Logic Design

Chapter 2: Introduction to Logic Circuits

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Introduction
Logic circuits perform operation on digital signal
Digital signal: signal values are restricted to a few discrete
values
Binary logic circuits: signals can have two values represented
by 0 and 1.
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Switch networks
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Switch networks
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Switch networks
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Switch networks
S Light
Power
supply
R
x
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Logic Operations
The fundamental logic operations are:
AND F = X.Y
OR F = X + Y
NOT F = X! (complement)
Note:
X! and are used interchangeably!
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Logic Operations
Dont confuse the AND symbol (.) and OR symbol (+) with
arithmetic multiplication and addition
There are some differences:
Example:
Arithmetic addition: 1+1=2
OR operation: 1+1=1
Based on the context you should recognize if it is AND/OR or
addition/multiplication
One more thing: sometimes we drop the . symbol
Example: a.b is the same as ab
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Truth table
The most basic representation of a logic function is a truth
table.
A truth table lists the output of the circuit for every
possible input combination.
There are 2
n
rows in a truth table for an n-variable function
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Logic Gate
Binary signals are manipulated using logic gates. These are
electronic devices whose inputs and outputs are interpreted
with only two values, representing logic 0 and logic 1.
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Logic Gate
The bubble on the inverter output denotes inverting
behavior
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Analysis and Synthesis of a Logic Network
Combinations of gates form a logic circuit or logic network
Analysis: For an existing network determine the function
performed by the network
Synthesis: Design a network that implements a desired
function
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1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
x
1
x
2
A
B
f
Time
(c) Timing diagram
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1 1 0 0 " " " 0 0 1 1 " " "
1 1 0 1 " " "
0 1 0 1 " " "
g
x
1
x
2
(d) Network that implements g x
1
x
2
+ =
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Boolean Algebra
A variety of implementations are available for a logic function
How to find the best implementation?
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Boolean Algebra
To design logic circuits and describe their operation we use a
mathematical tool called Boolean algebra (from English
mathematician George Boole in 1800s) that operates on two-
valued functions.
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Axioms of Boolean algebra
! The axioms (or postulates) of a mathematical system are a
minimal set of basic definitions that we assume to be true.
! The first three pairs of axioms state the formal definitions of
the AND (logical multiplication) and OR (logical addition)
operations:
(1a) 00 = 0 (1b) 1+1 = 1
(2a) 11 = 1 (2b) 0+0 = 0
(3a) 01 = 10 = 0 (3b) 1+0 = 0+1 = 1
! The next axioms embody the complement notation:
(4a) If X=0, then X=1 (4b) If X=1, then X=0
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Theorems of Boolean algebra
! Theorems are statements, known to be true, that allow us to
manipulate algebraic expressions to have simpler analysis or
more efficient synthesis of the corresponding circuits.
! Theorems involving a single variable:
(5a) X0 = 0 (5b) X+1 = 1 (Null elements)
(6a) X1 = X (6b) X+0 = X (Identities)
(7a) XX = X (7b) X+X = X (Idempotency)
(8a) XX = 0 (8b) X+X = 1 (Complements)
(9) (X) = X (Involution)
These theorems can be proved to be true. Let us prove 6b:
[X=0] 0+0=0 (true, according to 2b)
[X=1] 1+0=1 (true, according to 3b)
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Theorems of Boolean algebra
Theorems involving two or three variables:
(10a) X!Y = Y!X (10b) X+Y = Y+X (Commutativity)
(11a) (X!Y)!Z = X!(Y!Z) (11b) (X+Y)+Z = X+(Y+Z) (Associativity)
(12a) X!Y+X!Z = X!(Y+Z) (12b) (X+Y)!(X+Z) = X+Y!Z
(Distributivity)
(13a) X+X!Y = X (13b) X!(X+Y) = X (Absorption)
(14a) X!Y+X!Y = X (14b) (X+Y)!(X+Y) = X (Combining)
(15a) (X
1
!X
2
) = X
1
+X
2

(15b) (X
1
+X
2
) = X
1
!X
2
DeMorgans theorems
(16a) X+X!Y= X+Y (16b) X!(X+Y)= X!Y (simplification)
(17a) X!Y+X!Z+Y!Z = X!Y+X!Z (Consensus)
(17b) (X+Y)!(X+Z)!(Y+Z) = (X+Y)!(X+Z)
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Duality
Theorems were presented in pairs.
The b version of a theorem is obtained from the a version by
swapping 0 and 1, and and +.
Principle of Duality: Any theorem or identity in Boolean
algebra remains true if 0 and 1 are swapped and and + are
swapped throughout.
Duality is important because it doubles the usefulness of
everything about Boolean algebra and manipulation of logic
functions.
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Consensus theorem
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Consensus theorem
Using duality:
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Boolean Algebra
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Boolean Algebra
Differences between Boolean and ordinary algebra:
Distributive law of + over . x+(y.z)=(x+y).(x+z) is not valid
in ordinary algebra
Boolean algebra does not have additive or multiplicative
inverse so there is no subtraction or division operations
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Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra is used for manipulating logical functions
when designing digital hardware.
However, today most design is done using Computer-Aided
Design (CAD) software that includes schematic capture, logic
simplification and simulation.
Other methods include truth tables, Venn diagrams and
Karnaugh Maps.
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Venn Diagram
A graphical tool that can be used for Boolean algebra
A binary variable s is represented by a contour
Area within the contour corresponds to s=1
Area outside the contour corresponds to s=0
Two variables are represented by two overlapping circles
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Venn Diagram
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Venn Diagram
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Precedence of operations
In the absence of parentheses, operations in a logic expression
must be performed in the order: NOT, AND, OR
Example:
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Synthesis using AND, OR and NOT
One way of designing a logic circuit that implements a truth
table is to create a product term that has a value of 1 for
each valuation for which the output function has to be 1.
Then we take the logical sum of these product terms to
realize f
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Minterm, Maxterm
Minterm
A product term in which all variables of a function appear
exactly once, uncomplemented or complemented.
Maxterm
A sum term in which all variables of a function appear exactly
once, uncomplemented or complemented.
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Minterm, Maxterm
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Minterm, Maxterm
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Canonical Sum of Products Form
A Boolean function f(x1,x2,x3) can be expressed
algebraically as a logical sum of minterms:
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Canonical Sum of Products Form
f can be expressed as sum of product terms (SOP)
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Canonical Product of Sums Form
The complement of f(x1,x2,x3) can be formed as the logical
sum of all minterms not used in f(x1,x2,x3):
This is called the product of sum presentation of f
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Conversion Between the Canonical Forms
It is easy to convert from one canonical form to other one,
simply use the DeMorgans theorem.
Example:
!
F(A, B,C) = (1, 4,5,6, 7)
"
F
'
(A, B,C) = (0,2, 3)
"
F(A, B,C) = (m0 + m2 + m3)
'
= m
0
'
m
2
'
m
3
'
= M
0
M
2
M
3
F(A, B,C) = (0,2, 3)
#
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Cost of a Logic Circuit
Cost of a logic circuit: total number of gates plus total number
of inputs to all gates in the circuit
The canonical SOP and POS implementations described
before are not necessarily minimum cost
We can simplify them to obtain minimum-cost SOP and POS
circuits
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Reducing Cost
How can we simplify a logic function?
There are systematic approached for doing this (e.g.,
Karnaugh map) that we will learn later
The other way is to use theorems and properties of Boolean
algebra and do algebraic manipulations.
Do an example on the board.
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Reducing Cost
The simplified version of SOP is called minimal SOP
The simplified version of POS is called minimal POS
We cannot in general predict whether the minimal SOP
expression or minimal POS expression will result in the
lowest cost.
It is often useful to check both expressions to see which gives
the best result.
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Other Logic Operations
NAND,
NOR,
XOR,
XNOR
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NAND
NAND: a combination of an AND gate followed by an
inverter.
Symbol for NAND is
NAND gates have several interesting properties:
!
"
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NAND
These three properties show that a NAND gate with both of
its inputs driven by the same signal is equivalent to a NOT
gate
A NAND gate whose output is complemented is equivalent to
an AND gate, and a NAND gate with complemented inputs
acts as an OR gate.
Therefore, we can use a NAND gate to implement all three of
the elementary operators (AND,OR,NOT).
Therefore, ANY Boolean function can be constructed using
only NAND gates.
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NAND
NOT Gate
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NOR
NOR: a combination of an OR gate followed by an inverter.
NOR gates also have several
interesting properties:
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NOR
Just like the NAND gate, any logic function can be
implemented using just NOR gates.
Both NAND and NOR gates are very valuable as any design
can be realized using either one.
It is easier to build an IC chip using all NAND or NOR gates
than to combine AND,OR, and NOT gates.
NAND/NOR gates are typically faster at switching and
cheaper to produce.
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NAND and NOR networks
NAND and NOR can be implemented by simpler electronic
circuits than the AND and OR functions
Can these gates be used in synthesis of logic circuits?
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NAND and NOR networks
x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2
+ =
(a)
x
1
x
2
+ x
1
x
2
=
(b)
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NAND and NOR networks
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
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NAND and NOR networks
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
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Exclusive OR (XOR)
The eXclusive OR (XOR) function is an important Boolean
function used extensively in logic circuits.
The XOR function maybe:
implemented directly as an electronic circuit (truly a gate) or
implemented by interconnecting other gate types (used as a
convenient representation)
The XOR function means:
X OR Y, but NOT BOTH
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XOR
XOR gates assert their output
when exactly one of the inputs
is asserted, hence the name.
The symbol for this operation is #
A
B
Y
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XNOR
The eXclusive NOR function is the complement of the XOR
function
The symbol for this operation is ", i.e.
1 " 1 = 1 and 1 " 0 = 0.
Why is the XNOR function also known as the equivalence
function?
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XOR Implementations
A SOP implementation
A NAND implementation
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XOR and XNOR
Uses for the XOR and XNORs gate include:
Adders/subtractors/multipliers
Counters/incrementers/decrementers
Parity generators/checkers
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XOR
XOR identities:
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Gates with more than two inputs
A gate can be extended to have multiple inputs if the binary
operation it represents is commutative and associative.
AND and OR operations have these two properties
NAND and NOR are not associative:
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Gates with more than two inputs
We define multiple input NAND and NOR gates as follows:
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Gates with more than two inputs
XOR and XNOR are both commutative and associative
Definition of XOR should be modified for more than two
inputs
For more than 2 inputs, XOR is called an odd function: it is
equal to 1 if the input variables have an odd number of 1s
Similarly, for more than 2 inputs, XNOR is called an even
function: it is equal to 1 if the input variables have an even
number of 1s
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Learning Objectives
List the three basic logic operations
Draw the truth table for the basic logic operations
Build truth table for an arbitrary number of variables
Draw schematic for basic logic gates
Perform analysis on simple logic circuits
Draw timing diagram for simple logic circuits