Chapter 6:

SQL (Structured Query

Language)
Contents
1 The COMPANY Database
2 SQL developments: an overview
3 DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
4 DML: select, insert, update, delete
5 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke
2
The COMPANY Database
3
Contents
1 The COMPANY Database
2 SQL developments: an overview
3 DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
4 DML: select, insert, update, delete
5 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke
4
SQL developments: an overview
In 1986, ANSI and ISO published an initial
standard for SQL: SQL-86 or SQL1
In 1992, first major revision to ISO standard
occurred, referred to as SQL2 or SQL-92
In 1999, SQL-99 (SQL3) was released with
support for object-oriented data management
In late 2003, SQL-2003 was released
Now: SQL-2006 was published
5
SQL developments: an overview
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL)
6
Year Name Alias Comments
1986 SQL-86 SQL-87 First published by ANSI. Ratified by ISO in 1987
1989 SQL-89 Minor revision
1992 SQL-92 SQL2 Major revision (ISO 9075)
1999 SQL:1999 SQL3 Added regular expression matching, recursive queries, triggers, non-
scalar types and some object-oriented features. (The last two are
somewhat controversial and not yet widely supported)
2003 SQL:2003 Introduced XML-related features, window functions, standardized
sequences and columns with auto-generated values (including identity-
columns)
2006 SQL:2006 ISO/IEC 9075-14:2006 defines ways in which SQL can be used in
conjunction with XML. It defines ways of importing and storing XML data
in an SQL database, manipulating it within the database and publishing
both XML and conventional SQL-data in XML form. In addition, it provides
facilities that permit applications to integrate into their SQL code the use of
XQuery, the XML Query Language published by the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C), to concurrently access ordinary SQL-data and XML
documents
Basic SQL
DDL: Data Definition Language
Create, Alter, Drop

DML: Data Manipulation Language
Select, Insert, Update, Delete

DCL: Data Control Language
Commit, Rollback, Grant, Revoke

7
Basic SQL
SQL
Structured Query Language
Statements for data definitions, queries, and
updates (both DDL and DML)
Core specification
Plus specialized extensions

8
Contents
1 The COMPANY Database
2 SQL developments: an overview
3 DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
4 DML: select, insert, update, delete
5 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke
9
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
CREATE SCHEMA
SQL schema
Identified by a schema name
Includes an authorization identifier and
descriptors for each element
Schema elements include
Tables, constraints, views, domains, and other
constructs
Catalog
Named collection of schemas in an SQL
environment

10
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
CREATE SCHEMA
CREATE SCHEMA SchemaName
AUTHORIZATION AuthorizationIdentifier;
To create a relational database schema:
started with SQL-92

CREATE SCHEMA Company AUTHORIZATION
J Smith;

Homework: SCHEMA in ORACLE
11
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
CREATE TABLE
CREATE TABLE SchemaName.TableName

or
CREATE TABLE TableName
12
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
CREATE TABLE
CREATE TABLE TableName
{(colName dataType [NOT NULL] [UNIQUE]
[DEFAULT defaultOption]
[CHECK searchCondition] [,...]}
[PRIMARY KEY (listOfColumns),]
{[UNIQUE (listOfColumns),] [,]}
{[FOREIGN KEY (listOfFKColumns)
REFERENCES ParentTableName [(listOfCKColumns)],
[ON UPDATE referentialAction]
[ON DELETE referentialAction ]] [,]}
{[CHECK (searchCondition)] [,] })
13
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
CREATE TABLE
Base tables (base relations)
Relation and its tuples are actually created and
stored as a file by the DBMS.
Virtual relations
Created through the CREATE VI EWstatement.
Some foreign keys may cause errors
Specified either via:
Circular references
Or because they refer to a table that has not yet been
created


14
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL
Basic data types
Numeric data types
Integer numbers: I NTEGER, I NT, and SMALLI NT
Floating-point (real) numbers: FLOAT or REAL, and
DOUBLE PRECI SI ON
Character-string data types
Fixed length: CHAR( n) , CHARACTER( n)
Varying length: VARCHAR( n) , CHAR VARYI NG( n) ,
CHARACTER VARYI NG( n)
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL
Bit-string data types
Fixed length: BI T( n)
Varying length: BI T VARYI NG( n)
Ex: B1001
Boolean data type
Values of TRUE or FALSE or NULL
DATE data type
Ten positions
Components are YEAR, MONTH, and DAY in the form
YYYY-MM-DD
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL
Additional data types
Timestamp data type (TI MESTAMP)
Includes the DATE and TI ME fields
Plus a minimum of six positions for decimal fractions of
seconds
Optional WI TH TI ME ZONE qualifier
INTERVAL data type
Specifies a relative value that can be used to increment
or decrement an absolute value of a date, time, or
timestamp
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL
Domain
Name used with the attribute specification
Makes it easier to change the data type for a
domain that is used by numerous attributes
Improves schema readability
CREATE DOMAIN DomainName AS
DataType [CHECK conditions];
Example:
CREATE DOMAI N SSN_TYPE AS CHAR( 9) ;
Do create tables
& constraints !!
CREATE TABLE TableName
{(colName dataType [NOT NULL]
[UNIQUE]
[DEFAULT defaultOption]
[CHECK searchCondition] [,...]}
[PRIMARY KEY (listOfColumns),]
{[UNIQUE (listOfColumns),] [,]}
{[FOREIGN KEY (listOfFKColumns)
REFERENCES ParentTableName
[(listOfCKColumns)],
[ON UPDATE referentialAction]
[ON DELETE referentialAction ]]
[,]}
{[CHECK (searchCondition)] [,] })
19
The COMPANY Database
,
20
Defining the COMPANY DB schema (1)
21
Defining the COMPANY DB schema (2)
Specifying Constraints in SQL
Basic constraints:
Key and referential integrity constraints
Restrictions on attribute domains and NULLs
Constraints on individual tuples within a relation

22
Specifying Attribute Constraints and
Attribute Defaults
NOT NULL
NULL is not permitted for a particular attribute
Default values
DEFAULT <value> can be specified for an attribute
If no default clause is specified, the default value is NULL for
attributes that do not have the NOT NULL constraint
If NOT NULL option is specified on attribute A and no value is
specified as inserting a tupe r(A) ?
CHECK clause:
DNUMBER INT NOT NULL CHECK (DNUMBER>0 AND
DNUMBER<21);
CREATE DOMAIN can also be used in conjunction with the
CHECK clause:
CREATE DOMAIN D_NUM AS INTEGER CHECK (D_NUM>0 AND
D_NUM<21);
23
24
Specifying Key and Referential
Integrity Constraints
PRIMARY KEY clause
Specifies one or more attributes that make up the
primary key of a relation.
Dnumber I NT PRI MARY KEY;
UNIQUE clause
Specifies alternate (secondary) keys.
Dname VARCHAR( 15) UNI QUE;
Specifying Key and Referential
Integrity Constraints (contd.)
FOREIGN KEY clause
Default operation: reject update on violation
Attach referential triggered action clause
Options include SET NULL, CASCADE, and SET
DEFAULT
An option must be qualified with either ON DELETE or
ON UPDATE
An example
27
Specifying Constraints in SQL
Giving names to constraints
This is optional.
Keyword CONSTRAINT
The name is unique within a particular DB
schema.
Used to identify a particular constraint in case it
must be dropped later and replaced with another
one.
28
Specifying Constraints in SQL
Specifying constraints on tuples using
CHECK
Affected on each tuple individually as being
inserted or modified (tuple-based constraints)
Department create date must be earlier than the
managers start date:
CHECK (DEPT_CREATE_DATE < MGRSTARTDATE);
More general constraints: CREATE ASSERTION
29
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
DROP Command
Used to drop named schema elements:
tables, domains, constraints, and the schema
itself
Drop behavior options:
CASCADE and RESTRI CT
DROP SCHEMA Company CASCADE;
or
DROP SCHEMA Company RESTRICT;
30
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
DROP Command
Drop a table:
DROP TABLE Dependent CASCADE;
RESTRICT option: dropped on if it is not
referenced in any constraints or views.
CASCADE option: all such constraints and views
that reference the table are dropped
automatically from the schema along with the
table itself.

Similarly, we can drop constraints & domains.
31
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
ALTER Command
Base tables: adding or dropping a column or
constraints, changing a column definition
ALTER TABLE Company.Employee ADD J ob VARCHAR(15);
J ob value for each tuple: default clause or UPDATE
command
What value does each tuple take wrt. the attribute J ob if:
ALTER TABLE Company.Employee ADD J ob VARCHAR(15) NOT
NULL;
32
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
ALTER Command
Drop a column: similarly to drop a table,
CASCADE or RESTRICT option must be
specified
CASCADE option: all constraints and views referencing the
column are dropped along with the column
RESTRICT option: successful only if no constraints and
views are referencing the column
ALTER TABLE Company.Employee DROP Address
CASCADE;
33
Contents
1 The COMPANY Database
2 SQL developments: an overview
3 DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
4 DML: select, insert, update, delete
5 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke
34
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
SQL has one basic statement for retrieving information
from a database: the SELECT statement.
This is not the same as the SELECT operation of the
relational algebra.
Important distinction between SQL and the formal
relational model; SQL allows a table (relation) to have two
or more tuples that are identical in all their attribute
values.
Hence, an SQL relation (table) is a multi-set (sometimes
called a bag) of tuples; it is not a set of tuples.
SQL relations can be constrained to be sets by specifying
PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE attributes, or by using the
DISTINCT option in a query.
35
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
Basic form of the SQL SELECT statement is called a
mapping or a SELECT-FROM-WHERE block

SELECT <attribute list>
FROM <table list>
WHERE <condition>

<attribute list> is a list of attribute names whose values are to be
retrieved by the query
<table list> is a list of the relation names required to process the
query
<condition> is a conditional (Boolean) expression that identifies
the tuples to be retrieved by the query
36
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
Logical comparison operators
=, <, <=, >, >=, and <>
Projection attributes
Attributes whose values are to be retrieved
Selection condition
Boolean condition that must be true for any
retrieved tuple

37
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
SELECT [DISTINCT | ALL]
{* | [columnExpression [AS newName]] [,...] }
FROM TableName [alias] [, ...]
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY columnList]
[HAVING condition]
[ORDER BY columnList]
38
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
SELECT Specifies which columns are to appear
in output
FROM Specifies table(s) to be used
WHERE Filters rows
GROUP BY Forms groups of rows with same
column value
HAVING Filters groups subject to some
condition
ORDER BY Specifies the order of the output
39
40
The COMPANY Database
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
Basic SQL queries correspond to using the SELECT,
PROJ ECT, and J OIN operations of the relational algebra
Query 0: Retrieve the birthdate and address of the
employee whose name is 'J ohn B. Smith'.

Q0: SELECT BDATE, ADDRESS
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE FNAME='John' AND MINIT='B AND
LNAME='Smith

Similar to a SELECT-PROJ ECT pair of relational algebra
operations; the SELECT-clause specifies the projection attributes
and the WHERE-clause specifies the selection condition
However, the result of the query may contain duplicate tuples
41
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
Query 1: Retrieve the name and address of all
employees who work for the 'Research' department.

Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND DNUMBER=DNO

Similar to a SELECT-PROJ ECT-J OIN sequence of relational
algebra operations
(DNAME='Research') is a selection condition (corresponds to a
SELECT operation in relational algebra)
(DNUMBER=DNO) is a join condition (corresponds to a J OIN
operation in relational algebra)
42
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
Query 2: For every project located in 'Stafford', list the
project number, the controlling department number, and
the department manager's last name, address, and
birthdate

43
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
Q2: SELECT PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME,
BDATE,ADDRESS
FROM PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUM=DNUMBER AND MGRSSN=SSN
AND PLOCATION='Stafford'

There are 2 join conditions:
The join condition DNUM=DNUMBER relates a project to its
controlling department
The join condition MGRSSN=SSN relates the controlling
department to the employee who manages that department
44
Ambiguous Attribute Names
In SQL, we can use the same name for attributes as long
as the attributes are in different relations. Query referring
to attributes with the same name must qualify the
attribute name with the relation name by prefixing the
relation name to the attribute name
Examples:
DEPARTMENT.DNUMBER, DEPT_LOCATIONS.DNUMBER
45
Aliases
Some queries need to refer to the same relation twice:
aliases are given to the relation name
Query 3: For each employee, retrieve the employee's
name, and the name of his or her immediate supervisor.


Q3: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN

The alternate relation names E and S are called aliases or tuple
variables for the EMPLOYEE relation
We can think of E and S as two different copies of EMPLOYEE;
E represents employees in role of supervisees and S represents
employees in role of supervisors
46
Aliases
Aliases can also be used in any SQL query
for convenience. Can also use the AS
keyword to specify aliases
Q4: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME,
S.LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, EMPLOYEE AS S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN
Renaming using aliases:
EMPLOYEE AS E(FN, MI, LN, SSN, BD, ADDR, SEX,
SAL, SSSN, DNO)
(in the FROM clause)
47
Unspecified WHERE-clause
A missing WHERE-clause indicates no condition;
hence, all tuples of the relations in the FROM-clause are
selected
This is equivalent to the condition WHERE TRUE
Query 5: Retrieve the SSN values for all employees

Q5: SELECT SSN
FROM EMPLOYEE
48
Unspecified WHERE-clause
If more than one relation is specified in the FROM-clause
and there is no join condition, then the CARTESIAN
PRODUCT of tuples is selected
Example:

Q6: SELECT SSN, DNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT

It is extremely important not to overlook specifying any
selection and join conditions in the WHERE-clause;
otherwise, incorrect and very large relations may result.
49
Use of ASTERISK (*)
An asterisk (*) stands for all the attributes
Examples:

Q7: SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO=5

Q8: SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND
DNO=DNUMBER
50
USE OF DISTINCT
SQL does not treat a relation as a set: duplicate tuples
can appear in a query result. To eliminate duplicate
tuples, use the keyword DISTINCT.
For example, the result of Q9 may have duplicate
SALARY values, but Q9As
Q9: SELECT SALARY
FROM EMPLOYEE

Q9A: SELECT DISTINCT SALARY
FROM EMPLOYEE
51
Set Operations
Set union (UNION), set difference (EXCEPT) and set
intersection (INTERSECT) operations
The resulting relations of these set operations are sets of
tuples: duplicate tuples are eliminated from the
result.
The set operations apply only to union compatible
relations.
UNION ALL, EXCEPT ALL, INTERSECT ALL ??
52
Set Operations
Query 10: Make a list of all project numbers for projects
that involve an employee whose last name is 'Smith' as a
worker or as a manager of the department that controls
the project.

Q10: (SELECT DISTINCT PNUMBER
FROM PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUM=DNUMBER AND MGRSSN=SSN
AND LNAME='Smith')
UNION
(SELECT DISTINCT PNUMBER
FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON, EMPLOYEE
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO AND ESSN=SSN AND
LNAME='Smith')
53
Two reserved characters: % and _
Q11: SELECT *
FROM Employee
WHERE Address LIKE %HCMC%

Q12: SELECT *
FROM Employee
WHERE BDate LIKE _ _8_ _ _ _ _ _ _
54
Substring pattern matching and arithmetic
operators
Substring pattern matching and arithmetic
operators
Standard arithmetic operators: +, -, *, /
Query 13: show the resulting salaries if every
employee working on ProductX is given 10%
raise

Q13: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, 1.1*Salary AS INC_SAL
FROM Employee, Works_on, Project
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER AND
PNAME=ProductX
55
NULL & 3-valued logic







SELECT * FROM Employee WHERE SuperSSN IS NULL;
SELECT * FROM Employee WHERE SuperSSN IS NOT NULL;
56
AND True False Unknown
True T F U
False F F F
Unknown U F U
OR True False Unknown
True T T T
False T F U
Unknown T U U
NOT
True F
False T
Unknown U
Nested Queries
Complete select-from-where blocks within WHERE
clause of another query.
Comparison operator IN
Compares value v with a set (or multiset) of values V
Evaluates to TRUE if v is one of the elements in V
Query 14: Retrieve the name and address of all
employees who work for the 'Research' department

Q14:SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' )
57
Correlated Nested Queries
If a condition in the WHERE-clause of a nested query
references an attribute of a relation declared in the outer
query , the two queries are said to be correlated.
Query 15: Retrieve the name of each employee who has
a dependent with the same first name as the employee.

Q15: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E
WHERE E.SSN IN (SELECT ESSN
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE ESSN=E.SSN AND
E.FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME)
58
Correlated Nested Queries
A query written with nested SELECT... FROM...
WHERE... blocks and using IN comparison operator can
always be expressed as a single block query For
example, Q15 may be written as in Q15A:


Q15A: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE E, DEPENDENT D
WHERE E.SSN=D.ESSN AND
E.FNAME=D.DEPENDENT_NAME
59
Nested Query Exercises
Query 16: Retrieve the SSNs of all employees who work
the same (project, hours) combination on some project
that employee J ohn Smith (SSN=123456789) works on
(using a nested query)


Q16: SELECT DISTINCT ESSN
FROM Works_on
WHERE (PNO, HOURS) IN
(SELECT PNO, HOURS
FROM Works_on
WHERE ESSN=123456789)
60
More Comparison Operators
Use other comparison operators to compare a single
value v
= ANY (or = SOME) operator
Returns TRUE if the value v is equal to some value in the set V
and is hence equivalent to IN
Other operators that can be combined with ANY (or
SOME), ALL: >, >=, <, <=, and <>
Query 17: Retrieve all employees whose salary is
greater than the salary of all employees in dept. 5
Q17: SELECT *
FROM Employee
WHERE Salary > ALL (SELECT Salary
FROM Employee
WHERE DNO=5)
61
The EXISTS and UNIQUE Functions
in SQL
EXI STS function
Check whether the result of a correlated nested
query is empty or not.
EXI STS and NOT EXI STS
Typically used in conjunction with a correlated
nested query.
SQL function UNI QUE( Q)
Returns TRUE if there are no duplicate tuples in
the result of query Q.
62
The EXISTS Function
Query 15: Retrieve the name of each employee who has
a dependent with the same first name as the employee.

Q15B: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND
FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME)
63
The EXISTS Function
Query 18: Retrieve the names of employees who have
no dependents

Q18: SELECT FNAME, LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE SSN=ESSN)

In Q18, the correlated nested query retrieves all DEPENDENT
tuples related to an EMPLOYEE tuple. If none exist , the
EMPLOYEE tuple is selected.
EXISTS is necessary for the expressive power of SQL.
64
Enumerated Sets
It is also possible to use an explicit (enumerated) set
of values in the WHERE-clause rather than a nested
query
Query 19: Retrieve the SSNs of all employees who work
on project numbers 1, 2, or 3.

Q19: SELECT DISTINCT ESSN
FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE PNO IN (1, 2, 3)
65
Joined Relations Feature in SQL2
Can specify a "joined relation" in the FROM-
clause
Allows the user to specify different types of
joins (EQUIJ OIN, NATURAL J OIN, LEFT
OUTER J OIN, RIGHT OUTER J OIN)
66
Joined Tables in SQL and Outer Joins
Joined table
Permits users to specify a table resulting from a
join operation in the FROM clause of a query
The FROM clause in Q1A
Contains a single joined table
67
Joined Tables in SQL and Outer Joins
Specify different types of join
NATURAL J OIN
Various types of OUTER J OIN
NATURAL J OIN on two relations R and S
No join condition specified
Implicit EQUIJ OIN condition for each pair of
attributes with same name from R and S
68
Joined Tables in SQL and Outer Joins
Inner join
Default type of join in a joined table
Tuple is included in the result only if a matching
tuple exists in the other relation
LEFT OUTER J OIN
Every tuple in left table must appear in result
If no matching tuple
Padded with NULL values for attributes of right table
69
Joined Tables in SQL and Outer Joins
RIGHT OUTER J OIN
Every tuple in right table must appear in result
If no matching tuple
Padded with NULL values for the attributes of left table
FULL OUTER J OIN
Can nest join specifications
70
Joined Relations Feature in SQL2
Examples:

SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN

can be written as:

SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME
FROM (EMPLOYEE E LEFT OUTER JOIN
EMPLOYEE S ON E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN)

Any differences ??
71
Joined Relations Feature in SQL2
Examples:
SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND DNUMBER=DNO
could be written as:
SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS
FROM (EMPLOYEE JOIN DEPARTMENT ON
DNUMBER=DNO)
WHERE DNAME='Research
or as:
SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS
FROM (EMPLOYEE NATURAL JOIN (DEPARTMENT
AS DEPT(DNAME, DNO, MSSN, MSDATE)))
WHERE DNAME='Research
72
Joined Relations Feature in SQL2
Query 2: For every project located in 'Stafford', list the
project number, the controlling department number, and
the department manager's last name, address, and
birthdate
Q2 could be written as follows; this illustrates multiple
joins in the joined tables

SELECT PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME, BDATE, ADDRESS
FROM ((PROJECT JOIN DEPARTMENT ON DNUM=
DNUMBER) JOIN EMPLOYEE ON
MGRSSN=SSN))
WHERE PLOCATION='Stafford
73
Aggregate functions
COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, AVG

Query 20: Find the max, min, & average
salary among all employees


Q20: SELECT MAX(SALARY), MIN(SALARY),
AVG(SALARY)
FROM EMPLOYEE
74
Aggregate functions
Queries 21 and 22: Retrieve the total number of
employees in the company (Q17), and the number of
employees in the 'Research' department (Q18)

Q21:SELECT COUNT (*)
FROM EMPLOYEE

Q22:SELECT COUNT (*)
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNO=DNUMBER AND
DNAME='Research

Note: NULL values are discarded wrt. aggregate
functions as applied to a particular column
75
Grouping
In many cases, we want to apply the aggregate functions
to subgroups of tuples in a relation.
Each subgroup of tuples consists of the set of tuples that
have the same value for the grouping attribute(s).
The function is applied to each subgroup independently.
SQL has a GROUP BY-clause for specifying the
grouping attributes, which must also appear in the
SELECT-clause.
If NULLs exist in grouping attribute
Separate group created for all tuples with a NULL
value in grouping attribute

76
Grouping
Query 23: For each department, retrieve the department number,
the number of employees in the department, and their average
salary.


Q23: SELECT DNO, COUNT (*), AVG (SALARY)
FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY DNO

In Q23, the EMPLOYEE tuples are divided into groups, each
group having the same value for the grouping attribute DNO.
The COUNT and AVG functions are applied to each such group
of tuples separately.
The SELECT-clause includes only the grouping attribute and
the functions to be applied on each group of tuples.
A join condition can be used in conjunction with grouping.
77
78
Grouping: Q23 result
Grouping: the having-clause
Sometimes we want to retrieve the values of
these functions for only those groups that
satisfy certain conditions.
The HAVING-clause is used for specifying a
selection condition on groups (rather than on
individual tuples).
79
Grouping: the having-clause
Query 24: For each project on which more than two
employees work , retrieve the project number, project
name, and the number of employees who work on that
project.

Q24: SELECT PNUMBER, PNAME, COUNT (*)
FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO
GROUP BY PNUMBER, PNAME
HAVING COUNT (*) > 2
80
Order by
The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the tuples in a
query result based on the values of some attribute(s)
Query 25: Retrieve a list of employees and the projects
each works in, ordered by the employee's department,
and within each department ordered alphabetically by
employee last name.


Q25: SELECT DNAME, LNAME, FNAME, PNAME
FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE, WORKS_ON,
PROJECT
WHERE DNUMBER=DNO AND SSN=ESSN AND
PNO=PNUMBER
ORDER BY DNAME, LNAME [DESC|ASC]
81
SELECT summarization
SELECT [DISTINCT | ALL]
{* | [columnExpression [AS newName]] [,...] }
FROM TableName [alias] [, ...]
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY columnList] [HAVING condition]
[ORDER BY columnList]
82
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
INSERT
In its simplest form, it is used to add one or
more tuples to a relation.
Attribute values should be listed in the same
order as the attributes were specified in the
CREATE TABLE command.
83
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
INSERT
Example:

U1: INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE
VALUES ('Richard','K','Marini', '653298653', '30-DEC-52',
'98 Oak Forest,Katy,TX', 'M', 37000,'987654321', 4)

An alternate form of INSERT specifies explicitly the attribute names
that correspond to the values in the new tuple, attributes with NULL
values can be left out
Example: Insert a tuple for a new EMPLOYEE for whom we only
know the FNAME, LNAME, and SSN attributes.

U2: INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (FNAME, LNAME, SSN)
VALUES ('Richard', 'Marini', '653298653')
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DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
INSERT
Important note: Only the constraints specified
in the DDL commands are automatically
enforced by the DBMS when updates are
applied to the database.
Another variation of INSERT allows insertion
of multiple tuples resulting from a query into
a relation.
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DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
INSERT
Example: Suppose we want to create a temporary table that has the
name, number of employees, and total salaries for each department.
A table DEPTS_INFO is created by U3, and is loaded with the
summary information retrieved from the database by the query in
U3A


U3:CREATE TABLE DEPTS_INFO
(DEPT_NAME VARCHAR(10),
NO_OF_EMPS INTEGER,
TOTAL_SAL INTEGER);

U3A:INSERT INTO DEPTS_INFO (DEPT_NAME, NO_OF_EMPS,
TOTAL_SAL)
SELECT DNAME, COUNT (*), SUM (SALARY)
FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUMBER=DNO
GROUP BY DNAME;
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DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
DELETE
Removes tuples from a relation.
Includes a WHERE-clause to select the tuples to be
deleted.
Tuples are deleted from only one table at a time (unless
CASCADE is specified on a referential integrity
constraint).
A missing WHERE-clause specifies that all tuples in the
relation are to be deleted; the table then becomes an
empty table.
The number of tuples deleted depends on the number of
tuples in the relation that satisfy the WHERE-clause.
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DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
DELETE
Examples:
U4A: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE LNAME='Brown

U4B: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE SSN='123456789

U4C: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO IN
(SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research')

U4D: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
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DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
UPDATE
Used to modify attribute values of one or more selected
tuples.
A WHERE-clause selects the tuples to be modified.
An additional SET-clause specifies the attributes to be
modified and their new values.
Each command modifies tuples in the same relation.
Referential integrity should be enforced.
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DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
UPDATE
Example: Change the location and controlling
department number of project number 10 to
'Bellaire' and 5, respectively.

U5: UPDATE PROJECT
SET PLOCATION = 'Bellaire', DNUM = 5
WHERE PNUMBER=10;
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DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
UPDATE
Example: Give all employees in the
'Research' department a 10% raise in salary.

U6: UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET SALARY = SALARY *1.1
WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research')
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CREATE ASSERTION
Specify additional types of constraints outside
scope of built-in relational model constraints.
components include: a constraint name, followed
by CHECK, followed by a condition.
CREATE TRIGGER
Specify automatic actions that database system
will perform when certain events and conditions
occur.
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Advanced DDL: Assertions & Triggers
Advanced DDL: Assertions & Triggers
CREATE ASSERTI ON
Specify a query that selects any tuples that violate
the desired condition.
Use only in cases where it is not possible to use
CHECK on attributes and domains.
Advanced DDL: Assertions & Triggers
The salary of an employee must not be
greater than the salary of the manager of the
department that the employee works for.

CREATE ASSERTION SALARY_CONSTRAINT
CHECK (NOT EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE M, DEPARTMENT D
WHERE E.SALARY>M.SALARY AND E.DNO=D.NUMBER
AND D.MGRSSN=M.SSN))
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Advanced DDL: Assertions & Triggers
Triggers: to specify the type of action to be
taken as certain events occur & as certain
conditions are satisfied.
95
VIEWs
A view is a virtual table that is derived
from other tables.
Allows for limited update operations (since
the table may not physically be stored).
Allows full query operations.
A convenience for expressing certain
operations.
96
VIEWs
SQL command: CREATE VIEW
a view (table) name
a possible list of attribute names
a query to specify the view contents
Specify a different WORKS_ON table (view)
CREATE VIEW WORKS_ON_NEW AS
SELECT FNAME, LNAME, PNAME, HOURS
FROM EMPLOYEE, PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER

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VIEWs
We can specify SQL queries on a newly
create table (view):
SELECT FNAME, LNAME FROM WORKS_ON_NEW
WHERE PNAME= Seena ;
View always up-to-date
Responsibility of the DBMS and not the user
When no longer needed, a view can be
dropped:
DROP VI EWWORKS_ON_NEW;
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View Update and Inline Views
Update on a view defined on a single table
without any aggregate functions
Can be mapped to an update on underlying base
table.
View involving joins
Often not possible for DBMS to determine which
of the updates is intended.

More details: 5.3.3
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View Update and Inline Views
Clause WITH CHECK OPTION
Must be added at the end of the view definition if
a view is to be updated
In-line view
Defined in the FROM clause of an SQL query

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Contents
1 The COMPANY Database
2 SQL developments: an overview
3 DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
4 DML: select, insert, update, delete
5 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke
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DCL: Commit, Rollback, Grant, Revoke
Chapter 17: Transaction Processing
Chapter 23: DB security
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Summary
SQL developments: an overview
SQL
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
DML: select, insert, update, delete
Introduction to advanced DDL (assertions &
triggers), views, DCL (commit, rollback, grant,
revoke)

103
104
Exercise
105
1. For each employee, retrieve the employees first name
and last name and the first and last name of his/her
immediate supervisor.
2. Retrieve the names of all employees in the departments
which are located in Houston.
3. List the names of all employees who have a dependent
with the same first name as themselves.
4. For each project, calculate the total number of
employees who work for it, and the total number of
hours that these employees work for the project.
5. Retrieve the average salary of all female employees.
6. For each department whose average employee salary
is more than $30.000, retrieve the department name
and the number of employees work for that department.
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Review questions
1) How do the relations (tables) in SQL differ from the
relations defined formally in Chapter 4? Discuss
the other differences in terminology.Why does
SQL allow duplicate tuples in a table or in a
query result?
2) List the data types that are allowed for SQL
attributes.
3) How does SQL allow implementation of the
entity integrity and referential integrity
constraints described in Chapter 4? What about
referential triggered actions?
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