Annex A
(informative)
Terrain effects
A.1 Illustrations of the upper roughness of each terrain category
Terrain category 0
Sea, coastal area exposed to the open sea
Terrain category I
Lakes or area with negligible vegetation and without obstacles
Terrain category II
Area with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles
(trees, buildings) with separations of at least 20 obstacle
heights
Terrain category III
Area with regular cover of vegetation or buildings or with
isolated obstacles with separations of maximum 20 obstacle
heights (such as villages, suburban terrain, permanent forest)
Terrain category IV
Area in which at least ! " of the surface is covered with
buildings and their average height exceeds ! m
A.2 Transition between roughness categories 0, I, II, III and IV
(1) The transition between different roughness categories has to be considered when
calculating q
p
and c
s
c
d
.
#$%& %he procedure to be used in a 'ountr( ma( be found in its #ational Annex) %wo
recommended procedures, *rocedure and *rocedure 2, are given below)
*rocedure
If the structure is situated near a change of terrain roughness at a distance:
less than 2 km from the smoother categor( 0
less than km from the smoother categories + to +++
the smoother terrain category in the upwind direction should be used
Small areas (less than 10 % of the area under consideration) with deiating roughness can be ignored.
*rocedure 2
a) !etermine the roughness categories for the upstream terrain in the angular sectors to be considered.
b) "or eery angular sector# determine the distance x from the building to the upstream roughness changes
c) If the distance x from the building to a terrain with lower roughness length is smaller than the alues gien
in Table $.1# then the lower alue for the roughness length should be used for the angular sector considered.
If this distance x is larger than the alue in Table $.%# the higher alue for the roughness length should be
used.
Small areas (less than 10 % of the area under consideration) with deiating roughness can be ignored.
,here no distance x is given in %able A) or for heights exceeding !0 m, the smaller roughness
length should be used)
-or intermediate values of height z, linear interpolation ma( be used)
A building in a certain terrain categor( ma( be calculated in a lower terrain categor( if it is situated
within the distance limits defined in %able A)
Table A.1 istance x
.eight z + to ++ + to +++
! m 0,!0 km !,00 km
/ m ,00 km 0,00 km
0 m 2,00 km 20,00 km
! m !,00 km
20 m 2,00 km
00 m 20,00 km
!0 m !0,00 km
.eight z ++ to +++ ++ to +1
! m 0,00 km 2,00 km
/ m 0,!0 km 0,!0 km
0 m ,00 km /,00 km
! m 0,00 km 20,00 km
20 m /,00 km
00 m 0,00 km
!0 m 00,00 km
.eight z +++ to +1
! m 0,20 km
/ m 0,0! km
0 m 0,/0 km
! m 2,00 km
20 m 2,!0 km
00 m /,00 km
!0 m 20,00 km
A.! "u#erical calculation of orography coefficients
(1) $t isolated hills and ridges or cliffs and escarpments different wind elocities occur
dependent on the upstream slope 3H4L
u
in the wind direction# where the height H and the
length L
u
are defined in "igure $. &.1.
$igure 1 Illustration of increase of wind %elocities o%er orography
(2) %he largest increase of the wind velocities occurs near the top of the slope and is determined from
the orograph( factor co, see -igure A)) %he slope has no significant effect on the standard deviation of
the turbulence defined in 2)2 ())
#$%& %he turbulence intensit( will decrease with increasing wind velocit( and e5ual value for the standard
deviation
(0) %he orograph( factor, c
o
(z)3vm4vmf accounts for the increase of mean wind speed over isolated hills
and escarpments (not undulating and mountainous regions)) +t is related to the wind velocit( at the
base of the hill or escarpment) %he effects of orograph( should be taken into account in the following
situations6
-or sites on upwind slopes of hills and ridges6
where 0,0! 7 8 0,0 and
2 4
u
L x
-or sites on downwind slopes of hills and ridges6
where 7 0,0 and x 7 Ld42
where 0,0 and x 7 ,9 H
-or sites on upwind slopes of cliffs and escarpments6
where 0,0! 7 0,0 and
2 4
u
L x
-or sites on downwind slopes of cliffs and escarpments6
where 7 0,0 and x 7 ,! Le
where 0,0 and x 7 ! H
It is defined by:
co3 for 7 0,0! (A))
co3 : 2 ; s ; for 0,0! 7 7 0,0 (A)2)
co3 : 0,9 ; s for < 0,0 (A)0)
where:
s is the orographic location factor# to be obtained from "igure $.% or "igure $.& scaled
to the length of the effectie upwind slope length# L
e
is the upwind slope H'L
u
in the wind direction (see "igure $.% and "igure $.&)
L
e
is the effectie length of the upwind slope# defined in Table $.%
L
u
is the actual length of the upwind slope in the wind direction
L
d
is the actual length of the downwind slope in the wind direction
H is the effectie height of the feature
x is the hori(ontal distance of the site from the top of the crest
z is the ertical distance from the ground leel of the site
Table 2 Values of the effecti%e length Le. &lope ' ( H)Lu*
Type of slope ' ( H)Lu*
&hallow (0,0! 7 7 0,0) &teep ( < 0,0)
Le 3 Lu Le 3 H40,0
#$%& %he calculated graphs in -igures A)2 and A)0 exceed the area of application as defined above) %he
consideration of orographic effects be(ond these boundaries is optional)
(2) +n valle(s, c
o
(z) ma( be set to ,0 if no speed up due to funnelling effects is to be expected) -or
structures situated within, or for bridges spanning steep=sided valle(s care should be taken to account
for an( increase of wind speed caused b( funnelling)
$igure 2 $actor s for cliffs and escarp#ents
$igure ! $actor s for hills and ridges
(!) &xpressions A)2 to A)/ and A) ma( be used to compute the value of orographic location factor,
s) As those expressions are empirical, it is most important that values of the parameters used must be
restricted to the stated ranges, otherwise invalid values will be generated)
a) upwind section for all orography (Figures A.2 and A.3):
"or the ranges
0 ! ,
u
L
X
and
0 , 2 0
e
L
z
ta)e:
,
_
u
e
L
X
B
A s
(A)2)
where
022 , >! , ?00 , ?!/! , 0 !!2 , 0
e
2
e
0
e
2
e
+
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
L
z
L
z
L
z
L
z
A (A)!)
and
92!9 , 2 0!// , 0!22 , 0
e
2
e
+
,
_
,
_
L
z
L
z
B
(A)9)
when
! ,
u
<
L
X
or
2
e
>
L
z
ta)e:
s 3 0 (Sh 3 0)
b) downwind section for cliffs and escarpments (Figure A.2):
"or the ranges
! , 0 , 0
e
L
X
and
0 , 2 , 0
e
L
z
ta)e:
C
L
X
B
L
X
A s +
,
_
1
]
1
,
_
1
]
1
e
2
e
log log
(A)/)
where
0/> , 0 log 290> , 0 log ?222 , 0 log 0220 ,
e
2
e
0
e
1
]
1
,
_
1
]
1
,
_
1
]
1
L
z
L
z
L
z
A (A)?)
!9 , 0 log !020 , 0 log ?>0 , 0 log 0>9 ,
e
2
e
0
e
1
]
1
,
_
1
]
1
,
_
1
]
1
L
z
L
z
L
z
B (A)>)
and
909 , 0 log !/0? , 0 log 2209 , 0 log ?000 , 0
e
2
e
0
e
+
1
]
1
,
_
1
]
1
,
_
1
]
1
L
z
L
z
L
z
C (A)0)
"or the range
, 0 0
e
L
X
#
interpolate between alues for
0
e
L
X
(s * A in +,pression $.-) and
, 0
e
L
X
.
when:
, 0
e
<
L
z
use the alues for
, 0
e
L
z
.
when:
! , 0
@
>
L
z
or
0 , 2
e
>
L
z
ta)e the alue s * 0 (S
h
* 0)
c) downwind section for hills and ridges (Figure A.3):
"or the ranges
0 , 2 0
@
L
X
and
0 , 2 0
e
L
z
ta)e:
,
_
@
L
X
B
e A s
(A))
where:
022 , >! , ?00 , ?!/! , 0 !!2 , 0
e
2
e
0
e
2
e
+
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
L
z
L
z
L
z
L
z
A (A)2)
and
/90/ , 022 , 00!9 , 0
e
2
e
,
_
,
_
L
z
L
z
B
(A)0)
#$%& &xpressions A)! and A)2 are identical)
when
0 , 2
@
>
L
X
or
0 , 2
e
>
L
z
ta)e:
s * 0 (S
h
* 0)
#$%& &xpressions A)! and A)2 are identical)
A.+ "eighbouring structures
(1) If a building is more than twice as high as the aerage height h
ae
of the neighbouring
structures then# as a first appro,imation# the design of any of those nearby structures may be
based on the pea) elocity pressure at height z
n
(z
e
* z
n
) aboe ground (+,pression $.1.)# see
"igure $...
r x 6 r z
2
n
r x r < < 2 6
,
_
) ( )
2
(
2
low
n
r x
r
h
r z (A)2)
r x 2 6
low n
h z
in which the radius r is:
r 3 hhigh if hhigh 2 dlarge
r 3 2 dlarge if hhigh > 2 dlarge
The structural height h
low
# the radius r# the distance x and the dimensions d
small
and d
large
are
illustrated in "igure $.. Increased wind elocities can be disregarded when h
low
is more than
half the height h
high
of the high building# i.e. z
n
* h
low
.
$igure + Influence of a high rise building, on two different nearby structures '1 and 2*
A., isplace#ent height
(1) "or buildings in terrain category I/# closely spaced buildings and other obstructions
causes the wind to behae as if the ground leel was raised to a displacement height# h
dis
. h
dis
may be determined by +,pression ($.1-)# see "igure $.-. The profile of pea) elocity
pressure oer height (cf. "igure ..%) may be lifted by a height h
dis
.
$igure , -bstruction height and upwind spacing
x 2 have hdis is the lesser of 0,? have or 0,9 h
2 have 7 x 7 9 have hdis is the lesser of ,2 have A 0,2 x or 0,9 h (A)!)
x 9 have hdis 3 0
In the absence of more accurate information the obstruction height may be ta)en as
h
ae
* 1- m for terrain category I/.
These rules are direction dependent# the alues of h
ae
and x should be established for each &0
sector as described in ..&.%.
