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Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Yield
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Serguei Netessine, Robert Shumsky,
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NETESSINE AND SHUMSKY
Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Yield Management
INFORMS Transcations on Education 3:1 (34-44)

INFORMS
34
Introduction to the Theory and Practice of
Yield Management
1
Serguei Netessine
The Wharton School
University of Pennsylvania
[email protected]
Robert Shumsky
W. E. Simon Graduate School of
Business Administration
University of Rochester
[email protected]
1. Introduction
A variety of concepts and analytical tools fall under
the label yield management. The term is used in many
service industries to describe techniques to allocate
limited resources, such as airplane seats or hotel
rooms, among a variety of customers, such as busi-
ness or leisure travelers. By adjusting this alloca-
tion a firm can optimize the total revenue or "yield"
on the investment in capacity. Since these techniques
are used by firms with extremely perishable goods,
or by firms with services that cannot be stored at all,
these concepts and tools are often called perishable
asset revenue management.
The techniques of yield management are relatively
new - the first research to deal directly with these
issues appeared less than 20 years ago. These days,
yield management has been an enormously impor-
tant innovation in the service industries. American
Airlines credits yield management techniques for a
revenue increase of $500 million/year and Delta
Airlines uses similar systems to generate additional
revenues of $300 million per year
2
While the air-
lines are the oldest and most sophisticated users of
yield management, these practices also appear in
other service industries. For example, Marriott Ho-
tels credits its yield management system for addi-
tional revenues of $100 million per year, with rela-
tively small increases in capacity and costs. Broad-
casting companies use yield management to deter-
mine how much inventory (advertising slots) to sell
now to the "upfront market" and how much to re-
serve and perhaps sell later at a higher price to the
"scatter market." Even manufacturers are using yield
management techniques to increase profits. After all,
manufacturing capacity is as perishable as an air-
line seat or an advertising slot - if it is not used when
it is available, that opportunity to use the capacity is
gone forever.
The purpose of this note is to introduce the funda-
mental concepts and trade-offs of yield management
and to describe the parallels between yield manage-
ment and the newsvendor framework that is an im-
portant model for inventory management. In par-
ticular, this note focuses on how a manager might
allocate perishable inventory among a variety of
customer segments. To acquire some intuition about
the problem we will spend most of our time with an
application that involves two types of customers.
Consider an establishment we will call the Eastman
Towers Hotel of Rochester, NY. The hotel has 210
King/Queen rooms used by both business and lei-
sure travelers. The hotel must decide whether to sell
rooms well in advance at a relatively low price (i.e.,
to leisure travelers), or to 'hold out' and wait for a
sale at a higher price to late-booking business trav-
elers.
Our solution to this problem will be simple - we
will find a single 'cap' or 'booking limit' for the num-
ber of rooms to sell in advance to leisure travelers.
There are also variations of the problem and the so-
lution that are more complicated, and these varia-
tions can improve the performance of the yield man-
agement system. For example, we might change the
booking limit up or down as time passes, or we might
assume that some rooms may be used only for some
customers while other rooms are more flexible (think
1
We would like to thank anonymous referees, Krishnan Anand, Gerard Cachon, Yu-Sheng Zheng, MBA students in
the OPIM632 class at the Wharton School and the OMG402 class at the Simon School for comments and sugges-
tions.
2
Andrew Boyd, Airline Alliance Revenue Management'. OR/MS Today, Vol. 25, October 1998.
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INFORMS Transcations on Education 3:1 (34-44)

INFORMS
35
of 'economy' and 'deluxe' rooms). We will discuss
these extensions in the last section of this note.
In general, the yield management/booking limit de-
cision is just one aspect of a more general business
question: How should a firm market and distribute
goods to multiple customer segments? To answer
this question, a firm must use tools for pricing and
forecasting as well as for inventory management.
All of these tools are often grouped under the term
revenue management, although the boundaries be-
tween yield management and revenue management
are often ambiguous. In this note we will specifi-
cally focus on just a single aspect of revenue man-
agement - yield management.
We next identify the environments in which yield
management techniques are most successful. Sec-
tions 3-5 examine a specific solution to the basic
Eastman Towers problem, while Section 6 will dis-
cuss a similar important problem, 'overbooking.' In
Section 7 we describe complications and extensions
of the basic problem. Appendix A is a list of sug-
gested additional readings on yield management,
Appendix B contains exercises that test our under-
standing of the yield management problem
3
.
2. Where and Why Firms Practice Yield Man-
agement
Business environments with the following five char-
acteristics are appropriate for the practice of yield
management (in parentheses we apply each charac-
teristic to the Eastman Towers Hotel):
1.It is expensive or impossible to store excess re-
source (we cannot store tonight's room for use
by tomorrow night's customer).
2.Commitments need to be made when future de-
mand is uncertain (we must set aside rooms for
business customers - "protect" them from low-
priced leisure travelers - before we know how
many business customers will arrive).
3.The firm can differentiate among customer seg-
ments, and each segment has a different demand
curve (purchase restrictions and refundability re-
quirements help to segment the market between
leisure and business customers. The latter are
more indifferent to the price.).
4.The same unit of capacity can be used to de-
liver many different products or services (rooms
are essentially the same, whether used by busi-
ness or leisure travelers).
5.Producers are profit-oriented and have broad
freedom of action (in the hotel industry, with-
holding rooms from current customers for fu-
ture profit is not illegal or morally irresponsible.
On the other hand, such practices are contro-
versial in emergency wards or when allocating
organs for transplantation).
Given these characteristics, how does yield man-
agement work? Suppose that our hotel has estab-
lished two fare classes or buckets: full price and dis-
count price. The hotel has 210 rooms available for
March 29 (let us assume that this March 29 is a
Monday night). It is now the end of February, and
the hotel is beginning to take reservations for that
night. The hotel could sell out all 210 rooms to lei-
sure travelers at the discount price, but it also knows
that an increasing number of business customers will
request rooms as March 29 approaches and that these
business customers are willing to pay full price. To
simplify our problem, let us assume that leisure de-
mand occurs first and then business demand occurs.
Hence we must decide how many rooms we are will-
ing to sell at the leisure fare or in other words, how
many rooms shall we protect (i.e., reserve) for the
full price payers. If too many rooms are protected,
then there may be empty rooms when March 29 ar-
rives. If too few are protected, then the hotel for-
goes the extra revenue it may have received from
business customers.
Notice we assume that the hotel can charge two dif-
ferent prices for the same product (a room). To sepa-
rate the two customer segments with two different
demand curves, the hotel must practice market seg-
mentation. In the hotel example, we assume that the
firm can charge different prices to business and lei-
3
Solutions are available for interested faculty upon request
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INFORMS Transcations on Education 3:1 (34-44)

INFORMS
36
sure customers
4
. In order to differentiate between
these two groups, a firm often introduces booking
rules that create barriers or "fences" between mar-
ket segments. For example, a Saturday-night stay
may be required to receive a discounted room on
Monday, because most business travelers prefer to
go home on the weekend while leisure customer are
more likely to accept, or may even prefer, the week-
end stay. Again, leisure customers are more price-
sensitive so the hotel wishes to sell as many rooms
to business customers at a higher price as possible
while keeping room utilization high.
Booking Limits and Protection Levels
Before we look at the mathematics that will help us
to make this decision, some vocabulary would be
helpful. We define a booking limit to be the maxi-
mum number of rooms that may be sold at the dis-
count price. As we noted previously, we assume that
leisure customers arrive before business customers
so the booking limit constraints the number of rooms
that these customers get: once the booking limit is
reached, all future customers will be offered the full
price. The protection level is the number of rooms
we will not sell to leisure customers because of the
possibility that business customers might book later
in time. Since there are 210 rooms available in the
hotel, and just two fare classes, in our example,
booking limit = 210 - the protection level
Therefore, the hotel's task is to determine either a
booking limit or a protection level, since knowing
one allows you to calculate the other. We shall evalu-
ate the protection level. Suppose the hotel considers
protection level 'Q' instead of current protection level
Q+1 (Q might be anything from 0 to 209). Further,
suppose that 210-Q-1 rooms have already been sold
(see Figure 1). Now a prospective customer calls
and wishes to reserve the first 'protected' room at
the discount price.
Should the hotel lower the protection level from Q+1
to Q and therefore allow the booking of the (Q+1)th
room at the discount price? Or should it refuse the
booking to gamble that it will be able to sell the
very same room to a full price customer in the fu-
ture? The answer, of course, depends on (i) the rela-
tive sizes of the full and discount prices and (ii) the
anticipated demand for full price rooms. The deci-
sion is illustrated as a decision tree in Figure 2.
Figure 1: Protection Level and Booking Limit in the Hotel
4
As we mentioned in the introduction, finding the appropriate price for each customer segment is an important part of
revenue management. However, the pricing problem is not within the scope of this note. Here we assume that prices
are established in advance.
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NETESSINE AND SHUMSKY
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INFORMS Transcations on Education 3:1 (34-44)

INFORMS
37
In the next section we associate numbers with
thisdecision and find the optimal protection level,
Q*.
Solving the Problem
To determine the value of each branch of the deci-
sion tree in Figure 2, we need to know the probabil-
ity for each 'chance' branch and the values at the
end of the branches. Suppose that the discount price
is $105 per night while the full price is $159 per
night. To find the probability on each branch, de-
fine random variable D to represent the anticipated
demand for rooms at the full price. The hotel may
estimate the distribution of D from historical de-
mand, as well as from forecasts based on the day of
the week, whether there is a holiday, and other pre-
dictable events. Here we will assume that the distri-
bution is derived directly from 123 days of histori-
cal demand, as shown in Table 1 below.
In the table, the 'Cumulative Probability' is the frac-
tion of days with demand at or below the number of
rooms in the first column (Q).
Table 1. Historical demand for rooms at the full fare.
Figure 2 : Deciding the protection level
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INFORMS Transcations on Education 3:1 (34-44)

INFORMS
38
Now consider the decision displayed in Figure 2. If
we decide to protect the (Q+1)
th
room from sale, then
that room may, or may not, be sold later. It will be
sold only if demand D at full fare is greater than or
equal to Q+1, and this event has probability
1-F(Q). Likewise, the protected room will not be
sold if demand is less than or equal to Q, with prob-
ability F(Q). Figure 3 shows our decision with these
alues included.
Now, F(Q) is the third column in Table 1. We sim-
ply scan from the top of the table towards the bot-
tom until we find the smallest Q with a cumulative
value greater than or equal to 0.339. The answer here
is that the optimal protection level is Q*=79 with a
cumulative value of 0.341. We can now evaluate our
booking limit: 210 - 79 = 131. If we choose a larger
Q*, then we would be protecting too many rooms
thereby leaving too many rooms unsold on average.
If we set Q* at a smaller value, we are likely to sell
too many rooms at a discount thereby turning away
too many business customers on average.
3. A General Formula
The solution described above is an example of a stan-
dard technique that was developed for the airline
industry. The technique was named "Expected Mar-
ginal Seat Revenue" (EMSR) analysis by Peter
Belobaba at MIT
5
. In our example we had two fare
classes with prices r
L
and r
H
(r
H
is the higher price,
$159, while r
L
is the lower price, $105). We also
had a random variable, D, to represent the distribu-
tion of demand at the high fare. Since there are just
two fare classes, the optimal booking limit for low
fare class is equal to the total capacity minus Q*.
The EMSR analysis can actually be described as a
newsvendor problem. We make a fixed decision, Q,
the protection level, then a random event occurs, the
number of people requesting a room at the full fare.
If we protect too many rooms, i.e., D<Q, then we
Given Figure 3, we can calculate the value of lower-
ing the protection level from Q+1 to Q. Lowering
the protection level results in selling the (Q+1)th
room at a discount which guarantees revenue of
$105. Protecting Q+1 rooms has an expected value
equal to:
(1 - F(Q))($159) +F(Q)($0) = (1 - F(Q)) ($159)
Therefore, we should lower the protection level to
Q as long as:
(1 - F(Q))($159) <= $105
or
F(Q) ($159 - $105) / $159 = 0.339.
Figure 3 : Booking Limit Decision with Data
5
Peter P. Belobaba Application of a Probabilistic Decision Model to Airline Seat Inventory Control. Operations
Research Vol. 37, No. 2, 1989.
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NETESSINE AND SHUMSKY
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INFORMS Transcations on Education 3:1 (34-44)

INFORMS
39
end up earning nothing on Q-D rooms. So the over-
age penalty C is r
L
per unsold room. If we protect
too few rooms, i.e., D<Q, then we forgo r
H
-r
L
in
potential revenue on each of the D-Q rooms that
could have been sold at the higher fare so the under-
age penalty B is r
H
-r
L
. The critical ratio is
From the newsvendor analysis, the optimal protec-
tion level is the smallest value Q* such that
4. Overbooking
Another important component in the yield manage-
ment toolbox is the use of overbooking when there
is a chance that a customer may not appear. For ex-
ample, it is possible for a customer to book a ticket
on an airline flight and not show up for the depar-
ture. If that is the case, the airline may end up flying
an empty seat resulting in lost revenue for the com-
pany. In order to account for such no-shows, air-
lines routinely overbook their flights: based on the
historical rate of no-shows the firm books more cus-
tomers than available seats. If, by chance, an unusu-
ally large proportion of the customers show up, then
the firm will be forced to 'bump' some customers to
another flight. Hotels, rental car agencies, some res-
taurants, and even certain non-emergency health-care
providers also overbook. When determining the op-
timal level of overbooking, the calculation is simi-
lar to the calculation used for yield management.
The optimal overbooking level balances (i) lost rev-
enue due to empty seats and (ii) penalties (financial
compensation to bumped customers) and loss of
customer goodwill when the firm is faced with more
demand than available capacity.
Let X be the number of no-shows and suppose we
forecast the distribution of no-shows with distribu-
tion function F(x). Let Y be the number of seats we
will overbook, i.e., if the airplane has S seats then
we will sell up to S+Y tickets
6
. As in the newsvendor
model, define the underage penalty by B and the
overage penalty by C. In this case C represents ill-
will and the net penalties that are associated with
refusing a seat to a passenger holding a confirmed
reservation (the 'net' refers to the fact that the airline
may collect and hold onto some revenue from this
passenger as well). Here, B represents the opportu-
nity cost of flying an empty seat. To explain further,
if X>Y then we could have sold X-Y more seats and
those passengers would have seats on the plane. So
B equals the price of a ticket. If X<Y then we need
to bump Y-X customers and each has a net cost of C.
Thus, the formula for an optimal number overbooked
seats takes following familiar form: is smallest value
Y* such that
As an example, suppose the Eastman Towers Hotel
described above estimates that the number of cus-
tomers who book a room but fail to show up on the
night in question is Normally distributed with mean
20 and standard deviation 10. Moreover, Eastman
Towers estimates that it costs $300 to "bump" a cus-
tomer (the hotel receives no revenue from this cus-
tomer, and the $300 is the cost of alternative ac-
commodation plus a possible gift certificate for a
one-night stay at Eastman in the future). On the other
hand, if a room is not sold then the hotel loses rev-
enue equal to one night sold at a discount since at
'6
Of course, the number of no-shows depends upon the total number of tickets that we sell. In the following
calculations we assume that the distribution of X is the distribution of no-shows given that we sell exactly S tickets,
and that the Y additional customers are guaranteed to show up. A more accurate model would account for no-
shows among the extra Y customers, but for most applications this more complicated model would produce a
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Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Yield Management
INFORMS Transcations on Education 3:1 (34-44)

INFORMS
40
the very least this room could have been sold to lei-
sure customers
7
. How many bookings should
Eastman allow? The critical ratio is
From the Normal distribution table we get (-0.65)
= 0.2578 and (-0.64) = 0.2611, so the optimal z* is
approximately -0.645 and the optimal number of
rooms to overbook is Y*=20-0.645*10=13.5 (one
can also use Excel's Norminv function for this cal-
culation: "=Norminv(0.2592,20,10)" gives us an
answer of 13.5). If we round up to 14, this means
that up to 210+14=224 bookings should be allowed.
5. Complications and Extensions
There are a wide variety of complications we face
when implementing a yield management system.
Here we discuss a few of the more significant chal-
lenges.
Demand Forecasting
In the examples above, we used historical demand
to predict future demand. In an actual application,
we may use more elaborate models to generate de-
mand forecasts that take into account a variety of
predictable events, such as the day of the week, sea-
sonality, and special events such as holidays. In some
industries greater weight is given to the most recent
demand patterns since customer preferences change
rapidly. Another natural problem that arises during
demand forecasting is censored data, i.e., company
often does not record demand from customers who
were denied a reservation.
In our example in Sections 3-5 we used a discrete,
empirical distribution to determine the protection
level. A statistical forecasting model would gener-
ate a continuous distribution, such as a Normal or t
distribution. Given a theoretical distribution and its
parameters, such as the mean and variance, we would
again place the protection level where the distribu-
tion has a cumulative probability equal to the criti-
cal fractile.
Dynamic Booking Limits
By observing the pattern of customer arrivals, firms
can update their demand forecasts, and this may lead
to changes in the optimal booking limit. In fact, many
airline yield management systems change booking
limits over time in response to the latest demand
information. For example, it is possible that an air-
line may raise a booking limit as it becomes clear
that demand for business-class seats will be lower
than was originally expected. Therefore, during one
week a leisure customer may be told that economy-
class seats are sold out, but that same customer may
call back the next week to find that economy seats
are available.
Variation and Mobility of Capacity
Up to now, we have assumed that all units of capac-
ity are the same; in our Eastman example we as-
sumed that all 210 hotel rooms were identical. How-
ever, rooms often vary in size and amenities. Air-
lines usually offer coach and first-classes. Car rental
firms offer subcompact, compact, and luxury cars.
In addition, car rental firms have the opportunity to
move capacity among locations to accommodate
surges in demand, particularly when a central office
manages the regional allocation of cars. The EMSR
framework described above can sometimes be
adapted for these cases, but the calculations are much
more complex. Solving such problems is an area of
active research in the operations community.
Mobility of Customer Segments
In the example of Sections 3-5 we assumed that a
leisure customer who is not able to book a room at
the discount price (because of the booking limit) does
not book any room from that hotel. In fact, some
proportion of leisure customers who are shut out
from discount rooms may then attempt book a room
at the full price. The possibility that a customer may
'buy-up' complicates the model but, most modern
yield management systems take such customer
movements into account.
7
Technically, this empty room could have been sold at either low or high price so it is possible that lost revenue is
actually higher than we suggest. Also, often hotels charge a penalty for late cancellations.
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NETESSINE AND SHUMSKY
Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Yield Management
INFORMS Transcations on Education 3:1 (34-44)

INFORMS
41
Nonlinear Costs for Overbooking
In some cases the unit cost of overbooking increases
as the number of 'extra' customers increases. This is
particularly true if capacity is slightly flexible. For
example, a rental car agency faced with an unex-
pected surge of customers may be able to obtain, for
a nominal price, a few extra cars from a nearby sis-
ter facility. However, at some point the agency's ex-
tra supply will run out - and then customers will be
lost, resulting in a much greater cost.
Customers in a Fare Class Are Nor All Alike
While two leisure travelers may be willing to pay
the same price for a particular night's stay, one may
be staying for just one day while the other may oc-
cupy the room for a week. A business traveler on an
airplane flight may book a ticket on just one leg or
may be continuing on multiple legs. Not selling a
ticket to the latter passenger means that revenue from
all flight legs will be lost.
In each of these cases, the total revenue generated
by the customer should be incorporated into the yield
management calculation, not just the revenue gen-
erated by a single night's stay or a single flight leg.
There are additional complications when code-shar-
ing partners (distinct airlines that offer connecting
flights among one another) operate these flight legs.
If code-sharing occurs, then each of the partners must
have an incentive to take into consideration the other
partners' revenue streams.
A similar complication occurs when there are group
bookings. How should the hotel consider a group
booking request for 210 rooms at a discount rate?
Clearly, this is different from booking 210 individual
rooms since denying a reservation to one out of 210
group customers may mean that all 210 will be lost
to the hotel. Frequently, companies restrict group
reservations during the peak seasons but up till now
there are no general rules for handling group reser-
vations.
Summary
Table 2 summarizes the impact of these issues on
three industries: airlines, hotels and car rental firms
8
. Sophisticated yield management tools have been
developed in all three industries, and these tools take
industry-specific factors into account. However, all
of these tools are based on the basic EMSR model
described above.
Table 1: Comparison of yield management applications
8
Adopted from Carrol W. J. and R. C. Grimes. Evolutionary change in product management: experiences the car rental
industry.' Interfaces, 1995, vol.25, no.5, 84-104.
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NETESSINE AND SHUMSKY
Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Yield Management
INFORMS Transcations on Education 3:1 (34-44)

INFORMS
42
Appendix A. Suggested further readings and
cases.
Handbook of Airline Economics. 1995. Aviation
Week Group, a division of McGraw-Hill Compa-
nies, Chapters 47 - 50.
Handbook of Airline Marketing. 1998. Aviation
Week Group, a division of McGraw-Hill Compa-
nies, Chapters 23 - 30.
R. G. Cross. 1996. Revenue Management: Hard-
Core Tactics for Market Domination. Broadway
Books.
Dhebar, A. and A. Brandenburger. 1993. American
Airlines, Inc.: Revenue Management. Harvard Busi-
ness School Case.
M. K. Geraghty and E. Johnson. 1997. Revenue
Management Saves National Car Rental. Interfaces.
Vol.27, pp. 107-127.
J. I. McGill and G. J. Van Ryzin. 1999. Revenue
Management: Research Overview and Prospects.
Transportation Science. Vol.33, pp. 233-256.
R. D. Metters. Yield Management at Pinko Air.
Southern Methodist University Case.
B. C. Smith, J. F. Leimkuhler, and R. M. Darrow.
1992. Yield Management at American Airlines.
Interfaces. Vol.22, pp. 8-31.
K. T. Talluri and G. J. van Ryzin. 2002. The Theory
and Practice of Revenue Management. Kluwer Aca-
demic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. To
be published.
G. J. van Ryzin. 1998. Transportation National
Group. Columbia University Case.
Appendix B. Suggested exercises.
Problem 1
Recall the yield management problem faced by the
Eastman Towers Hotel, as described in the note "In-
troduction to the Theory and Practice of Yield Man-
agement." A competing hotel has 150 rooms with
standard Queen-size beds and two rates: a full price
of $200 and a discount price of $120. To receive the
discount price, a customer must purchase the room
at least two weeks in advance (this helps to distin-
guish between leisure travelers, who tend to book
early, and business travelers who value the flexibil-
ity of booking late). You may assume that if a lei-
sure traveler is not able to get the discount rate, she
will choose to book at another hotel.
For a particular Tuesday night, the hotel estimates
that the average demand by business travelers has a
mean of 70 rooms and a standard deviation of 29
rooms. Assume that demand follows a Normal dis-
tribution around the forecast.
a)Find the optimal protection level for full price
rooms (the number of rooms to be protected from
sale at a discount price).
b)Find the booking limit for discount rooms.
c)Suppose that for a short time, the hotel's fore-
cast of business customer demand is biased up-
ward: the forecast of 70 rooms is too high and
fewer business customers appear, on average.
Qualitatively describe the economic conse-
quences of using the protection level and book-
ing limit derived in (a) and (b).
d)Suppose that for a short time, the hotel's fore-
cast of business customer demand is biased
downward: the forecast of 70 rooms is too low
and more business customers appear, on aver-
age. Qualitatively describe the economic con-
sequences of using the protection level and
booking limit derived in (a) and (b).
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NETESSINE AND SHUMSKY
Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Yield Management
INFORMS Transcations on Education 3:1 (34-44)

INFORMS
43
Problem 2
An airline offers two fare classes for coach seats on
a particular flight: full-fare class at $440/ticket and
economy class at $218/ticket. There are 230 coach
seats on the aircraft. Demand for full-fare seats has
a mean of 43, a standard deviation of 8, and the fol-
lowing empirical distribution:
Economy-class customers must buy their tickets
three weeks in advance, and these tickets are ex-
pected to sell out.
a)Find the (i) protection level and (ii) booking limit
for low-fare seats.
b)Suppose that unsold seats may sometimes be
sold at the last minute at a very reduced rate
(similar to USAirways' "esavers" for last-minute
travel). What effect will this have on the protec-
tion level calculated in (a)?
The protection level (Q*) will be
Circle one: Higher Lower The same
Justification:
Problem 3.
Sunshine Airlines flies a direct flight from Baltimore
to Orlando. The airline offers two fares: a 14-day
advance purchase economy fare of $96 and a full
fare of $146 with no advance purchase requirement.
In its yield management system, Sunshine has two
fare classes and, based on historical demand pat-
terns, has established a booking limit of 90 seats for
the economy fare class.
Because KidsWorld is located near Orlando, Sun-
shine strikes a deal with KidsWorld Inc. The deal
allows Sunshine to offer a 5-day KidsWorld pass to
anyone who purchases an economy-class Sunshine
ticket (the customer pays $96 for the Sunshine ticket
and an additional $180 for the KidsWorld pass, a
discount from the regular price of $200 for a 5-day
pass purchased directly from KidsWorld). Sunshine
passes along the $180 pass revenue to KidsWorld,
but as part of the agreement, Sunshine receives a
$50 incentive or 'kick-back' from KidsWorld for
every pass sold through Sunshine.
Given that Sunshine has accepted the deal with
KidsWorld, should Sunshine change the booking
limits and protection levels for the Orlando flight?
Should it make other changes to its fare class struc-
ture? If not, why not? If yes, how? Your answer
should be qualitative, but you should be as specific
as possible.
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NETESSINE AND SHUMSKY
Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Yield Management
INFORMS Transcations on Education 3:1 (34-44)

INFORMS
44
Problem 4.
WZMU is a television station that has 25 thirty-sec-
ond advertising slots during each evening. The sta-
tion is now selling advertising for the first few days
in November. They could sell all the slots now for
$4,000 each, but because November 7 will be an
election day, the station may be able to sell slots to
political candidates at the last minute for a price of
$10,000 each. For now, assume that a slot not sold
in advance and not sold at the last minute is worth-
less to WZMU.
To help make this decision, the sales force has cre-
ated the following probability distribution for last-
minute sales:
a)How many slots should WZMU sell in advance?
b)Now suppose that if a slot is not sold in advance
and is not sold at the last minute, it may be used
for a promotional message worth $2500. Now
how many slots should WZMU sell in advance?
Problem 5
An aircraft has 100 seats, and there are two types of
fares: full ($499) and discount ($99).
a)While there is unlimited demand for discount
fares, demand for full fares is estimated to be
Poisson with mean l=20 (the table below gives
the distribution function). How many seats
should be protected for full-fare passengers?
b)An airline has found that the number of people
who purchased tickets and did not show up for
a flight is normally distributed with mean of 20
and standard deviation of 10. The airline esti-
mates that the ill will and penalty costs associ-
ated with not being able to board a passenger
holding confirmed reservation are estimated to
be $600. Assume that opportunity cost of fly-
ing an empty seat is $99 (price that discount
passenger would pay). How much should air-
line overbook the flight?
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