should be there to provide the relevant
information.
3. The environmental scientist, engineers, researchers,
policy makers, students should frequently try to
write so many articles on these issues.
4. The media and newspaper publishers should
frequently try to publish to climate literatures.
5. Talk programmes, workshops, seminars, conferences
etc. on the climate change should be organized in
every year from low level to high level.
6. The media should give more focus the literatures of
the environmental scientists, engineers, researchers,
articles, book reviews with data information through
the media.
8. All the environmental organizations and their
librarians should give more priority to maintain the
bibliography in their libraries.
References:
Aryal, B.P. (2009). Way to Information Society
Challenges and Opportunities, INFOLIB, A Journal
of Library and Information Science students'
Association (LISSA), Vol. 2, No. 2, Jan. 2009.
ICIMOD (Unpublished). Documents on climate change
Available at ICIMOD Library, Kathamdnu: ICIMOD.
Karki, M. (2008). Kaiser Library: A Centenary
(1908-2008A.D): Kathmandu: Keshair Library.
Lal, S. D (2010). Climatology. Alahabad: Sharada Pustak
Bhawan.
NAST, CKMCC (Unpublished), Climate Change List.
Lalitpur.
Pokhrel, B. K. (2011). The Bibliographic Review of Climate
Change Issues in Nepalese Print Media (2001
-2010) (Unpublished Dissertation). Central
Department of Library Information Science TU:
Kathmandu
The Rising Nepal 2001 2010.
www.gorkhapatra.org.np daily.
Introduction
The SSRP has nine components. In effect there
are ve substantive components which are directed towards
increasing access to ve forms of quality education while
targeting disadvantaged groups. These ve components
are Early Childhood Education and Development (ECED),
Basic Education, Secondary Education, Technical Education
and Vocational Training (TEVT) and Literacy and Lifelong
Learning (LLL). The other four components of the Program
are supportive to the achievement of more students learning
more as a result of better teaching. These four facilitating
components are Teacher Professional Development (TPD),
Capacity Development (CD), Monitoring and Evaluation
(M&E), and Aid Management (MOE, 2009).
The goal of SSRP is to contribute to socio-economic
development through a continuous development of its human
resources capacity. The programs purpose is to ensure that
all citizens have opportunity to become functionally literate,
numerate, and develop the basic life skills and knowledge
required to enjoy a productive life. The SSRP aims to (i) expand
access and equity, (ii) improve quality and relevance, and
(iii) strengthen the institutional capacity of the entire school
education system (MOE, 2009). So, this paper is especially
based on nding the gaps on SSRP on basic education with
respect to access, equity and quality.
Access to Basic Education
According to MOE, 2009, the goals of basic
education are to ensure equitable access to quality education
through a rights-based approach, promotion of a child friendly
environment in schools and its objectives are to ensure
equitable access to quality basic education for all children in
5-12 age groups. Similarly MOE, 2009 also advocates that the
States responsibility is to ensure free quality basic education for
all children of age 5-12 years and opportunities for equitable
participation in basic education.
Gaps in Nepals School Sector Reform Plan on Basic
Education
- Amit Koirala
1
Abstract
School Sector Reform Plan (SSRP) is a long-term strategic plan to achieving the goals and objectives of Basic and
Secondary education that the Government of Nepal (GON), Ministry of Education (MOE) has envisioned for the years 2009/10
to 2013/14 (Ministry of Education, [MOE], 2009). SSRP plan of Nepal aims to meet the goal of basic education for all for all
Nepalese. Here, this paper based on secondary literature tries to explore the gaps on Nepal SSRP especially of the basic education
on the basis of access, equity and quality.
According to MOE, 2012, the national enrollment
rate (NER) of Basic Education has increased. In primary level
it has increased by 3 % points and in lower secondary level
by 13 percentage points, however, when the enrolments of
two levels are compared a sharp decline is observed with 95
% in primary level and only 70 % in Lower secondary level.
This situation indicates performance of primary level is still
an issue. High repetition and dropout in primary grades are
also affecting lower secondary level enrolment. Mainly, over
and under age children's presence in grade one has resulted in
high repetition and dropout which signies gaps in access in
primary level of education.
Similarly talking about internal efciency which
reects the quality aspects of school education is still an
issue. Repetition and dropout rates in grade one are still high.
This poor performance has been partially attributed to the
enrolment of underage and overage children. That said, the
mismatch between language of instruction and local mother
tongue also contributes to repetition and dropout in grade
one. Interestingly, more boys dropout than girls in grade one.
According to NLSS III, 2011 as cited in MOE, 2012, NER
of primary is 78.4. This gure is much lower than what is
reported in Flash I Report 2011, DOE, 2011 that is 95.1 (MOE,
2012). So, from this it can be said that there is also a gap in
basic education on equitable access as advocate by SSRP to
ensure equitable access to quality education.
Equity
NER of both boys and girls has increased signicantly
in basic education. At national level Gender Parity Index (GPI)
of NER has achieved parity in Basic Education. Enrolment
in private (institutional) schools has increased. Insignicant
increase in girls' share of total enrolments suggests that more
boys are sent to institutional schools. This reects deep-
seated gender bias in society. When viewed from caste and
ethnic lenses Dalit's enrolment in primary level has increased
only by 1.5 percentage point from 2008 to 2011. The same
1. Corresponding author is associated with Department of HEP, DAVSKVB
amount of increase is observed from 2009 to 2011. Therefore
no conclusion can be drawn until the increment is analysed
against the age specic population of Dalits in a given year.
For Janajatis their share in total enrolment has rather decreased
by almost 3 percent points (MOE, 2012).
Data from NLSS III of 2011as cited in MOE, 2012,
shows that, among the 6 to 24 age group who never attended
school, 3.4 percent (male 8.3 and female 1.7) did so due to
some kind of disability. Across the consumption quintiles
19.0 percent and 11.9 percent of the richest male and female
quintiles respectively never attended school due to disability.
The gures for proportions not attending school due to
disability are much lower for the poorest quintile. However,
prevalence of disability is comparatively higher in the lower
consumption quintiles (MOE, 2012). This shows that children
with disability have more chances of missing school due to
multiple disadvantages. So, from this it can again be said that
there is still a problem regarding children with disadvantages
to bring them to school which clearly indicates gaps in SSRP
on basic education.
Quality
While there are references to quality of basic
education within the SSRP document they are dominated by
considerations of inputs. Certainly inputs are such as school
buildings, textbooks, teachers etc. have to be considered as
part of quality. It has been an innovation of SSRP to specify
a set of Minimal Enabling Conditions (MEC) for schools.
These cover facilities and amenities, classrooms, furniture
and other materials in the classroom, libraries, extracurricular
materials, instructional provision (including a child-friendly
school), multiple textbooks, mother tongue teaching, multi-
grade teaching, teacher preparation etc. However, the sense of
quality which is conveyed by a list of input factors and their
costs misses the point of education.
In the MOE, 2009, curriculum is of course mentioned,
most frequently in relation to the Curriculum Development
Centre (CDC), the need to update the National Curriculum
Framework (NCF), and coupled with textbooks. The
curriculum is at the heart of education. The term embodies both
values national, cultural as well as content. It covers content,
teaching /pedagogy, assessment of the students, and evaluation
in terms of how far the curriculum meets its aims. These aims
are in terms of tting students for their future lives as citizens
and for their roles in the economy. Nepal developed its rst
National Curriculum Framework in 2007 after three years
of work. One cannot evaluate a program of basic education
without considering the curriculum. In Nepal, as in many
less developed countries the curriculum is delivered through
textbooks. Teachers do not have the curriculum. The CDC is
responsible for ensuring that the approved textbooks reect
the aspirations of the NCF. But how far the current textbooks
are faithful to the ideals of the NCF, and its subject curricula
which also one of the issues that must be looked in SSRP.
As we know that teachers in classes 1 8 teach
subjects. But according to MOE, 2012, the National Centre
for Educational Development (NCED), having cleared the
backlog of untrained teachers, has turned its attention to
preparing packages for Teacher Professional Development
(TPD), but seems not to have oriented teachers of classes 1 5
to the new curriculum. Since the TPD is needs-based, unless
teachers recognize their needs to know and practice the new
curriculum they will not have training or at least orientation
to the new curriculum. Batches of teachers, chosen one from
each school, have had a three-days in-service course, delivered
by Resource Persons (RPs), which did include exposure to the
curriculum. No systematic training of basic education teachers
in the new curriculum has been held which also indicates gaps
in basic education on SSRP.
There is also a system of continuous student
assessment (CAS). Conceptually assessment is an integral
part of curriculum. It is the mechanism for informing teachers
how students are progressing and what support they require to
bring them to a satisfactory level of competence. CAS is one
approach system is being implemented. CAS was introduced
along with automatic promotion, presumably on the basis
that teachers would, through using CAS, be alerted to the
difculties which students display, undertake remedial actions
so that all students would reach the required competence for
the grade but the teachers are unsure of how to implement
CAS (MOE, 2012). So, from this it can be said that there is
also a gap in assessment system which reect gaps in SSRP on
basic education.
Learning to Read
The early years of basic education are generally
known as the basis for later learning. Amongst these literacy
and numeracy are paramount. According to MOE, 2012 the
CDC has produced 67 items of supplementary material for
reading in the classes 1 3. However, schools do not buy them
and private printers do not print them since there is no prot to
be had. School management committees (SMCs) do not have
spare funds after they have used their per capita funding (PCF)
for those items for which the PCF is meant scholarships,
textbooks, additional teachers. In the early years of education
there is a well-established case for having integrated textbooks.
Language and numeracy are common across the subjects of
the curriculum. CDC favoured, we learned, having integrated
textbooks in classes 1 3. The subject specialists, however,
blocked that route to improving the teaching of reading and
basic numeracy which also indicate gaps in quality aspects
on basic education. Similarly MOE, 2012 also suggested that
reading standards in basic education are low which clearly
indicate gaps on quality aspects in basic education on SSRP.
Teacher Professional Development (TPD)
The SSRP has raised the qualication criteria for
basic education teachers to intermediate level. The Higher
Secondary Education Board (HSEB) is responsible for
providing intermediate level education. Also a Teacher
Preparation Course (TPC) has been developed to provide
pedagogical training to teacher candidates from non-education
faculties. The quantity of teacher candidates seem more than
enough, though quality, as indicated by their educational
qualications, remains problematic. The pre-service classes
are reported to be crowded, following traditional chalk and
talk methods, with a lack effective practice teaching and
characterized by high absenteeism of students and teachers
(Shikshak, 2010). So, from this it can also be concluded that
there is a gap in basic education of SSRP.
SSRP lays emphasis on teacher development. The
clearance of the backlog of untrained teachers on 10 months
training is itself a tremendous achievement. 98.4% of primary
permanent teachers have nished the course, while remaining
1.6% are also in distance education mode. A new effort is
needed in lower-secondary level where only 79.9 % of teachers
have nished their training.
A new program Teacher Professional Development
(TPD) has been launched by NCED for the further development
of teachers capacity. The SSRP targets to train 750 master
trainers and 50,000 (both basic and secondary) teachers
were easily reached. Though needs-based TPD is viewed
positively by stakeholders, there are problems in TPD process
and responsible actors. Resource Centers are responsible for
TPD in basic education. However, they are entirely focused in
primary level while there is less priority for lower-secondary
teachers. Also, permanent teachers tend to attend TPD rst,
rather than untrained community funded teachers. There is a
need to revise TPD process to enhance the effectiveness of
TPD. Further development could include TPD according to the
career stages i.e. beginner, intermediate, expert and master, as
targeted in SSRP. The requirement that TPD should be needs
based has drawbacks when teachers, and resource persons
(RPs), do not recognize the need for all to be oriented to the
new curriculum or equity measures which also indicate gaps in
SSRP and this is prevalent in basic education . Similarly there
remains no job induction for beginner teachers as planned
in SSRP which hampers the quality aspects in education
especially in basic education which also indicate gaps in SSRP
(MOE, 2012).
Teacher management issues still remain as challenges
for effective use of teachers and quality improvement. Teacher
management is devolved to School Management Committees
(SMCs). However, there are concerns whether the relatively
poorly educated rural communities can be effective in managing
teachers. According to MOE, 2012, states that SMCs have
become highly politicized, particularly in the Terai. School has
become a center point for politics, as political parties can put
forward their cadres as local teachers. So, from this also it can
be concluded that there is also gaps in quality education and
more prevalent in basic education.
Only temporary and contract teachers are now being
hired. Recruitment of Rahat (relief) quota teachers, for schools
with high student teacher ratios, was halted in 2009 due to
irregularity in distribution. Current recruitment of additional
teachers is basically of contract teachers through Per Capita
Fund (PCF) quotas. As the budget is based on per child,
teacher salary uctuates with the change in student enrolment.
The consequent uncertainty leads to frustration among the
PCF teachers. Moreover, because of budget constraints,
government has not been able to provide the full calculated
amount for each school. This can lead to further decreases in
salaries of PCF teachers (MOE, 2012). Now from this it can be
said that decrease in salaries of PCF teachers creates frustration
in teachers which can create a low quality in education sector
which indicate gaps in education especially in SSRP.
Capacity Development
Although the legal concept of Basic Education is
unresolved due to the pending amendments to the Education
Act, for purposes of analysis, it is assume that it represents
a consolidation of Grades 1-8 as envisaged under the SSRP.
According to MOE, 2012 efforts for capacity development
have tended to be focused at the Basic Education level since
majority of provisioning takes place at this level. Within the
context of Basic Education, capacity development has three
main target groups: teachers, districts (DEO and schools), and
central agencies (MOE, DOE). Capacity building for teachers
is trainings-oriented, conducted by the NCED and its partner
institutions. The courses are widely acknowledged by those on
the receiving end, including by the Teachers Union of Nepal,
to be of reasonable quality. However, the effectiveness of this
training in terms of learning achievement is questionable.
Similarly MOE, 2012, clearly indicate that there is no signicant
difference in the mean scores of students taught by trained
or untrained teachers. For both the districts and the central
agencies, multiples tools and mechanisms are used, delivered
and funded through TA and Direct Funding mechanisms. The
SSRP pool funds are also used for capacity building, although
the budgetary allocations fall short of the needs. Funds are
spread too thin, with the Capacity Development Plan prepared
by the MOE, identifying in excess of 50 capacity development
activities aimed at Basic Education level, a majority of them
being training courses or meetings and workshops. So, from
this it clearly reect gaps in basic education of SSRP.
As regards to capacity development of teachers, most
of it takes the form of training and is managed by the NCED.
However, the MOE, 2009 introduces the concept of needs-
based training, which may be desirable in principle but MOE,
2012, revels an impractical in view of the limited capability
and incentives for self-assessment. Furthermore, in important
areas such as training on the new curriculum, little headway
has been made, which in essence means that the important
reform of curriculum development has failed to translate into
better learning opportunities for children, since teachers are
not trained to deliver the new curriculum. So, again from this
also it reect gaps in basic education on SSRP.
A more informative denition of UPE is the
completion of a good quality primary education by all.
Looking from this perspective, the analysis of the internal
efciency of school education shows that not all children
enrolled in grade one reach and complete primary education
within the specied time. In 2008-09, out of 4.5 million
children enrolled in primary education, about a million
didnt appear in the nal school examinations. An analysis
of grade-wise enrollment and nationwide grade progression
rates reveals that in 2009-10, only 45 per cent children
were able to reach grades 5 (Singh, 2010). From this gure
it also clearly reects the gaps in basic education of SSRP.
The above examination reveals a disturbing picture.
It gives a clear message that unless specically targeted
programmes with adequate funding and clear accountability
and monitoring mechanisms are designed and implemented
for the poorest households, it will not be possible to ensure
universal literacy and universal primary education, especially
for the disadvantaged and marginalized. Similarly monitoring
and evaluation in SSRP is also a problem. NORAD, 2009 also
state that quality aspects had been disappointing. The report
noted that there is no monitoring of changes of how student are
learning and their learning achievement, as well as the factors
and variables that affect that achievement. Again looking at the
quality aspect Ranabhat, 2011, states that at least 10% students
of grade four have not mastered the Nepali alphabet and 25 %
cannot recognize double-digit numbers. So from this also it
can be state that quality aspects are still issues which indicate
gaps in basic education of SSRP.
As SSRP is a long term strategy for providing
education for all more prominently quality education for
all but from the above examination there exists gaps in the
implementation. We can see gaps in access to basic education,
gaps in equity for providing basic education for all, gaps in
quality aspects for providing quality basic education for
all. Similarly there exist gaps in SSRP on learning to read,
local curricula, teachers professional development, capacity
development, and monitoring and evaluation.
Critical Review
Looking towards to the school sector reform plan
2009-15 it reect as functionalist approach. As in functionalist
theory to work out a single system or body its other sub system
or organs should carry out its work effectively. As an example,
if our body should work properly then our every organ and
every system should work properly. If there any defect in any
organ or in any system then our body could not work properly.
Similarly in SSRP also to ensure universal primary education,
basic education for all its every units should work properly.
There must be effective monitoring and evaluation, teachers
professional development, capacity development, ensuring
access to education to all, minimizing gaps what prevail in
SSRP implementation with adequate funding. Then there will
be the possibility for ensuring universal primary education of
basic education for all.
Looking forward to the development theory it also
gives the reection of modernization theory. As in social
modernization it gives emphasis to literacy, schooling
simply SSRP also gives emphasis to access to education,
quality education and schooling. As in the modernization
the perceived problems are lack of capital, human resources,
infrastructure, problem in resource distribution, weak
government or management. Similarly SSRP also follows
these all. There is also a lack of capital in SSRP, similarly lack
in human resource that may be teachers or trained teacher, no
adequate infrastructure for proper schooling in rural areas,
similarly there is also problem in resource distribution and
politicized school management. As in modernization the
perceived solutions is external assistance that may be nancial
and technical similarly the SSRP is also looking its perceived
solution as nancial assistance from different donor agencies
that prevail in Nepal i.e. Asian Development Bank (ADB),
World Bank etc.
References
Department of Education. (2011). Flash I report. Kathmandu:
Author
Ministry of Education. (2009). School sector reform plan.
Kathmandu: Author.
Ministry of Education (2012). SSRP mid term evaluation
report. Kathmandu: Author.
Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation. (2009).
Joint evaluation of Nepals education for all
2004-2009 Sector Program. Cambridge Education
Ltd and METCON Consultants. March 2009
Ranabhat, M.B. (2010). School effectiveness research.
Kathmandu: Department for foreign international
development.
Singh, R.B. (2010). Education for all: can Nepal achieve the
goal? The Himalayan Times. Kathmandu: 16 June,
2010.
Introduction
Blindness means unable to see permanently or
temporarily sightless, unsighted, unseeing, eyeless, visionless
etc. Blindness is complete or almost complete absence of the
sense of sight. It may be caused by any obstacle to the rays
of light on their way to the optic nerve, or by disease of the
optic nerve or tract, or of that part of the brain connected with
vision. It may be permanent or transient, complete or partial,
or in effect only in low-light conditions (night blindness). The
world health organization denes Profound blindness as the
inability to count ngers at a distance of 3m (10 ft) or less.
Visual defects are one of the most common causes of disability
in the world. (WHO, 2007)
Different eye conditions create different problems. Very
few blind people see nothing at all; a minority can distinguish
light from dark but nothing else; the majority possesses
varying degrees of useful vision. Some have no central vision;
others have no side vision. Some see everything as a vague
blur; others see a patchwork of blank and dened areas some
see best in sunlight. Others prefer twilight. This means two
blind people do not see the world in the same way. So, some
blind people can see enough to read encyclopedia, though they
might have difculty crossing the road (UNICEF, 2001).
Statement of the problem
The real problem of blindness is not the loss of eye
sight. The real problem is the misunderstanding and lack of
information. Opportunities for blind people are limited as
much by the individuals disability or lack of self condence.
Many blind people successfully conduct their own business
establishments or professions; many compete successfully
A case study of economically active age group of blind
people in selected areas of Kathmandu Valley
- Sapana Srivastava
1
Abstract
This paper entitled a case study of economically active age group of blind people in selected areas of Kathmandu
Valley is a descriptive type of study based on the primary data from an independent sample survey of March 2009. This study
has been attempted to nd socio economic demography as well as problem faced by blind people in the society. This research
is delimited upon four areas which include NAB Sargam at Maitidevi, Early Rehabilitation Centre (ERC) at Prayagpokhari,
Technical and Skill Development Centre for Blind and Disabled (TSDCBD) at Nagaun, Kirtipur. It focuses only on some selected
variables of socio-economic situation of those concerned blind people. The major objectives of this study are to explore the socio-
economic and demographic conditions of people with blindness, to identify the existing services, programs and institutions (Gos
and NGOs) concerned with disable and their impact and to give recommendations on the planning and development of social
policies and program to improve their quality of life.
in shops and factories with people who can see. The recent
development of speech synthesis in computers has begun to
make word processing programs and other software more
accessible to blind people. In most of the large cities in Europe
and the United States, public and private agencies provide
special workshops for those needing favorable employment
conditions, as well as home-based employment for blind
people who cannot reach the workshops because of disability
or distance (Nepal Disable Human Right Centre [NDHRC],
2062) This types of facilities are lacking in our country for
disabled and blind people.
Blind people sometimes have difculty doing things
that other people may take for granted, such as travelling on
public transport, climbing stairs, or even using some house hold
appliances. However, the greatest challenge that Blind people
have to face is societys misperception that blind people should
be pitied ignored, vilied and even hidden away in institutions.
Discrimination continues to exist in certain important social
groups like a family, Society, friends, etc. They dont get equal
opportunities as other normal people. Some landlords refuse
to rent the blind people in their house (National Association of
Blindness [NAB], 2063).
Blindness has a devastating effect on the quality of
life of the disabled people particularly negative effect on their
marriage, educational attainment, employment and emotional
state. Blindness also jeopardizes their personal, household
and social life. More than half of the blind people are looked
upon negatively by society. Blind woman and girl children
suffer more from negative attitude of their male counter parts,
resulting in critical adverse effects on their psychological
and social health. Some of them complain about touching in
private parts in local areas specially vehicles.
Situation of disability in Nepalese context
According to National Survey of Blindness, 1981, 3988 people were examined in which, 335 people were found blind.
It was estimated that in Nepal, there were 117, 623
Table 1
Distribution of respondents by marital status
Marital
Status
Respondents
Male Female Total
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
Unmarried 57 83.82 24 24.48 81 82.65
Married 11 16.18 4 13.33 15 15.31
Divorced - - 2 6.67 2 2.04
Total 68 100 30 100 98 100
Source: Field survey, 2009
Table 3.1.1 shows that 82.65% of the total respondents are unmarried, among them 83.82% were males and 24.48%
were females. 15.31% of them were married and majority was of males.2.04% of them are divorced and they were divorced after
blindness as our society is male dominated society so women are more discriminated for their disability.
Table 2
Distribution of respondents with blind partner.
To nd respondents having blind partner only married and divorced respondents were taken others are not applicable.
Blind Part-
ner
Respondents
Male Female Total
people blind, (O-84 %) 259888 people with low vision (1.85
%) and 233612 people were blind in one eye (1.66 %). It was
detected that blindness was much higher in women (0.99%)
compared to men (0.68%).The rate of blindness in pre-school
children was 0.01% and the gure rose to 8.58% in people
over the age of 60 years (The Sewa foundation, 1981).
Out of estimated 117.623 who were blind, cataract
accounted for 78,065 cases i.e. 55.8% of all blindness.
Amongst other causes of blindness were retinal diseases 3,843
cases i.e. 3.3%, glaucoma 3,826 cases, i.e. 3.2%, in factions
3.365 cases i.e. 9.28%, Trachoma 2,822 cases i.e. 2.4%,trauma
2853 case i.e. 2.4%, small pox 2610 case i.e. 2.2%), amblyopic
1476 case i.e. 1.3% and nutritional blindness 1,095 cases i.e.
0.9%. Under the age of 10 congenital cataracts was generally
the leading cause of blindness. For children under the age of
fteen, three diseases were of vital viz, measles and other
infections i.e. 21.3, nutritional blindness i.e. 17.99% and
congenital cataracts i.e. 16.3% (The Sewa foundation, 1981).
Objective of the study
The main objectives of this study are as follows
To explore the socio-economic conditions of people with
sight disability and their families
To identify the existing services, programs and institutions
(NGOs and INGOs) concerned with blindness and their
impact (eg. community based rehabilitation, health facilities,
income generating activities, government allowances), and to
determine their usage by people with blindness and the current
need for services.
To derive constructive recommendations on the planning
and development to social policies and programs to meet the
needs of people with blindness and to improve their quality
of life.
Methodology:
The study involved different approaches for collecting
information concerning the blindness situation. Both the
qualitative as well as quantitative techniques were used for
the collection of information. Quantitative techniques were
used to provide estimates of prevalence, magnitude and extent
of blindness and its characteristics. Similarly, the qualitative
technique was used to get an in-depth understanding of
problems faced by the blind people, gender discrimination and
opinions on disability.
Data analysis and interpretation, marital status of blind people
Yes 4 36.36 4 66.67 8 47.06
No 7 63.64 2 33.33 9 52.94
Total 11 100 6 100 17 100
Table 2 shows that among the total married respondents 47.06% have blind partner completing with 33.36% males
and 66.67% female. And 52.94% dont have blind partner following with 63.64% male and 33.33% female. Two respondents
having no blind partner were divorced after losing their vision by an accident and dryness of nerve. The table clearly shows male
dominated society because most of the married male respondents have sighted life partner.
Treatment received against Blindness
In our country, now government has established health-post in each and every corner of the county, our country is gradually
improving in health sector. However, there are some areas which need to be reformed. All the health centers are not providing
quality health facilities to the people due to lack of medicines and trained health personal too. The following table shows the
treatment received by the respondents against blindness.
Table 3
Distribution of respondents by types of treatment received
Treatment
received
Respondents
Male Female Total
Yes 64 94.12 24 80 88 89.8
No 4 5.88 6 20 10 10.2
Total 68 100 30 100 98 100
Types of Treatment
Ayurvedic 1 1.56 2 8.33 3 3.41
Allopethic 1 1.56 1 4.17 2 2.27
Witch Doctor 3 4.69 5 20.83 8 9.09
Multiple 59 92.19 16 66.67 75 85.23
Total 64 100 24 100 88 100
Table 3 shows that 89.8% of the respondents received treatment against blindness and 10.2% did not receive any
treatment. Among the respondents who received treatment, 9.09% went to witch doctor, 3.41% got Ayurvedic Treatment, 2.27%
got Allopathic treatment and majority of the respondents i.e. 85.23% tried multiple treatments but only few respondents were
only beneted from the treatment. But the treatment was not so effective the reason might be most of them were blind by birth.
Discount
As government has declared 50% discount for the disabled people and their caretaker while traveling in any public
vehicles, an attempt was made to know either these services are only limited in papers or implemented also.
Table 4
Distribution of respondents by getting discount in vehicles
Getting
discount
Respondents
Male Female Total
Yes 46 67.65 12 40 58 59.18
No 22 32.35 18 60 40 40.82
Total 68 100 30 100 98 100
Table 4 shows that 40.82% of the respondents are not getting fty percent discount in the vehicles. Among them 60%
were females and 32.35% were males. It clearly shows that females are discriminated more in comparison to males.
They also stated that vehicles do not stop for them as they have to give discount to them. Three females stated that
they even dont know about the discount. If they argue for this then some of them get discount but most of them do not, mostly
females. Even it was found that females do not argue if they dont get discount because they feel uncomfortable and are afraid of
others too. It was also found that if they are in group they are get the discount, otherwise they do not.
Allowance
Among the various programs launched for the disabled people, the disability allowance has been the most contentious
one. It was in 1994/95 that the budget of the government introduced the policy of providing economic and social security to the
disabled people with monthly allowance of Rs. 1000 there is the provision for the disabled people to apply individually to The
Ministry of Woman, Children and Social Welfare with the recommendation of the local government. However, there are strict
criteria to classify those who are actually eligible to get the allowance. The provision was made for fty people per district. It has
been mentioned that those who are severely disabled and dont have any sort of support should be provided with the allowance.
This includes those with both hands missing, both legs missing, those with multiple disabilities and mentally retarded people.
Table 5
Distribution of respondents by getting allowance
Getting al-
lowance
Respondents
Male Female Total
Yes 23 33.82 5 16.67 28 28.57
No 45 66.18 25 83.33 70 71.43
Total 68 100 30 100 98 100
It was found that only 28.57% of the respondents are getting allowance from the government rest 71.43% of them are
not getting allowance. The problem is mainly with low vision, side vision and central vision and few complete blind respondents.
As they dont have disability identity card and also they dont feel it important as they are helped by different organization
too. They are getting more allowance then government i.e. 2500 per month. If necessary they are getting vehicles and lunch
allowance too from these organizations.
Conclusion and Recommendations
- It was found that the majority of the blind respondents
are illiterate. Most of them withdraw from the studies too.
The main reasons were due to the problems they faced
like not being able to cope in the class, lack of special
classes. Either there should be special classes for these
disabled people or there should be integration with special
support for the disabled children.
- It is also essential to strengthen the networking in the
eld of disability, which includes the government, non-
government as well as private organizations.
- As there were cases of inappropriate treatment or even
a lack of treatment it is highly recommended that the
existing health services be improved and reinforced
with supplies, referral services and well trained staff.
Accessible and also to give proper advice to those with
disabilities.
- The inclusion of information on disability in the school
curriculum could raise awareness among children about
disability so that they will understand the importance
of including their disabled relatives, neighbours and
classmates in their activities.
- It was found that inappropriate allocation of budget had
hindered the programs and activities for the disabled
people. Therefore there is a need for proper allocation of
budget for the disabled people at the VDC level.
- There must be a special disability policy unit in the
National Planning Commission. The Ministry of Women,
Children and Social Welfare, The Ministry of Education
and The Ministry of Local Development should have
special unit or task force to ensure the implementation of
these policies.
- Though there are certain xed quotas for the disabled
people in the eld of teaching. There is a need to make
it mandatory to provide employment opportunities to
the disabled people in the government as well as private
sectors.
- There is a need to build strong institutional mechanism
at the private as well as the public sectors for proper
implementation of program for the disabled people.
- It is recommended that regular studies and research to
be carried out to derive further information in different
avenues of disability.
- According to Government policy, disabled allowance is
given only after age 16. Due to this family member of
disabled people and disabled people themselves who are
less than age 16 are deprived from the allowance, so there
should be the provision of giving disability allowance
immediately after the disability.
- It was found that disabled females face problems in public
areas such as markets especially local vehicles. They even
complained about sexual abuse such as touching private
parts too. Girls should be given special training to defend
themselves. Special seats are separated for the disabled but
implementation is not done. It should be strictly followed.
- Some respondents were of the opinion that allowance
spoils some of the blind people. They cited the example
of their friends that they picked up their allowance, went
straight to liquor shop for a few drinks. And returned
home to ght with their family members. They suggested
that it would be better to give food items like rice rather
than money to those who are unable to work.
- There is a need for spreading awareness in the community
as well as the family about the disabled people and the
importance of getting them involved in the activities at
household as well as community level. The local leaders
must be made aware that they can work for the disabled
people in their locality and should not wait for some
outsiders to come and help. They must be made aware that
the disabled person in most of the cases can participate in
regular schools or skill training with little special effort.
- It was also found that Rotary club has started two years
project for working in the eld of disability. They used
to give a information to the disabled people about
organizations that give services to disabled people. They
even conducted awareness advertisements regarding
disabled. This is really appreciable task. Such works
should be promoted.
- Effort must be made to provide the disabled people with
job opportunities so that they will become economically
empowered. One of the ways to reduce the level of
discrimination faced by the disabled people would to
strengthen their economic value once these people start
earning and have control over their income, they are seen
as productive members of the family and community.
This economic empowerment could play as key role in
developing self-condence among the disabled people and
at the same time it helps to eliminate the discriminatory
attitude toward them.
- It was found that the respondents wanted to participate
in work and different activities. It is recommended that
adequate support like access to school, specially trained
teachers in the schools, skill training and avenues should
be provided for income generating activities and group
savings need to be provided for such participation.
- The survival and care of the disabled people depends on
the family. At times the caretakers do not have special
knowledge on the particular disability of their wards. As
they are the main people who look after their disabled
members. There must be special programs for the care
takers. The special needs of the caretakers have to be taken
into consideration. The resources of family and especially
the mothers and wives have to be considered when training
programs for the disabled person is developed.
References
Nepal Disabled Human Right Center. (2062). Apang Aawaz.
Vol 4
Nepal Association of Blind. (2063). The concern. Vol. 3
special issue
The Sewa foundation . (1981). The Epidemiology of
Blindness in Nepal Report of National Blindness
Survey. Chelsea: Spring Lakes
UNICEF. (2001). A situation Analysis of Disability in Nepal.
Kathmandu. Author
WHO. (2007). Prevention of blindness and visual
impairement. Geneva: Author
Introduction
Similarly social returns to education also refer to
positive or negative outcomes that accrue to individuals other
than the person or family making the decision about how much
schooling to acquire. They are therefore benets (potentially
also costs) that are not taken into account by the decision-
maker. If such "external benets" are quantitatively important
they could result in signicant under-investment in education
in the absence of government intervention
Innovation, knowledge creation and economic growth
A central tenet of the new growth theories is that
knowledge creation and innovation respond to economic
incentives, and can thus be inuenced by public policy. The
education and skill formation systems play an important role
in fostering innovation and advancing knowledge. There
are three main dimensions to this role. One is related to the
research function of educational institutions, particularly
universities. Such research can be an important source of new
ideas and advances in knowledge. The other dimensions are
related to the teaching function of universities and colleges.
These educational institutions train many of the individuals
who will make future discoveries. They also play a central role
in transferring of accumulated knowledge to new generations.
According to this perspective, the human capital of the
workforce is a crucial
factor facilitating the adoption of new and more productive
technologies.
The transfer of knowledge function should be
reected in the private returns to education. Those receiving
education will become more productive and thus more
valuable to employers. The "return" to this investment takes
the form of higher earnings than would have been possible
without additional education. In contrast, there will generally
be social benets associated with encouraging innovation and
scientic advances that arise from the "public good" nature of
knowledge (Davies, 2002).
The Social Benets of Education
Tirtharaj Khatiwada
1
and Amit Koirala
2
Abstract
Social rate of return refers to the cost and benets to society of investment in education which include the opportunity
cost of having people not participating in the production of output and the full cost of provision of education rather than only the
cost borne by the individual. Social benets include the increased productivity associated with the investments and non-econom-
ic benet. This paper especially tries to argue that the social benets that take the form of market outcomes such as productivity,
earnings and output of goods and services which are also followed by non-market outcomes such as health, civic participation
and criminal activity.
The potential market failure associated with the
public good nature of knowledge is recognized by adoption of
patent laws and other institutional arrangements to encourage
invention and innovation. In addition to these "dynamic
externalities" that may contribute to greater growth in living
standards over time, there may also be "knowledge spillovers"
of a more static form if more educated individuals raise the
productivity and earnings of those they work with or interact
with in the community (Dee, 2003).
Davies (2002) also stated that there is substantial
evidence of dynamic externalities associated with education,
although he cautions that there remains considerable uncertainty
about their magnitudes. These dynamic externalities appear
to operate primarily via technology adoption and innovation.
Similarly (Dee, 2003) stated that tertiary education has a
special role to play in preparing workers for technological
adoption and innovation in the more advanced countries.
Knowledge spillovers
Static knowledge spillovers arise if more education
raises not only the productivity of those receiving the
education but also the productivity of those they work with
and interact with. Jane Jacobs (1969) argues that cities are an
"engine of growth" because they facilitate the exchange of
ideas, especially between entrepreneurs and managers. Such
knowledge spillovers can take place through the exchange of
ideas, imitation, and learning-by-doing. Evidence of the role
of knowledge spillovers in technological change has resulted
in substantial attention being focused on the clustering of
the agents of innovation -- rms, end users, universities and
government research facilities (Bekar and Lipsey, 2007).
Rauch (2008) stated that higher average education levels in
cities is correlated with both higher wages of workers (even
after controlling for the individual's own education) and higher
housing prices.
Ciccone and Peri (2002) estimate social returns of
2%-8% in excess of private returns and social returns of 1%-
1. Author is associated with Department of S.Std., DAVSKVB
2% associated with static knowledge spillovers from post-
secondary education in advanced economies. Together with
the growth-enhancing dynamic effects, this evidence suggests
that social benets associated with technological adoption,
innovation, and productivity enhancement from knowledge
spillovers may yield social returns in the range of 2-4%.
Non-market effects of education
The non-market benets of education considered are
consequences other than those received in the form of higher
wages or non-wage benets from working. Some of these
non-market effects and such as improved own health or child
development which may be considered private in nature, or at
least private to the family, and thus may be taken into account
by individuals in choosing the amount of education to acquire.
If so, they should not be treated as social benets. Nonetheless,
they are benets that accrue to the individual or family, and
thus should be added to the private benets associated with
higher lifetime earnings. In addition, even effects such as
improved health outcomes may be of some public value if they
reduce reliance on publicly funded programs.
Many of the studies also nd relationships between
the average education levels in the
community and positive non-market benets. For example,
higher average education levels in the community (particularly
young adults) lower school dropout rates of children. However,
not all of this research is able to control appropriately for
unobserved factors that may impact both education and these
non-market outcomes. Thus, considerable care needs to be
exercised in treating correlations between education and
various outcomes as being causal in nature.
Brief summaries of the state of knowledge relating
to these non-market social benets of education are provided
below.
Intergenerational effects
Parents' education has strong effects on children,
resulting in large intergenerational effects. As a consequence,
the benets of higher education accrue over extended periods.
Greenwood (2007) stated that higher parental education is
associated with lower fertility, which increased efciency
of contraception, as well as rising the age of both marriage
and rst pregnancy. The resulting lower population growth
is positive for economic growth in developing countries.
Similarly the incidence of teenage childbearing is much
higher for children of less educated parents. Teenage parents
have elevated probabilities of dropping out of high school,
demonstrated lower parenting skills, and experience higher
rates of poverty. This has subsequent negative impacts on the
children of teenage parents as outcomes for these children are
generally worse than for other children.
Child abuse and neglect are also associated with
parental education levels. Higher parental education is
associated with more substantial family investments in
children, and these investments have an effect far greater than
the societal education investments made when the child enters
school. Children of more educated parents generally perform
better in school and in the labour market, and have better
health. These impacts are signicant even after controlling for
parental income. The higher family investments typically take
the form of parental time and expenditures on children.
Children of less educated parents generally cost
more to educate, needing special compensatory programs, as
well as being more likely to require expensive programs like
foster care and juvenile diversion. Higher parental education
is associated with lower criminal propensities in children. It
is also associated with lower probabilities of parental abuse
and neglect, which also may reduce criminal behaviour and
the need for the removal of children from the home. Higher
parental education is associated with improved child health.
Although many of these consequences are internal
to the family, and thus should be treated as private benets,
a number of these intergenerational effects of education also
have benets for society. These include: lower education
costs, less use of foster care and juvenile diversion, lower
crime, lower health costs, and lower dependence on welfare
transfers.
Health and longevity
Wolfe and Haveman (2001) revels that education
has a causal impact on health outcomes in developed,
and in developing countries. Education may impact how
individuals assess information on how to improve health, and
it may increase the efciency by which individuals use that
information in lifestyle choices. It may also impact the rate of
time preference of individuals, with more educated individuals
discounting the future less, and thus undertaking actions that
improve health (e.g. smoking less).
Kenkel (2011) found that education is not only
associated with better health outcomes but also superior
health behaviors such as reduced smoking, more exercise and
lower incidence of heavy drinking. Interestingly, however,
the inuence of schooling does not mainly operate through
its impact on health knowledge - the estimated impact of
additional education did not decline substantially when
controls were included for health knowledge. This suggests
that the effect of education on health occurs mainly through
the utilization of health knowledge rather than the acquisition
of such knowledge.
Although better health is principally a private return,
it may also be a social benet if it means less reliance by people
on publicly provided health care or welfare payments. In this
respect, there is an important difference between morbidity and
mortality. From the perspective of the public nances, reduced
morbidity has a positive effect whereas increased longevity is
more likely to negatively affect publicly funded programs such
as pensions and medical care (Kenkel, 2011).
Criminal activity
Higher education levels may lower crime by raising
wage rates, which increase the opportunity cost of crime.
Education may also raise an individuals rate of time preference
(the extent to which future consequences are discounted), thus
increasing the cost of any future punishment as a result of
crime Moretti (2004).
Lochner (2004) states that the social value of high
school graduation through reductions in crime, taking into
account the costs of incarceration and costs to victims. The
extra social benets amount to almost 20% of the private
returns to increases in high school completion. This may
even be a conservative estimate as a number of crimes are
not included in the analysis, nor are the potential benets to
citizens associated with feeling safe. In addition, some of the
costs (such as criminal justice and law enforcement costs) are
also not taken into account.
According to Lochner (2004) increasing education
levels cause reductions in crime among adult males. They
employ three sources of information: incarceration, arrests
and self-reports of criminal activity. He advocates that
higher education levels, particularly graduating from high
school, consistently lower the probabilities of incarceration,
of criminal arrests, and of self-reports of undertaking criminal
activity.
Similarly Lee (2005) analyzes the data from the FBIs
crime reports which allows the impact of education on different
types of crime to be estimated. Education was most effective
in lowering violent crime rates like murder and assault, as
well as motor vehicle theft. The third data set employed was
a longitudinal survey that asked respondents about crimes
they have committed. This source of information usefully
supplements the data on arrests and incarceration because it
is possible that more educated people commit as much crime
as less educated people, but are better at avoiding arrest or
obtaining lighter sentences. The evidence, however, is that
education has very similar impacts on self-reported criminal
activity which it had on arrests and incarceration.
Civic participation
The impact of education on civic participation has
been analyzed by political scientists for a long time. The
correlation between education and voting is strong. Higher
education is also associated with greater charitable giving and
more volunteerism. Helliwell and Putnam (2009) also nd
that education is correlated with typical measures of social
capital: trust and social participation (club memberships,
community work, hosting dinner parties). However, studies
have recently attempted to determine whether education exerts
a causal inuence on civic participation, or the correlation
arises because both education and civic participation are
jointly inuenced by unobserved factors. Similarly Lee, 2005
also concluded that education helps in involvement in society,
follow the news and political campaigns, attend political
meetings, work on community issues, try to persuade others
to share their views, discuss political matters with friends,
consider themselves politically active, consider themselves
close to a political party, and trust the federal government.
Dee (2007) analyzes the impact of education on
voting and civic behavior. Education also increases certain
measures of civic engagement and knowledge: the frequency
of newspaper readership, and support for free speech by anti-
religionists, communists and homosexuals.
He also nds that additional education does not increase
support for free speech by militarists (someone who advocates
outlawing elections and letting the military run the country)
or racists.
In addition, higher education has a positive effect on
democratization and political stability the type of relationship
suggested by the quotes from Adam Smith and Milton
Friedman. McMahon (2006) also advocates that secondary
schooling helps on democratization, human rights, and
political stability, after controlling for income per capita and
military spending as a proportion of total public expenditure.
He also concluded that civic participation help in economic
growth that through democratization and political stability.
Tax and Transfer effects
According to Wolfe and Haveman (2001) more
education is less likely to rely on public transfers, even when
eligible for benets. Mothers education even lowers take-
up of welfare by eligible children. Similarly, Davies (2010)
revels that Canada is the modal marginal tax rate on university
graduates taking into account sales, excise and income taxes
is in excess of 50%. Thus each additional $1,000 in labour
market earnings generates an additional $500 in tax revenue.
He also estimated the gap between before-tax and after-tax
rates of return to a university bachelor's degree in Canada
and the U.S. In Canada, for men and women together, the
median reduction in the rate of return due to taxes was 1.9
percentage points. In the U.S. the corresponding reduction was
1.1 percentage points.
On the basis of these calculations, Davies (2010)
notes that the tax revenue associated with higher earnings adds
approximately two percentage points to the social benets
of higher education. Because of the progressive nature of
income tax, the reductions in the rate of return due to taxation
are larger at higher income levels. Collins (2007) estimate
reductions of 2.8 percentage points for Canadian men at the
90
th
percentile of the earnings distribution and 1.9 percentage
points for corresponding U.S. men.
Conclusions
In addition to the private benets, it is believed that
there are major social benets from schooling. Educational
attainment is correlated with numerous individual and
social outcomes such as lifetime earnings, health and
civic participation. Education is associated with dynamic
externalities with economic growth, static knowledge
spillovers, non-market external benets, social benets
associated with taxation.
In short, although more research on these issues is
needed the value of the social benets of education appears
to be similar in size to the private market returns to education
from higher lifetime earnings. Thus, the benets of education
are considerable, and any decisions regarding public support
for education should take these social and non-market benets
into account.
References
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Collins, K. (2007). Tax treatment of human capital in
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Introduction
This article focuses on Laxmi Prasad Devkotas
Munamadan (1936), a story of tragic passionate love story
of newly married couple of Kathmandu. Devkota produced
great literature from the year 1930s to 1950s with the focus on
the progressive socio-economic and cultural system. During
that period Nepal passed through the difcult historical phase
that came to recognize voice of Nepalese people in order
to introduce and place democracy in the place of 104 years
long Rana Regime. The period witnessed peoples dream and
struggle for liberty, equality and political rights and the end
of Family rule. So the dominant discourse of the time was
Nepals emphasis on parliamentary practice, open market and
individual freedom. As a result, the spirit of the age was lled
with a lot of conicts and contradictions, which generated
a new sensibility in author for producing literature of social
concern and action. Shahi, 2012, wrote in the journal Literary
Studies, As Muna Madan was published when Nepal was
moving from traditional agricultural mode of production
to modern exchange system based on western economic
principle, the poem describes the socioeconomic complexities
of Nepal that was losing old social and economic order
and new had not developed in its complete form. Thus the
characters are also much inuence by the historical conditions
of the time and shaped by the tension between east and west.
Muna is an embodiment of local ways of living by her faith in
eastern spiritual discourse that guides Nepalese psyche, rituals
and social activities. Madan is a representatives of individual
freedom based on western economic inuence upon the
Nepalese society.
Devkotas literature reects the spirit of Nepali socio-
political discursive practices. Muna Madan is an exposition
Socio-Political and Cultural Realities in Devkotas
Muna Madan
- Dil Prasad Prajapati
1
Abstract
It would be all right if all my works were burned, except for Muna Madan, the Nepali poet Laxmi Prasad Devkota
said this on his deathbed in 1959. Muna Madan is a narrative of Nepalese peoples shared the history and life experiences
and the socio-economic complexities of Nepal that was losing old social and economic order and new had not developed in
its complete form, dramatizing social and individual dimensions of lived life. The poem represents a relatively early and naive
work in the career of Nepals most famous and prolic twentieth century writer. However, for all its simplicity in narrative and
structure, Devkota managed to capture something in the essence of Muna Madan which can never be replicated. As a work of
Nepali literature, it stands on the threshold of modernity, borrowing themes from Sanskrit poetry and Newari literature as well
as reclaiming the populist jhyaure folksong tradition. At the same time, it forges a new Nepali literary identity based on simple
homely values, love and inclusiveness. In this way the poem manages to look both at the past and at the future, remaining fresh
and timeless for readers
of the Viraha Rasa, the sentiment of longing engendered
by separation from ones loved ones, in the time- honored
tradition of many South Asian romances (Hutt, 1996). Joshi,
1986, takes Devkotas narrative poetry as a reection of
nature.
Avasthi, 2004, claims that Devkotas narrative poetry
is the result of the poets love for nature. He further argues
that Devkota is a romantic poet who is familiar with British
romantic movements and its ramications.
Dominik, 2012 states that Devkotas epic poem -
Muna Madan - is a long tragic romance in verse form about
a husband who sets off as a trader for Lhasa leaving behind
his beloved wife and mother. The poem represents a relatively
early and naive work in the career of Nepals most famous and
prolic twentieth century writer.
Shrestha, 2000 argues that Muna Madan, a classic
of Nepali language, is a book every Nepalese holds dear
to the heart written in popular Jhyaure Folk tradition,
the play weaves a moving tale of Madan who goes to Lhasa to
earn an honest dream of bedecking his beloved wife, Muna,
with ornaments of Gold and of fullling the nal wishes of
his ailing mother. But on his way back home, Madan falls
sick. Drama then unfolds to depict the agony of a human life
caught in the twilight of dreaming and knowing.
East Vs West
Muna madan shows the geo-political compulsion of
moving out to labour and come back to live to the rhythm of
the Himalayan hills of Nepalese. In this text, Devkota aspires
to capture the glare of the Nepalese grain and temper with
elemental hues and colours of the Nepalese landscape and
natural images to the Nepalese brainscape (Joshi, 1986).
1. Corresponding author is associated with Department of English, DAVSKVB
In 1930s the idea of western social system that
economic progress leads individual and society to success
in terms of advancement inuenced Nepal. As Devkota
recognizes and explains two opposite social forces East
and West through Muna and Madan, to some extent, Muna
Madan is product of the conict between old and new mode of
production and exchange values, Muna wants Madan to live
simple life guided by Eastern spiritual love and relationship.
Her idea of family life contains local social packages. She
suggests that Madan should stay with his mother and wife at
home. For her Madans interest and decision to go to Lhasa
for wealth is a disappointment and unpleasant act that tortures
her very much. Muna is an ideal person with typical Nepali
feelings, emotions and values. Nepali religious and cultural
discourse lies at the heart of her living. True spiritual love
is her philosophy. New Western economic forces shaping
Madans mind dont impress her. She refuges Madans
interest in Western economic inuence which tends to destruct
convectional social and family relationships in her family. As
Madan is ready to leave her, she says,
What will you get from the trade by leaving your
sick and old mother at home?
What will you get by becoming a trader and
experiencing pain in foreign land? (Devkota, 2059).
The village, Kantipur is a good living place for her.
She is happy with what is there in the village and in the family.
But Madans adventure shocks her and forces her to live in
difculty.
Purity in Muna: Eastern Hindu Philosophy
The evil social forces embodied by Naini and
Antagonist lead her to death. In absence of Madan, villain
always wanders by Munas house. Despite Naini and villain
attend to deceive her, she remains honest, loyal and dutiful to
her social and family values till death. She doesnt break down
the spiritual boundaries of her societies. Rather, she teaches
Naini and the antagonist that they should not persuade her. She
is not interested in the villain and his city life style. God is
superior to wealth in Munas life. She believed that God will
do help her in her sufferings and pain.
As Naini keeps convincing her to begin material life
by getting married with city boy, Muna threatens her not to
come again to talk to her. Muna views women as ideal and
pure being. Eloping with second person or man is pollution
and sin according to Muna. The society needs pure human
beings for order and peace. Munas focus on purity in soul
signies Eastern Hindu philosophy and its essence that pure
soul leads to salvation. As pure local person Muna loves her
village family, soil, sky, sun and culture. Villians new way
of thinking and living do not touch her mind and soul. She
shares her good and bad experiences with family member for
improving family tie. Once at night she sees bad dream in
which the buffalo chases her. In the morning, she responses
to it by talking to mother-in-law about her feelings. She says:
What dream I saw today?
Buffalo chases me,
My soul pounds remembering how Buffalo followed me
up to Himalayan.
Grandmother! Buffalo chase (Devkota, 2059).
This shows that Muna is deeply inuenced by tradition
and society in which she is born and grows up. Devkota,
2059, describes how culture shapes Human subjectivity and
Human being also interact with culture. The poet is aware
of mans role in creating and preserving culture. Muna calls
Madan Krishna. She waits for him patiently and faces
internal and external difculties. She prays to Lord Pashupati
and Guheyaswori. In Eastern traditional Nepali society, Lord
Pashupati and other local Gods are important spiritual images.
These invoking metaphors of Gods help people overcome
agony, uncertainties and sufferings.
Economic and Political Shift
Devkota lived and wrote in 1920s and 1950s. During
his life time, Nepal saw many changes and witnessed war
and conict within and outside Nepal. World wars I and II
brought new tradition in national and internal relationship.
Nepal tried to consolidate its social and cultural boundaries
with new national identity and glory through the revolution
for democracy. At such a historical juncture, Devkota used his
poetic sensibility to take all social happenings into an account
and established tradition of writing history through literature.
He responds to social transformation by making Nepali social
beings ctive characters of his poetry. Madan is Nepali whose
family comes to represent growth of middle class in Nepal.
Madan is not traditional Nepali. Neither is he a conventional
husband. However, the Western life style attracts him very
much. New social life shaped by materialism inuences him
to extent that he leaves his wife weeping and sobbing or crying
in order to earn money. He cant escape new social conditions
based in Western economic theory. Western economic theory
proposes an idea that economics is foundation of social
development and life. Without economic base progress in life
and society is impossible. For bright life and social welfare,
Madan accepts new economic idea and goes to the city for
improving his economy. His new way of thinking challenges
Munas belief system. But using metaphors, which signify
bright life, desired future and new morning, Madan persuades
Muna, to take his decision in the easy way. While convicing
Muna he is more rhetorical in his tone and speech.
My darling, your tears may be an obstacle to me on
the way.
Showing bright teeth that may look pomegranate my darling
smile.
If you are happy, I can drive the kingdom of lord Indra.
My darling laugh, and be happy at farewell (Devkota, 2059).
Madan wants to become a hero in changing society.
He wants to prove that he is brave and bold enough to
overcome difculty. As man of middle class spirit, he wants
to institutionalize his position in the society by earning gold
and silver. It is through gold and silver he plans to brings
changes in his family. His interest in an adventure to change
the society and rule it exemplies that Madan is new Nepali
man who decides to develop the society through struggle and
hard working. When he talks to Muna he argues that courage,
struggle and hard work are major tools to transform the world,
to light electivity in the world, and contribute to the society.
Madan goes to Lhasa and earns gold. On the way
back home, he falls sick. After recovery, he reaches home.
Death of wife and mother shocks him. The tragedy in his
family can be conceived as social tragedy of Nepals economic
failure. Indeed, Devkota shows how Nepal welcomes
Western economic culture and development and fails to gain
right economic prosperity. Rana Prime minister, Mohan
Shumsher introduced Western model of Economic planning.
But achievement could not benet all the Nepalese. Failed
economic development increased the gulf between people.
Some people become very rich and others remain at the
margins without access to basic needs and rights. The poet also
attempts to educate people about the mysteries in life. Both
Muna and Madan cannot escape mysteries of life which works
as invisible foes in their relationship. Devkota seems to say
that mysteries occur due to confusions and contradictions in
human thinking and human relationship. However, Devkota
is in favor of a spiritual relationship, which leads the society
to peace and reconciliation. In this story, Madans material
interest destroys his relationship with Muna. His spiritual
discourse helps them that they will have reunion in heaven. By
the end of the story the poet puts forward his ideas that man
should believe in his or her action. Through bold action people
should understand life and world. The poet argues that the
people need courage, hope, labor and struggle without lack of
condence on the earth to understand themselves. He admires
courage and honesty in people for the betterment of society.
Madan advocates for individual freedom. His individualism
has root in the idea of western economic progress. Thus,
Devkota describes how Nepal had been inuenced by an idea
of Western individualism during his life time.
Devkota, 2059, as Italian neo-Marxist critic,
Gramsci, 1994, argues, is an organic intellectual whose job
is to study society and impart right knowledge to the mass.
For the rst time, Devkota, 2059, provides knowledge about
life experiences to ordinary people by writing in their own
language by focusing on a balance between spiritual and
material discourses. Writing in Nepali Jhyaure reects a
great historical moment in the history of Nepali literature.
Devkota, 2059, responds to social changes by reporting social
episodes and life in common Nepali peoples language. With
such daring act of communicating in the language of common
Nepali he enables people to understand their own experiences
and conditions. Muna and Madan face alienation caused by
new economic interest. Alienation is one of strong elements
of modern materialistic society. Madan alienates himself
from Muna for progress, but the alienation brings pain and
suffering in his life. Other people in the society do not help
him properly. Villian who lives economically sound life and
Nainee, a selsh women, destroy his wife.
Cultural Diversity
Muna Madan observes cultural diversity. Changna
who helps Madan in difculty is a Bhote living in the Western
hill of Nepal. As a true follower of Buddhism, he helps others
without any biasness or prejudices. In difculties, he supports
Madan, a Hindu Chhetri. Devkota, 2059, presents Buddhism
as it shapes subjectivity in the Sherpa community. Since the
Bhote lives in the society where people shaped by Buddhas
teaching in the real life, he really serves a sick Madan without
material prot. When Madan offers him bag full of gold for his
help and work, he denies it saying that gold cannot substitute
for humanity. Rather he wants Madan to keep with him in his
mind for a long lasting relationship.
The conversation between Madan and Changna is
peaceful. Their peaceful talks and honesty toward each other
explain the fact that Buddhists and Hindus in Nepal live
together without enmity in a harmonious way. In fact, even the
literal history shows that over centuries and centuries Hindus
and Buddhists have lived together without hostility. Devkota
reinforces the same aspects of Nepali historical reality in his
description of relationship between Madan Changna. All the
characters in the poem are in favor of religious harmony.
Religious tolerance and distinction go side by side making
people sociable and helpful toward each other. As a creative
writer, Devkota, 2059, praises good human relationship and
present destruction caused by bad intention.
Muna Madan also communicates something about
Nepali nationality. The narrator views Nepal as autonomous
state with rich culture and geography. Metaphorically and
symbolically speaking different owers blooming in Nepal
indicate the diverse ethnic groups and people. These diverse
people live together as the diamond beads of same garland
in Nepal. Although these diverse ethnic castes of people live
in diverse geographical state, they have the strong feeling of
National unity, integrity and respect with each other. The hills,
terai and mountains are the main inhabitation of the diversied
people. The poet heartily praises the natural beauty of hills
and mountains and the rural cultural geography of Nepal in
very appealing voice. The poet writes the description of the
morning scene like this:
Himalayan peaks laugh showing bright views in the northern
pole of Nepal.
Hills are owers of garland to the city.
On the beach of river trees stand blowing gentle breeze.
The cloud covers the eastern hills, sloppy lawns and bright.
The milk ows as stream (Devkota, 2059).
Historically speaking, Nepal is a country of cultural
diversity and beautiful physical landscape. Devkota, 2059,
takes part in the great social project to strengthen Nepali
nationality by inscribing physical and cultural landscapes
in his poetry. During the poets life tine Nepal was trying to
demonstrate the world that she was an independent nation.
Nepal had been perceived in terms of bravery, religious
tolerance, and spiritual love. Devkota deals with Nepali reality
such as poverty torturing common people. He knows that
people on the margins are unable to use economic resources
available in the country. Only culture of bravery and beautiful
landscape do not make people life easy. Focus is given on the
balance between economy and culture.
Madans mother and sister are Nepali mother and
sister. Mother simply expresses her desire for social welfare.
Madan also decides to fulll his mothers wish by changing
his economic status. Old mother is responsive to her family
and society. She allows son to begin his adventure for social
transformation. Sister appears in the end of story to help Madan
in difculties. She becomes a responsible person to normalize
life. The poem exposes Madans sister as new women who
takes over family responsibility seems to be active. Her
activeness questions the patriarchal notion by woman is
capable of changing herself according to time and space.
Depicting Nepali life experiences as it is, the poet supports
good aspects of tradition and develops new world view for
betterment of Nepal and the Nepalese. With a new world
outlook the poet encourages people to accept good elements
of culture and move ahead for changing the social condition.
Conclusion
In a nutshell, while playing a signicant role in
developing and promoting Nepali literary art, Devkotas Muna
Madan is a very excellent example of his contribution to
modern Nepalese literary culture and society. Through Muna
Madan, he records and examines Nepali socio-political and
cultural realities. The changes, he depicts are social, economic,
political cultural and religious in their nature. Devkota
produced great literature from the year 1930s to 1950s with the
focus on the progressive socio-economic and cultural system.
During that period Nepal passed through the difcult historical
phase that came to recognize voice of Nepalese people in order
to introduce and place democracy in the place of 104 years
long Rana Regime. The period witnessed peoples dream and
struggle for liberty, equality and political rights and the end
of Family rule. So the dominant discourse of the time was
Nepals emphasis on parliamentary practice, open market and
individual freedom. As a result, the spirit of the age was lled
with a lot of conicts and contradictions, which generated a
new sensibility in Devkota for producing literature of social
concern and action. The poem involves man in the very
social practices of cultural creation. The characters have been
practical agency in reaction to those common cultural and
human experiences such as birth, life, love, and hate, success
and failure, pain, joy, suffering, and death. Likewise, the text
reects Nepal, which was trying to move towards the capitalist
society from the existing previous society and opens a new
horizon to the Nepalese life and society.
References
Adhikari, K. R. (2066). Devkota Ka Nari Patraharu. Bhrikuti,
Vol 5. P, 41-56
Avasthi, M. (2004). Laxmi Prasad Devkota Khandakavay
Karita. Kathmandu: Ekta Books
Devkota, L. P. (2059). Muna Madan. Lalitpur: Sajha Prakashan
Dominik, V.B. (2012). Muna madan. Ecs Nepal. Retrieved
from htp://ecs.com.np/feature_detail.php?f_
id=571
Gramsci, A. (1994). Letters from prison. Vol 2. Trans. R.
Rosenthal, Ed. F. Rosengarten.New York: Columbia
UP.
Guerin, W. L. (2004). A Handbook of Critical Approaches to
Literature. New York: Oxford UP,
Hutt, M. (2001). Devkotas Muna-Madan: Translation and
Analysis. Lalitpur: Sajha Prakashan,
Joshi, K. B. (1986). Mahakavi devkotas poetic journey:
an analysis if its twists and turns. Kathmandu:
Tribhuvan University.
Tyson, L. (2008). Critial Theory Today. New York: Garland
Puublishing Inc
Shrestha, A. P. (2000). Muna madan: a play in the jhyaure folk
tradition. New Delhi: Nirala Prakashan
Shahi, S. k. (2012). Politics, poetics, and devkota: a study on
devkotas munamadan and kunjini. Literary Studies,
Vol 26, P, 144-54.
Introduction
Free, fair and plural media have been developed as
the characteristics of modern democracy. Likewise, separation
of power and check and balance of power are also developed
as the signicant characteristics of democracy. When the
democracy is in practice in the full edged condition then
there is necessarily mass media to comment freely over the
internal and external issues of the society. Within this context,
mass media socially have been accepted as the fourth estate in
well functioning democratic system as they inform the work of
3 organs of government along with the role of free commenter.
According to Kharel, 2012, some political parties whip up
passions and radicalize the youths to the extent that the latter
go over board and jump the line of action originally envisaged
by their leaders. Besides these, when media itself is involved
in a politics in the name of fourth estate in media illiterate
societies they create unhealthy societies. To minimize the
hazardous effect of mass media and developing media as the
catalyst for civilized society, American Society of newspaper
editors prescribed the cannon of journalism in 1923 for the
rst time which imbedded responsibility, freedom of the press,
independence, sincerity, truthfulness, accuracy, impartiality,
fair play and Decency for the sustainable development of
mass media industry can be found in principle in almost all of
the democratic societies. Governments of different countries
develop media under the code to promote and safeguard the
people's right to expression and information as guaranteed by
the constitution. Side by side, when the leaders are in trouble
in maintaining the status quo of the power, constitutional
emergency is declared where some of the journalistic rights
including citizens' rights are censored (Kharel, 2012, P, 328).
Proxy War
A proxy war or proxy warfare is a war that results
Proxy war between media and politicians
(Analysis over some of the national and international
practices)
- Bigyan Subedi
1
Abstract
This article focuses on the verbal war between mass media and political parties. It is based upon the rapid development
of mass media and burgeoning political parties which have been developed as the characteristics of functioning democracy.
It is an attempt centralized to study how political actors want to use media and how media portrays the political leaders in
different circumstances and vice-versa. Within the global gure not only in democratic societies but also in communist societies,
everywhere there are policies to be formulated by political parties. Likewise, there is mass media in existence in both developed
and developing societies be they in any format, though there may be variation in quantity. Highlighting the human instinct to
remain in power, this article illustrates the verbal battle between mass media and political leaders leading to the loss of lives and
properties.
when opposing powers use third parties as substitutes for
ghting each other directly. While powers have sometimes used
governments as proxies, violent non-state actors, mercenaries,
or other third parties are more often employed. It is hoped that
these groups can strike an opponent without leading to full-
scale war. According to Bills, 1986, proxy wars have been
observed after the end of world war as in the form of cold war.
As proxy war is conducted by third parties, mass media have
been seen developed as the tool of proxy war, which includes
war in airwaves, through the use of satellite on television and
computer screen and in the headlines and stories of newspaper
and magazine including the new media.
Fourth Estate
The Fourth Estate is a societal or political force or
institution whose inuence is not consistently or ofcially
recognized. "Fourth Estate" most commonly refers to the news
media; especially print journalism or "The Press". Thomas
Carlyle attributed the origin of the term to Edmund Burke,
who used it in a parliamentary debate in 1787 on the opening
of Press reporting of the House of Commons of Great Britain.
Later with the development other forms of mass media like
radio, television and new media, fourth estate was applied
to other media as per the role of balanced commenter and
informer over the action of executive, legislative and judiciary
(Julianne, 1998).
Illustration
The media worker, when confronts ethical dilemmas
and political parties manipulate the media, will create a deadly
media impression rather than a public sphere for all-rounded
1. Corresponding author is Desk Editor, DAV Media Center
debate. Politicization of public institutions has multiple
and dangerous results. Uprety, 1996, says that, Internal
bureaucratic competitions helped worsen the situation (Local
autonomy) when able one were branded with political colour
by their inferiors counterparts to gain promotions and other
benets (after the 1990 movement that restated multiparty
democracy). In the chaos of transition, everything must have
looked fair to the new leaders who had had no experience
of power whatsoever. It shows that over politicization of
professional sectors will miss the expert and capable person
to carry out the function due to the appointment of the
same ideological cadre of ruling parties in the top level of
government post. However, in developed societies for power
equilibrium opponent leaders are given responsibility. Hilary
Clinton was a leading candidate from the Democratic for
presidential nomination and she was in an election battle with
Barack Obama but after being defeated by Barack Obama she
was posted 67th United States Secretary of State from 2009 to
2013 serving under President Barack Obama (Joe, 2009).
Similarly, former Prime Minister Pushpa Kamal
Dahal of Nepal at press meet accused the Nepali news media
for creating chaos in the country. He spoke to the awaiting
media corps before leaving for Bardiya in Connection with
arranging for returning lands seized by his own party cadres
to the rightful owners. Within same scenario, Puskar Lal
Shrestha put in his paper that another irresponsible leader
might, tomorrow, blame the press for being compelled to
hand over the country to foreigners (Shrestha, 2011). This
shows how political leaders blame mass media as the agent of
creating disorder in the society. For a balanced media houses
it was a great blame as the leader was judging all the media
in one category. But for those media house who had intended
to worsen the fame of leader, it was a usual statement. When
talking about individual property right of democratic societies,
it is a must. Though transition phase would have rediscovered
differently.
Kharel, 2012, says, the media; be they in the US
or other western countries, often do not raise the problem
of their country extensively where as they devote a lot of
time and space to poverty in North Korea and income gaps
in China. The latter two countries have communist systems
and this gives terrible pain to capitalist world. Governments
charting out polices confronting rival ideologies are accepted.
But when the media professing to be free and fair shows their
ideological biases, the situation calls for more critical calls
watchdog of the media (Kharel, 2012).This shows media
are used for proving the ideology they hold unnecessarily
rather than using mass media in the direction of harmonious
environment and searching the way of development through
friendly environment.
Jim Sciutto was chief of staff at the U.S. Embassy in
Beijing from 2011 to 2013. Before that, he was senior foreign
correspondent for ABC News. He says, 'from the moment
we land in China, Americans must adjust to an aggressively
censored version of the Internet, sanitized of the United
States most iconic brands. Twitter, Facebook and YouTube
are blocked. Google is partially blocked and sometimes runs
through a ringer of digital interference that makes it painfully
slow. The New York Times and Bloomberg News are off-
limits, while the Wall Street Journal and other U.S. news sites
endure targeted blockages of stories deemed sensitive (Sciutto,
2013). This is an example of restricting western leaders in the
media that they have occupied in the communist countries
in order to control possible dangerous manipulation of their
internal matter.
Within the inter relationship of media and politics,
Parthasarthy, 2005, writes when Indira Gandhi imposed a
state of an emergency in India (1975-77), there was universal
condemnation of the muzzling of the press. In a letter to foreign
friend in March 1971-four years before she clamped the
Emergency rule she had this to say about the Indian press; our
own press has done everything possible to mislead the public
about me personally and about my aims and objectives. Even
though everything they said about my aims of objectives. Even
though everything they said about my father earlier and then
about me is being proved wrong all the time, the columnists
continue with their supercilious analyses (P, 197). Emergency
period has not been in favor for mass media as their right to
impart important estate affairs are censored where rulers in the
period are centralized to control the mass media to minimize
the possible public opinion formation.
Proxy war does not end just in the verbal disputes
but it damages the lives and property including physical and
mental torture. In a repot of 'Reporters without Borders', 38
journalist including two media assistants were killed globally
by september 2013, (Reporter without borders, 2013).
Political activist appoint mass communicator at the rst point.
If they do not meet the target they try to buy them off. If this
formula does not work. The criminal groups are ordered to
accomplish the task. Journalists are murdered every year in
acutance perpetrated by the political- criminal circle. Next to
this in the period of war, even professional journalist while
portraying the real situation are murdered and the case of war
group media is even terrible.
According to Risal, 2066, in Nepals rst general
election in 1959 was a diehard communist party cadre and
full time Halkhabar correspondent campaigning for Ganesh
Prashad Manandhar who was party's candidate contesting
from Bhaktapur constituency. This is an example of alternative
system of media operation where media are used as the tool of
publicity in an election as the mouthpiece. So from here it can
be analyzed from two perspectives as whether politicians can't
imagine victory without media or media professional can't
imagine media environment without depending on politics.
Within the scenario of Gulf war, Kharel, 2012, states
that Public anger against Britain's involvement in the Iraq and
Afghanistan wars did not gure much in the British media.
Once the body bags began to arrive home and the war dragged
on for a decade costing the foreign forces in Afghanistan and
Iraq trillions of dollars, public outcry grew louder. British
Prime Minister Tony Blair, who went all out in supporting
Bushs Policy, faced public anger as consequences. This is the
scenario of developed country where in the cases international
relation they censor their national and local media for free ow
of the message.
Discussion
Proxy war in between political parties and media
has been observed as the natural phenomenon as media are
developed as the forum to comment freely over the incidents
developed. In democratic societies proxy war is an unending
process as the minor dissatisfaction in between media and
leaders may lead to verbal attack over each other. From the
political party operated and extreme regulated media, there is
low chance of media to work as a fourth estate or watchdog but
a lapdog. When the quantities of media are high there are more
chances of covering different voices but there must be absence
of media cartelling, concentration and one media system.
Either in developed societies or in developing
societies leaders have taken media as a tool of strengthening
their party, government and power while media workers
always advocate over their extreme freedom legally, with the
intention to establish media governance.
Besides these all, in the case of image development, both
political parties and mass media cross the border line which
result towards defamation of both groups. In this stance,
besides taking the aid of media watch mechanism and even
of the court, the verbal war gets maturated to the loss of
lives and properties including physical and mental torture.
While working in international level, three factors are mainly
governing in the relationship of media, i.e. nationality,
ideology and humanitarian perspective. Proxy war has been
observed much in the case when ideology is in the highest
level followed by nationality whereas, the chances of proxy
war in humanitarian relationship is very less and somehow
impossible.
Conclusion
Media both in developing and developed countries
are accepted as a means of social development or social
transformation. Despite this, whenever media is misunderstood
as the ends of political achievements both media and leaders
suffer a lot. It is found in the practiced as well. There is no
doubt that independent media will create the platform for
covering different voices along with the supply of information,
news and views of current affairs in a balanced way. All the
forces of societies rather than accusing each other should
sit together and nd the alternatives for the advancement of
societies in a more participatory way rather than imposing
their own doctrine to get the credit and govern the society.
After all in any condition, a civilized society cannot support
the death and loss of lives and property including physical and
mental harassment of any citizens and any professionals in the
name of proxy war which has been observed every year.
References:
Bills, S. L. (1986). The world deployed : US and Soviet
military intervention and proxy wars in t h e
Third World since 1945. From: Robert W. Clawson
(Ed.). Wilmington, P. 77-101
Joe, K. (2009). The State of Hillary: A Mixed Record on the
Job. New York Times November 7, 2009
Julianne, S. (1998). Reviving the fourth estate.
England: Cambridge University Press.
p. 49. ISBN 978-0-521-62970-6
Kharel, P. (2012). Media for participatory democracy
.Kathmandu: Suvatara Publication Pvt. Ltd
Partarsarathy, R. (2005). Journalism in India: From the
earliest times to the present. New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers
Reporter without borders. (2013). Press Freedom Barometer
2013. Retrieved from h t t p : / / e n . r s f . o r g /
pr ess- f r eedom- bar omet er- j our nal i st s- ki l l ed.
html?annee=2013
Risal, S and Risal, B.( 2009). Sushila Bhairav. Kathmandu:
Sushma Sapkota, Sushma Khatiwada and Bhashwat
Risal
Sciutto, J. (2013). My life as a diplomat. Retrieved from http://
www.jimsciutto.com/archives/980
Shrestha, P. L. (2011). Press Club Chalera 'watchdog banau',
Nepal. Samacharpatra. December1, 2011, 32
Uprety, H. (1996). Crisis of governance. Kathmandu: Center
for Governance and Development Studies.
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+= - =--, == = |+ - + = +t-
=== : =+== +-:= = - +- + - = ==
==== +--+ + == -- - + =-- = -
+= == - === -- =-c=-c +--+ - = -, =+
- = - -- =-+ ~-= ~= = -, =+- :- =-
- + -= |= =-- =, +--+ =- == + =- -- +-= -
= + =- == - -- +t - = =-- +--+ +-+ +--+
+ == +- - == -- - +-= - ++- +
=+- = ~- + =~=+- += - =-- === ~ = ==
= +- -- + +| - + - =- - + = ==-==
+ ~ - =+- =-+ == = ==-, =+- -
==-= + ~-- = +=- + == + === - - + -+=
+ =| -~- =~+- =--- = = =+ - - += =
=- =-= - =--+- ==- |, =-+ -= := ++ -
-= +=- =~, +,- =-= ====-, +==, -
~- - += =~, ==, =~ += ==-, +,
=-= =~ += ==-, +-, ==- -=+s,
=-=, == ~-= - +, -: -=, ----
+= =~, ---- =+=, +==, - =~ +,
+=-, =-= =+=, -: -= := ++, :-+
=-+- += - + = =~,----+=, - += =~,
-, :, - -=+s, :, --=- =:= ~-=
-=+s, :, === =~ += ==-, =--=, ==
+= +, =, - ==- =-= -=,-- -
+ -+= + =| - ===+, =+-- - - +
==- ~ =+- +=- =--+- ~=+ -~ - - =
~- + -~- =, =-= = ++- - -+, ++,
==+, +==+, =+-+, -+ +++++= + ==-
~ =--= -
ir| irv|||
- =-+ -- += = ==- +- -| -- ==
+ +-= =+ - == - - ~ ~- = - ==- -- -
-- + =-+ = - = = +t: =- - =-+
=+- - + - = === - +=+= +=- +- -
~- + ==- +=, =-=, +- = - - ~ =-
-= == =+ = = -
, -- + =-= According to SIL Interanational
Ethnologice about 180 million people in india regard standard
(Khadi Boli) Hindi as their mother tongue and another 300
million use it as a second language. Out side India, Hindi
speakers number around 8 million in Nepal, 890,000 in South
Africa, 685,000 in Mauritius, 317, 000 in the U.S. 233,000 in
yemen, 147,000 in Uganda, 30,000 in Germany, 20,000 in
New Zealand and 5,000 in Singapore, while the UK and UAE
also have notable populations of Hindi speakers. According to
comrie, 1998, Hindi is the second most spoken language in the
world with 333 million native speakers.
:-- - -- =-- : - ~ + --- ~- =
- =-- - - = ~ - - + =-+ +--+ =+- ~ =
=-- ++ = =+- ~ + =-+ +--+ - = =--
++ - --- - - ~ + ===- = - ==
: ==- -=+= =+-=-+=, =, ==+=: ++-=
--+- = : =-=- ==- = : --: -===
=+== ===: + == --+ =:, : =- ==
==- = - + +r=- --- |- ~-= =-+- -
- === + +=+ ~ - + +- :-+ +--
: - = + =+ -=-+= + ++- |
- -- = =| ==- +- =-- +- -
=-- ==- - +- =- -
=- - +: === ~ -- -, == - ==+a
= = + += =- ~= = - + ~ -- - = +
-:- =-=- ===- - - + --~ + =| == +-
- =- + = =====+ -- = :- =+=+
~=+ = + - =-- |=: + |+ =-++ -+=-
= +==- ~ - + --~ -- =-|
= ~- + +c = =- +, -, ==+,
~:, =--, -=, -=-, c-==t, -=== +
- ~ + +-=- =+- == :=+ == -- ==:
= =+- -, == =- --~ - =: - ~- = -
~ -- - ====- -- = - - ==: - =
-= =+ = =s- -- - ====- -= := ====-
+ ==- ==+- = =r=== = ==: + -=
-- + =-= On the eve of this felicitous occasion it
worth deliberating on issues related to the position of Hindi in
the world.It is important to locate the necessary measures to
increase the popularity of this language so that the voices in
Hindi get heard at the global front. Primarily, let us start with
the ever increasing spread of Hindi in the world . -- = -
~ + t- =-=r= = - ~ += + =-- t-
=-=r= + === = =- =-=- + - - + = -
-- == -+= =+ - = -- =-=+ = c =: -
ir| +| =rrr
+ -=+ + =+- + =~ + ===-
+- += +-= -- - +=+ += ~ ---+ = +
=-=- -~ +== -= = :=+ ===- + =- -=
+ +- = -+=- =- = =-- =+- =-=- ==-
- :=== - = ==+ =~ - - :-
===: - ~ =+- =-=- + =- = - -| === +
-=+ =+- ~= -: ~ + =~ -: =- -- +
=| +=- - + ---+ = + =| ---+ ~, =+- =-+-
= =-=- + + =+- - = + -+= + +-
- =+- - - ~ := == + === - |= +=,
-, - - + =-- = | -, = :=++ -
- ~- + += = = = = ==~ =- -
- - + ~- + =-+- + - =r= ~ -- + =-
+- -
- ~- = =-== =++ ~ + =+ = += +- -
=+-+ = = ~ =- |+ =-- ~ -
- - ~ + ===- -= + +: ---=== = ==-
= + = += =- -
+: --=- =-- ~- + ---+- + =| =:: +=,
---- = - + |+ == ~ -- + :-c -
= - + + == += ~ ~-= ~ + -=- = =++
=++ -
=+ - ~ ==- = = = ==~ = =+- -
-= = ==-= = === + - =- -= +
=r= == =++ -
- ~ ~-=- + |+ +-+ -
- - ---+- === + - |+ =--+- --=
- --+- = |+- + +-+ -
- == =-- + --+ - -
- ~- + == -
- =~=+- - + =- + t- -
- ~- + =:- + +=- +-=- -
= - - + =-=-, =-+- = -=- = +=
~==+ -~: -
=~ ~-= ~= = - += -
=- =-+ = = --~ -- = == - =- --
+ =-+ ~ + + ===- + ==+ = = -+
= =~=+- + =+- -, =+ = ~ - ---+ -, ==
= =- - -= - = ~ =- - -- = - =-=
+ =++=-, - -=+ +--+ + =++=-, =- +
- + -~- =-=-=+ +=+=, --==+ +=+=, =
= = +=+ +-=- + +=+=, +-~ -+= + +=+=
= -- =-=-= + =+- = -+--, - =- -
==- + -- = - -
a=r|r
= - :-- == -+= =+ - + := + +-
=+= - =- -= =- + = +--=- - :=+ +- +|
=| -+ = ==- +--= =-- -= == = --+
+ ==- - =|= +--=- == + +: -- + =+-,
=== + +- +| = ==+ + -- +-, == --
- += -- == + =-= +-== - ~ = =-+ |=
--| - + =~ + ==+ ==- + --+- -=
- |+ =-- ~ - = -- ~ -- + =-= ~-=
- - =- |+ == |- == ~ - - -- =-== -
=== -- + =-== - -==- -, == - - +- +=
= := =-== = =- ==- -
=v
Gupta, B. K. (1994). Subod hindi vyakaran tatha rachana [in
hindi].New Delhi: S chand and company ltd.
Indiannetzone. (2009). Hindi language. Retrieved from http://
www indianetzone.com/2/hindi_language-htm.
Kapoor, S. (1999). History of hindi literature [in hindi]. New
delhi: Granth academy
Kumar, S. (2010). Hindi tutor and translator. Retrieved from
www.ispeakhindicom/2010/12/03/./lesson-36-hindi-
Ka-mahatv-importance-of-hindi/
Nagendra. (2012). History of hindi literature [in hindi (Ed). Sha
hadra Delhi: Mansarowar park
Sharma, S. & Madhuri. (2002). Me and my grammer [in hindi].
New Delhi: saraswati house pvt. Ltd
UCLA Language materials project. (2004).Teaching resources
for less commonly thought language. Retrieved from
http://www.imp.uclaedu/prole.aspx?
langID=87&menu=004
m
SAFF -==+=-=+ ~- a+ - |==
=-= (SAFF) = ===- =- =+ =+ == +==
=== -- +-==-=: ~c (wikipiedia, 2013) ==
=+ == ===- = =+ =+ +== ==-==:
|++- =+= =+=- = ===+ -- = =-~= -:
= ===- = =:-+ c =- =- = ~:
=-= =s =-+- -+== ==+- ~|+ c
=| -|ir==|+| a{r
+==,-, + =-=,
- |=== =: -==- =-== =+ =-=
: +==+ c; == -+- =-
===+- += +==+ -- =+--
- |=== +== ==- =++= ~| +- =
+ =-== +=== -+ +== ~|+ +- ==
+-==-=: == == = =+--
- |==+ ===: -==- |+=+= : -
|==+ +== ====: |+== -=-
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=++ -+- ~|+c =+ -==+=-=+ +== +-==-
- =|+ =-|-+- ==~ - = -
|=== == +==+ c; == -+- =- ==+
= =- = - |=== =-:++ + -==
+= +== =-=- = ~= =- +-==- - ==:
- ==:=== =|+ =
== - |=== =-:++ = ~|+c +-=
+=+ =a +-==- ++---= ===- =+ = ~-
+-==-+ =++ ~-= ==- =+ =+-=- ~:
-+= -= -- -== =- +=+ = +-==-+ --=
=-- -+ =
=-= -
|i+ra|=+| =|r|r=| v+| ir=| iv|| i=|=| |-z+'+|
=ia|

=- === =-=:-, -
== +-= - |=== =-:++ +-==-=
++---+ =-= == +- =-~= ~|+ = ==+ -=
++--- --:= -+ =, --= =-- =
=-= - -
e|o: o:ca ozamo |ep|a|n
==- =-

=|r=v|
=- = = -==== ==+-+ += ==s-+ -+- ~| +=- +-++ -- =~-:, =-==, ==~
=+- --= == +=: +=- -=- -~- +=+=-= =|+ c- ---- , =-+- --+--+ += ==
==s-= -+ -+=, ~-, ++---, :=, ~=- ,=--=, =+ =+=---- = =-== =-+- - =|+ c
==+ ==- +== = =+ =+ |+ +-s- +-==-+ =+= -+- ~|+ c ==+ =-- =-+ ==s-~+
-- ++ -=--= == +- =:|+ c =- +=== == == =+ == =- + =+ =-: ++ =-
= ==: =+ +== -==+=-=++ =+ =-= =|+ c
==: -, ~- - =+
==: -, -+= ++---
==: =, ++--- =+
==: , -+= =+
==: -, -+= --
==: -, ++--- ~-
iaira =
==: , -+= ++--- --:=
==: =, ~- ++--- --:=
==: -, ++--- - ++--- --:=
==: --, =+ - ++--- --:=
=+ :|- =:= ==== =: ---c
=- === =-=:-, -
=a +-==-= ++--- --:== =-~= =
==== +--++ =+ =, - =a ++--- --:=
==+ ==: ~- =-~= =:|+ |- == +-=
- |=== =-:++ + ==-+ ==- =-
= =+= =a - |=== =-:++ =: =+
-== =-:+++ -= : +-==-=: ---
|+ =
==r r|
==- | ++--- ==
-+= - ==
-+= - ++---
==- =+ -- ~-
==+:-= ~- == =-a ==== +- ~|+c =:+
= ~- - = -==
-+= - =+ =-a ===
+:-= =+ ~- =-a ===
=- === =-=:-, -
=- == - - =+= - -===
=++ =+- +=== ~|+ =+ -==
=-:++ + --= =-- =
== == += -+==== =|+ =+ -==
=-:++ +-==-= =-= ==== =--== =- -=
+- =|+c += === +--++ =:|+ = =
=-~= == -+=, == ++--- ==- | = | ==
= ==- | = == += ~|+ =, ~- == =
~|+ -+= ==+:-== ===+ == =+== =-a
==== - = +=- ~= === ~-, =+ =--=
==- = -+ = - =--= +-==-= =-~=
-~|+c ~- =+ ==+:-== +- =+ | ==
+-==-= == += == ~|+ = === -+==
== =+ = ~- == |+ +- = ==+
-= =-+- === =:+ ===+ === =-~= +=
===: == += -+===+ =+= +-==- =|+ =
=++, -, ~ --
- |=== == = +==+ +-==-
+=- =- = - |=== +== =-=+ -+-
~= = =- = - |===+ = =
~|+ =+ =-: ++ = =-= =+ -==+=-=+ + =+=
=-+- = t+ c =- ++---+ +-= ===-
+c =- = =++ -+-+c -+== ==+ ---
--=+ +-==-+ -= =-+- = =-= = =+
|=== +== =-= =-=-+ +-= =+=+ +-=
=- = -+== +-==-= =-~= =r= - +=+
= =- + =+ -== =-:++ = -= +-
=|+ =--== =- = =+ -==+=-=+= +-=
+-= =- =-~=- =-|+ = =++ ~- + +-
~- = - ===+ =
== =+ =-: ++ == =+ -==+=-=+ =
+-- ~: -~- =+ ==+= =- = -+- ==+- - =-
- + =+ -==+=-=+ +- -+== ==+- ~|+ c
==+ -==- =-+ -=- -+ c
===+ -+=
=- ==--, ===
==- =
--- - (In 1 host cities)
ia= r|=
-=- =+=---- (1st title)
- =+ ~-
ia|ia| a|z+
=== =
=+ -+ == =-++ ==
=+= -- s
=+= ==+ == ++=
(wikipedia, 2013)
== =- - + --= - +- =- ~
+= c- =- + =++ ~-= ==- -+= =-=
=-- --+ ~: =+ -==+=-=++ =++ ==-- = --
+- +=+ =, = =- + :--= -+== +- =-
- = +- -= =- + =++ c=+ = ~
-= ===+ = ~- =- - + =++ == +, c-
== +-+++= == =: =+=--== ==-
== =s =-+- =+ -==+=-=+ -+=+ +s=-:--
=== ==+- ~=
=- =- - ===+ -=-, =+-=-,
--= ===+ + +- ++ -+ | = + -==-
=-+ -=- -+ c
=-= -

Wikipedia, 2013
=+ -=:+ =-=+- = =+=+ += =+
-==+=-=+ = ~|+ - -= -+= ++ ~-
== :: - ++---= |++=+ ===- =+
=- -= + += =-+- ~- =+ =--=+ ==a
===-= ==+- ~|+ = +-==-+ =+=+ =+=
=-= ===+ =s =-+- + = =+ ~-= +=+=+
=++ =-+ c ~- |++=+ =+=---- -=- -+ c
= == =--= |+|+ +=+ -==+=- -+ c-
- =--+- + = c + : +=+ ===+ - =++
-+= == === =+ -==+=-=+= =- :--= -- =++
c = ++ ==- ==+:-== +|+ =-==
+- :--= -- =+ =++ -+= +== ===: ==-
- ~- c:-- -+= += =+ ==+~ +-==- --
- =-=- ==- +- =- =~ t = - -+=
+ - -+ =-c = ==: - -= ==~- =+c
-+= =- == c:- - = -c:- =- -+=
=-=: = -+= += =- =- - ===
= ~ t = =:-+ :--= c
||=| == -)t +| =| -|ir== +r| t
=-+- +=, -, + =-= == =+
-==+=-=+ +== ~-= ===- =- ~|+ c -
|=== =-= =+ + s+= === =-+- ~
-= ===- =- --= =+ c ===+ =- - +
=+ +- ~-= ==+- ~|+ = ~-= = -- =+
-==+=-=+ === = =-++ -= +=+ =+ +== ==
| ia| aia| =ia| ||+
): v|ra |=+| - |i+ra|=
)t |=+| v|ra ) |=+|
) v|ra =|i-r= t) =|=
) v|ra x=|m - v|ra
-: x=|m =|i-r= ))(z|rx+r;t: x=|m
-t v|ra x=|m - |i+ra|=
-= =|i-r= v|ra ) |=+| r =|i-r=
- v|ra =|i-r= (z|rx+r; :) x=|m
-)) v|ra |i=ra|= x v|ra
-): |i=ra|= v|ra -) =|=
=- =- ~|+ c =- = +- ~-= =+ ===-
=+ = === =++ +=+- s+= === =-
- = = =- +== -==+=-=+ ===- =-
--= =+ c, =- =+ = +-==- +-= +=+ = =-
==|+ -

=v=|a
=-+- += - === =+ -==+=-=+ ~-=
http://annapost.com/sports/news6198.
=== =-=:--=+ :--= == = ~=
+-==- http://ujyaaloonline.com/news/24381/
SAFF- Championship-Football/
=++ ~ --, - + =+ +==
-==+=-=++ :--= + +-- c Retrieved
from http://epaper.gorkhapatraonline.com/
epaper-%...../book/404-gp
bhadra-26/2-2013-02-14-10-43- 26.html
+==,=== -=+ -==+=-=+ == ==
http://nagariknews.com/sportsfootballstory/.
................LqruPePw.pdf.
wikipedia. (2013). Saff champion. Retrieved from http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_SAFF_Championship
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SAMWIT JOURNAL Vol. 1, No.1 Oct. 2013

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