International Journal of Management Education 7(3)

13
The changes to accounting education and accounting
educators as a result of changes in the Spanish university
system: A case study using an institutional theory approach
Jos Mara Gonzlez Gonzlez, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain and Trevor Hassall,
Sheffield Hallam University
DOI:10.3794/ijme.73.246
Received: January 2008
Revised: July 2008
Accepted: September 2008
Introduction
There is well-documented concern among both employers and academics about the state of accounting
education. Attempts to effect solutions to these perceived problems have focused on identifying and
analysing the problem areas within accounting education itself and proposing solutions. In many cases this
has consisted of employer focused research to identify market needs (Albrecht & Sack, 2000). However,
accounting education is part of a wider system of higher education provision that itself has been the subject
of an increasing rate of change in many individual countries (Langa & David, 2006). The purpose of this paper
is to explore the extent that these external changes may have been causal or contributory factors to the
problems identified as affecting accounting education. Also to examine the extent to which these external
changes have influenced the delivery of accounting education and to consider the extent to which these
pressures may influence many of the proposed solutions to the problems affecting accounting education.
The paper uses an institutional theory approach (Meyer & Rowan, 1977; DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Powell &
DiMaggio, 1991) to identify and analyse the pressures exerted by the external institutional constituents on
the Spanish higher education (HE) system in order to implement the European Higher Education Area (EHEA)
in Spain. Also the paper analyses the changes caused by those pressures on accounting education as well as
the reactions and behaviours of accounting educators to those changes. The new institutional theory is
particularly useful for analysing and understanding change on organisational sectors (Dacin et al., 2002;
Zilber, 2002) and specifically, for analysing organisations that are confronted with uncertainties and as a
result compete for political and institutional legitimacy and market position (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983).
The most recent major change involves the introduction of the new University Organic Law (LOU) in 2001.
Abstract
Accounting education is part of the wider system of higher education provision that in many individual countries has been
the subject of an increasing rate of change but it is unclear to what extent these external changes have influenced the
delivery of accounting education. The paper uses an institutional theory approach (Meyer & Rowan, 1977; DiMaggio &
Powell, 1983; Powell & DiMaggio, 1991) to analyse the pressures exerted by the external institutional constituents on the
Spanish higher education system in order to implement the European Higher Education Area. Specifically, the paper
analyses the changes caused by these pressures on accounting education, as well as the reactions and behaviours of
accounting educators to those changes. It is based on a longitudinal case study at the Department of Accounting of the
University of Seville. The case study uses multiple sources including interviews, participant observation, informal
discussions and documents. The results evidence the importance of coercive isomorphism on the structuring of the
Spanish university system, some factors that have hindered the development of the normative isomorphism in accounting
education, and the relevance of regulatory legitimacy to academic career prospects of accounting educators.
Keywords: Spanish higher education; accounting education; new institutionalism
Jos Mara Gonzlez Gonzlez is currently a Doctor Contracted in Accounting at the University of Seville
(Spain) as well as a Visiting Research Fellow of Sheffield Hallam University. Specific research interests
include management accounting, organisational change and accounting education. He has published several
papers in national and international journals in the areas of institutionalisation and deinstitutionalisation of
business practices such as total quality management and business process reengineering.
Trevor Hassall is currently Professor of Accounting Education at Sheffield Hallam University. He is the leader
of the Accounting and Business Education Research Centre at Sheffield Hallam University and has published
extensively in professional and refereed journals. Specific research interests include the pedagogic use of
case studies and the barriers to skills development. Other interests include the approaches to learning of
accounting students and the development of vocational skills in undergraduate and professional accounting
students.
International Journal of Management Education 7(3)
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The aim was to significantly reorganise the Spanish HE system to bring it into line with the systems of its
European counterparts and the EHEA. Specifically, the paper will focus on the LOU and will analyse the
repercussions and potential consequences of the introduction of this legislation upon accounting education
and accounting educators in Spain.
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. The next section will consider the background to and the
specific provisions of the proposed changes created by the LOU. Then the theoretical development is
discussed by presenting institutional theory as the framework informing the analysis. This is followed by a
description of the methodology used to analyse these changes in terms of their effect on accounting
education and accounting educators in Spain. A case study is then developed using this methodology. Finally,
the results of this case study are discussed and suggestions for further research will be made.
The Spanish educational background
Spanish education policy has changed considerably following the arrival of political democracy in the mid-
seventies (Bonal, 2000). A key milestone in the development of the Spanish system of HE was the introduction
in 1983 of the University Reform Organic Law (LRU). This law allowed the establishment of private
universities for the first time. It also established the right of universities to offer their own degree
programmes (Ttulos Propios) in addition to those officially recognised by the Ministry of Education (Ttulos
Oficiales). The overall effect was to give universities greater autonomy in terms of curriculum development
and finance.
Prior to the introduction of LRU in 1983 the universities in Spain were under the direct control of the
Government. The change in the law weakened the Central Governments control and gave increased
autonomy to each public university. The legal reforms also had the effect of democratising the internal
structures of universities by transferring power from the state bureaucracy to university level governing
bodies (Mora, 1999). The main changes brought about by the LRU are summarised by Mora and Vidal (2000) as
follows:
universities become autonomous entities
responsibility for universities transferred from the government to the autonomous regions
the establishment of private universities was permitted
power is shared by the following: Central Government, Regional Government and universities
McDaniel (1996) equates the degree of autonomy in Spanish Universities to those of the Netherlands and
Sweden, this being less than Anglo-Saxon countries but higher than most Continental European countries.
In the period between the introduction of the LRU and the introduction of the LOU, several major problems
emerged. One of them was that student numbers in the HE system more than doubled (Mora & Vidal, 2000;
Langa & David, 2006). At the beginning of the 1980s total student numbers were 649,000 but by the turn of
the century this had grown to 1,579,000. Mora and Villarreal (1996) attributed this growth to demographic
factors but also to the open door admissions policy operated by universities.
Concern has been expressed that while overall numbers of students in the system increased the numbers
graduating did not rise proportionately. The dropout rate was very high and this may have been in part due to
the length of the courses themselves, often 5 years or more. Mora and Villarreal (1996) attributed the
problem to two factors. Firstly, the rigidness of the system characterised by lack of adjustment to the
increased demand, little pedagogical innovation and an excessively regulated staff. Secondly, central to the
problem was the lack of an accountability mechanism for the overall working of the system. Of further
concern, as noted by Mora et al. (2000), was that new graduates found difficulty in obtaining employment.
They attributed this to the fact that the Spanish economy was relatively low-tech, and that university courses
focused on certain professions and were slow to react to changes in these professions, and the economy as a
whole.
The introduction of the LOU in 2001 caused important changes in the Spanish educational background. This
case study is focused on the LOU and is developed using the new institutional theory the relevance of which
will be discussed in the next section.
Theoretical approach: New institutionalism
New institutionalism focuses on the symbolic facet as well as the wider environment of an organisation
(Scott, 1987; Scott & Meyer, 1994; Selznick, 1996). According to this theory being technically efficient does
not guarantee organisational survival (Carruthers, 1995). On the contrary organisations also need to conform
to the rules, norms and values of their institutional environment in order to obtain legitimacy and the
resources needed for survival (Meyer & Rowan, 1977; Meyer, 1986; Covaleski et al., 2003). Likewise, the
defenders of new institutionalism argue that organisations which share the same organisational environment
International Journal of Management Education 7(3)
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are subjected to the same institutional pressures and, as a result, tend to be isomorphic in their structures
and behaviours to obtain legitimacy (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Powell & DiMaggio, 1991).
This paper draws on new institutionalism to analyse and interpret the changes in the Spanish HE system and
their repercussions on education and educators. Firstly, this theoretical approach allows to us to consider the
influences of the institutional environment (regulation, cultural and social factors) on the change process of
the HE system and its repercussions on universities (Goodstein, 1994; Scott, 2001). Secondly, new
institutionalism helps explain the actions of both individuals and universities and helps to uncover the role
that power and vested interests play in the change process (Powell & DiMaggio, 1991; Dacin, 1997; Dacin et
al., 2002). Thirdly, new institutionalism allows us to consider decisions and actions of individuals and
universities that are not only subject to market pressures or the calls for higher efficiency but can also be
motivated by pressures from their institutional environment and the search for legitimacy (Meyer & Rowan,
1977; Suchman, 1995).
In short, new institutionalism can contribute an alternative perspective by analysing and understanding the
changes in the design, adoption, implementation and modification of HE systems in general, and in the
accounting education system in particular.
New institutionalism and legitimacy
Legitimacy lies at the core of new institutionalism. According to Suchman (1995, p. 574), legitimacy is a
generalised perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper, or appropriate
within some socially constructed system of norms, values, beliefs, and definitions. From an institutional
perspective, legitimacy reflects consonance with relevant rules and laws, or alignment with cultural-
cognitive frameworks. Organisations need more than material resources to survive, they also need
acceptability and credibility. Legitimacy implies a symbolic value to be displayed in a manner such that it is
visible to outsiders (Scott, 2001).
According to new institutionalism, organisations are driven to incorporate structures and practices to
increase their legitimacy, irrespective of the efficiency of those structures. In fact, conformity to
institutionalised rules and norms often conflicts with the efficiency criteria (Meyer & Rowan, 1977). In this
respect, Friedland and Alford (1991, p. 243) noted that organizations which adopt the appropriate forms
perform well not because they are more efficient, but because these forms are most effective at eliciting
resources from other organizations which take them to be legitimate.
Suchman (1995) and Scott (2001) identified three bases of legitimacy regulatory, normative and cultural-
cognitive. The regulatory base puts emphasis on conformity to rules and therefore legitimate organisations
are those operating in accordance with relevant laws and regulations. The normative base stresses moral
obligations and the cultural-cognitive base rests on taken-for-granted understandings. Suchman (1995) argued
that cognitive legitimacy is more elusive to obtain and more difficult to manipulate, but becomes more
subtle and more self-sustaining once established. As the bases of legitimacy are different they may conflict
with each other (Scott, 2001).
Institutional isomorphism
Institutional isomorphism implies a process which forces one organisation to resemble other organisations
that face the same set of environmental conditions. Isomorphism can be expected to proceed irrespective of
its contribution to the improvement of the organisational efficiency since organisations are rewarded for
their similarity to other organisations in their fields. Therefore, isomorphism contributes to the maintenance
of power and institutional legitimacy by organisations (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Deephouse, 1996).
DiMaggio and Powell (1983) identify three mechanisms through which institutional isomorphic change occurs:
coercive, mimetic and normative. Coercive isomorphic pressures occur because organisations are seen as
depending on the external environment for resources to survive (Pfeffer & Salancik, 1978; Pfeffer, 1981;
Oliver, 1991). This suggests that successful organisations are those that are able to negotiate with the
external environment for resources (Dacin, 1997; Carpenter & Feroz, 2001). Coercive isomorphism occurs due
to pressures from external resource providers that the organisation depends on, including the state and the
credit markets, and from the pressure on an organisation to conform to the cultural expectations of the
larger society.
DiMaggio and Powell (1983, p.152) construed mimetic isomorphic change as occurring when organizations
tend to model themselves after similar organizations in their field that they perceive to be more legitimate
or successful. It is suggested that organisations operating under conditions of uncertainty will tend to
imitate certain practices of other organisations they consider successful. Thus, mimetic isomorphism is a
response to organisational uncertainty in identifying the best course of action (Carpenter & Feroz, 2001, p.
571).
International Journal of Management Education 7(3)
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Finally, normative isomorphic pressures for change are associated with professionalisation and occur when
organisations seek institutional legitimacy (Meyer & Scott, 1983; DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). Organisations may
find it easier to legitimise their activities when such practices are culturally supported. As argued by Meyer
and Scott (1983), such cultural support can come from professional associations both local and worldwide.
DiMaggio and Powell (1983) suggest that professionalisation has an important role in this type of isomorphism
since it embraces two aspects that generate isomorphism: the growth of professional networks that spans
organisations; and the formal education produced by university specialists and by professional training
institutions, since they initiate the development of organisational norms. The typology of isomorphism
mentioned above is only an analytic one because the three types of isomorphism intermingle in empirical
settings (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Mizruchi & Fein, 1999).
Research method
The research is based on a longitudinal case study conducted between 2003 and 2006 at the Department of
Accounting of the University of Seville. Several authors, such as Yin (1989), Scapens (1990) and Pettigrew
(1997) recommend this method as the most appropriate to research change processes. Also, Dacin et al.
(2002), Zilber (2002), Arajo (2003), Dillard et al. (2004) and Hopper and Major (2007) recommend its use
specifically to study institutional change. In particular, this research method is very useful to analyse the
symbolic aspects of organisations and how people use them in everyday life within organisations.
The reasons for the choice of this research method include the ability (Yin, 1989; Scapens, 1990; Otley &
Berry, 1994; Bonache, 1999; Azofra et al., 2004) to: (a) consider the historical, social and organisational
context in which the accounting education evolution is situated, (b) analyse the impacts of exogenous and
endogenous factors which are difficult to quantify, such as government regulations, organisational culture,
conflicts, behaviours, and attitudes about the change of the accounting education system, (c) adopt a holistic
approach to understand the accounting education evolution, (d) study interrelations between context and
action what implies to consider repercussions of participants on their environment, and vice versa, and (e)
obtain a rich description of the accounting education change and to use multiple sources for collecting
evidence over a long period of time.
Specifically, the case study uses the following sources for collecting evidence:
1. Participant observation - one of the researchers has been an academic in the Department of
Accounting of the University of Seville since 1999. This enabled the systematic collection of evidence,
in particular an in-depth knowledge of the everyday life and atmosphere of the specific organisation.
2. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 21 of the teachers in the Department of Accounting
during the period 2003-2006: 13 civil servants (tenured staff) and 8 labour teachers (untenured).
Some of the interviewees were senior teachers and others were new teachers. The interviewees
included at least one teacher of each contract category that exists in the Department. In this way it
was possible to observe the different problems encountered by each of the categories. The questions
used in the interviews were classified into three sections: pressures and change process;
repercussions on accounting education; and repercussions on accounting educators and their
reactions and behaviours.
3. Analysis of documents - external documents, mainly the regulation of the Spanish university system
(SUS), and internal documents, such as education organisation plans and the research records of the
Department of Accounting from 1997 to 2006, were analysed. This allowed analysis of the SUS before
and after the introduction of the LOU.
4. The Intranet of the University of Seville and websites of the Ministry of Education, Central and
Regional Agencies of Evaluation and Andalusia Council have been used to systematically collect
evidence on the main changes in the SUS. Also access to the discussion forum of teachers of the
University of Seville regarding the university system change.
5. Informal discussions were maintained with most of the teachers of the Department of Accounting.
These were very important because it facilitated a comparison of the information collected through
the formal sources. Furthermore, these informal discussions allowed us to probe deeper into the
political, social, historical and organisational context of our study object.
In addition to these sources of evidence, the results and conclusions of the case study were discussed with
several teachers of the Department of Accounting in order to rectify some mistakes interpreting the data
obtained. The use of multiple sources for collecting evidence gave us data triangulation and therefore
enhanced the credibility of the results (Modell, 2005a). Specifically, the adoption of a data triangulation
approach can help capture a comprehensive, holistic and contextual portrayal of the social phenomena
under study (Hoque & Hopper, 1997, p.126).
The specific reasons for studying the Department of Accounting of the University of Seville were:
1. The SUS is changing as a consequence of the approval of the LOU. Therefore this case study was an
opportunity to understand how external factors can influence the development of accounting
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education and the behaviour of accounting educators. Also, as the SUS is changing to adapt to entry
to the EHEA, this case may be relevant to European counterparts that also face these changes.
2. The University of Seville is one of the largest and oldest universities of Spain, 2005 being its fifth
centennial. Also, in 2003, the University approved a Statute to conform to the new law which enabled
a study of its internal change process.
3. The University of Seville has its own Department of Accounting which is separate from other
departments such as Financial management, Production, Marketing, Organization. Many other Spanish
universities do not have a specific Department of Accounting. This aspect allows the demarcation of
the study object and therefore a higher control on study variables.
Although a single department of accounting case study is limited with respect to statistical generalisability,
we agree with Lukka and Kasanen (1995) and Granlund (2001, p. 144) that a single organisation case study
offers opportunities for in-depth observation and analysis of a complicated research phenomenon in a way
that permits contextual generalisability. Besides this type of generalisation, Bertaux (1993) and Bonache
(1999) highlighted that qualitative studies must have the aim of interpretative comparison. In this respect,
our case study contributes a reference for carrying out that comparison in other national and international
contexts.
Results of the case study
In 1999 Spain signed the Bologna Declaration and as a consequence the SUS faced an important challenge: its
harmonisation through the establishment of the EHEA. Therefore, in 2001 the Spanish government approved
the LOU whose main objectives were to achieve that harmonisation and to complete the university
decentralisation process that was initiated by the LRU.
Once the LOU was approved, the University of Seville prepared a new Statute which was approved in 2003.
The Andalusian government approved the Andalusian Law of Universities (LAU) several months later. Both the
new Statute and the LAU followed the general guidelines established by the LOU.
The new regulation as a whole gave a higher autonomy to the regional governments and to the universities on
university matters. Both the LOU and the LAU transferred more power to the Andalusian government for the
operation and management of universities as well as responsibility for their finance. The University of Seville
also increased its responsibilities in that the new regulation allowed the University of Seville to establish its
own recruitment and contracting procedures, individual salary supplements and admission procedures for
new students.
The new regulation created pressure to introduce changes which had important repercussions on the SUS.
Specifically, five significant changes in the SUS were identified:
restructuring of HE studies
quality assurance of the HE system
design of a new academic career for teachers
encouragement of pedagogic training and research activity of teachers
control and assessment of the activities developed by teachers
Next the paper presents and analyses those changes in the SUS and their repercussions on accounting
education and accounting educators, as well as the reactions of accounting educators to those changes.
Restructuring of HE studies
The LOU restructured HE studies into two levels that encompass three cycles:
1. The degree level or first cycle has a length of 4 academic years and is recognised by the award of a
degree (licenciado).
2. The second cycle, which belongs to the postgraduate level, has a length of 2 academic years and is
recognised by the award of a Master.
3. The third cycle, also at postgraduate level, is recognised by the award of a Doctorate.
The implementation of this structure will be carried out gradually through to 2010. A general worry of
teachers is that the required changes have not been undertaken yet with one interviewee stating:
The change proposed by the European Higher Education Area cant be introduced in a single year because this
change requires smaller students groups, a different teachers dedication, a change of the education
methodology, a reduction of the capacity of our lecture rooms, the incorporation of new technologies, etc.
We know what we have to do, but we dont act.
Unlike most of the European countries, there is no specific degree in accounting in Spain. Currently
International Journal of Management Education 7(3)
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accounting is a part, together with other knowledge areas, of the education plans for the recognition of
licenciado in Management and Business Administration.
Also, the participation of professional associations in the preparation of education plans is almost non-
existent. According to an interviewee, professionals dont participate because they arent motivated, they
dont have incentives. Likewise there is not a professional association of accountants in Spain capable of
influencing the design of education plans.
The interviewees indicated that the new education plans are the result of a political negotiation for the
distribution of power among the respective academic departments. Specifically, an interviewee noted that:
The preparation of education plans sparks off an internal struggle among the Departments to get credits,
because more credits imply more teachers, and more teachers mean more votes, and more votes imply more
power and resources. Resulting education plans arent optimum from an academic point of view.
Similarly another interviewee commented that the University doesnt encourage the involvement of
professionals. There is a power-sharing among departments and they dont want external agents.
The quality assurance of the HE system
The National Agency for Quality Assessment and Accreditation (ANECA) was formed in 2002. The objective of
this state agency was to contribute to the quality improvement of the Spanish HE system through the
assessment, certification and accreditation of university degrees, programmes, teaching staff and
institutions.
According to the Statute of this agency, the scope of its activities are: to encourage the improvement of
university teaching, research and management activities; to foster HE institutions performance monitoring
following objective and transparent processes; to provide public administration with appropriate information
for decision-making within the scope of their authority; and, to provide society with information about the
achievement of universities aims.
Therefore, ANECA provides students and society with information on various aspects of HE, including the
official value of the degree awarded. As a consequence, if a specific university is given a poor evaluation
students will probably choose other university and teachers will have to work to improve the education plan
of their university.
ANECA is a full member of ENQA (European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education) and
therefore they share the same general guidelines for developing their functions, contributing to the
homogenisation of quality assurance in European countries.
The various autonomous communities of Spain have formed their own agencies for the quality assurance.
Thus, Andalusian Agency for Quality Assessment and Accreditation (AAECAU) was formed in 2005. ANECA and
AAECAU have similar objectives and functions and the criteria applied by the AAECAU for developing its
functions are based on the criteria applied by the ANECA.
Design of a new academic career for teachers
The LOU has established an accreditation process for labour teachers (untenured) and a qualification process
for civil servants (tenured). The aim of these processes is to make the recruitment and promotion system for
teachers more open and competitive.
There are four categories of civil servants: University Professor, University Teacher, University School
Professor and University School Teacher. The aim of most teachers is to be appointed to the post of civil
servant since this ensures a permanence of employment. Previously the LRU required applicants to pass an
open competition to become a civil servant. In reality, the competition was announced when the candidate of
the Department reached the minimum requirements that had been established by the Department, such as a
doctoral thesis and several publications. Clearly as a consequence there was no real competition but open
competitions la carte, as an interviewee noted.
Prior to the LOU, it was very common that there would be one applicant for each vacancy and when there
was more than one applicant, the local applicant was usually in a much better position. In the new system,
prior to open competition within the specific university, the candidates have to successfully complete
another open competition at national level to get the necessary pre-qualification. This involves complying
with minimum requirements established by central government (e.g., the applicants must now have several
publications in prestigious international journals). As a consequence of the LOU there are several applicants
for each vacancy and there is greater competition among them to get a civil service position.
Several months before approval of the LOU, the Department of Accounting requested that the University of
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Seville approve the recruitment of eight posts of at the level of civil servants: two University School
Professors and six University School Teachers. Their aim was that eight teachers with seniority in the
Department would become civil servants before the LOU came into effect and meant that these candidates
did not have to pass the more demanding criteria established by the LOU. Consequently, ten doctoral theses
were presented in the Department in the period 2001-2004 (Research Records of the Department of
Accounting). Six of them were presented in 2003, the year in which the eight open competitions to fill the
civil servant posts were held.
With respect to labour teachers, the LOU has eliminated some of the old categories (University School
Assistant and Full Time Associate Teacher) and has created new ones (Doctor Contracted, Collaborator and
Doctor Assistant). If an individual wants to get a labour contract at the university they need to obtain a prior
accreditation issued by the ANECA or AAECAU (see Table 1). One of the assessment criteria is a lengthy period
at a foreign university for training and researching. This criterion has accentuated the trend for teachers to
spend these periods in universities to which entrance is easier and their stay is cheaper.
Table 1. Main assessment criteria to get the accreditation of the Agencies
Currently the normal career progression to get a civil servant post is as follows: Assistant (4 years), Doctor
Assistant (4 years), Doctor Contracted (5 years) and ultimately civil servant. This has meant a considerable
extension of the initial academic career period since under the old system teachers became a civil servant 2
or 3 years after getting their Doctoral degree.
Although the academic career pattern has changed, the remuneration system of teachers continues to be
based on seniority. The salary is composed of a base salary that is the same for all teachers in the same
category with the addition of three-yearly and five-yearly salary increases. In addition, teachers whose
research activity is recognised by the National Commission of Assessment of the Research Activity (CNEAI)
receive an increase by the award of a sexenio (a salary supplement). In reality the sexenio has been
achieved by very few teachers of the Department in the last five years. According to an interviewee, the
salary structure is decreasing the motivation of civil servants to develop their research activity.
Similarly, the level of teaching ability exhibited by teachers or their higher involvement in educational
activity is not rewarded. In this respect an interviewee noted that:
The system doesnt take into account the attendance of teachers at conferences or seminars about the
training for education, neither research in education matters, neither the preparation of books, neither
the coordination of subjects. The only important thing is the number of years that you have been at the
Department.
At a regional level, the Andalusian government has established a salary supplement system for Andalusian
university teachers that values their education, research and management activities (Andalusian Law of
Universities). According to all the interviewees this system has three important faults: the system continues
valuing teaching in relation to seniority; the criteria to evaluate research activity are ambiguous and they
Category Assessment criteria (in decreasing order of importance)
Doctor Contracted several publications in prestigious international and national journals
participation in research projects that have been obtained in public and competitive
announcements
a period in a foreign university, mainly periods that have been funded by competitive
programmes
papers in international and national meetings and workshops
supervision of PhD Thesis
educational experience and pedagogic training
academic training
Doctor Assistant academic training
PhD thesis and several publications
a period in a foreign university, mainly periods that have been funded by competitive
programmes
participation in research projects that have been obtained in public and competitive
announcements
pedagogic training
Collaborator educational experience and pedagogic training
professional experience and other professional merits
academic training
publications
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dont match with reality; and the management supplements only apply to a minority of university teachers.
Encouragement of pedagogic training and research activity of teachers
In 2001, the LOU established that the pedagogic training of teachers as well as the promotion of their
research activity is a key factor in quality improvement of the Spanish HE. In relation to pedagogic training,
the Department of Accounting encourages their teachers to do this but teachers are usually reluctant because
they do not receive incentives. Our interviewees made it clear that teachers receive training until they are in
a permanent job at a university and from then on teachers do not have any incentive to be active in this
area. As an interviewee noted:
The pedagogic training is done in your time and with your effort and there isnt any incentive in this
respect. When I entered in the Department, I tried to develop my pedagogic training because my job was
not permanent. I am now a civil servant (tenured) and so I renew my pedagogic training when I think this
is convenient.
Pedagogic training has been considered by ANECA and AAECAU as an assessment criteria for getting
accreditations (see Table 1). As a consequence labour teachers attend seminars about accounting education
and courses of pedagogy given by the Education Studies Institute of the University of Seville. Many
interviewees highlighted that the LOU has encouraged teachers to obtain relevant entries for their CVs
instead of for their own training benefit. Thus an interviewee admitted that we must be practical people
and now the most important thing for us is to obtain recognition to get the accreditations. Also, civil
servants do not usually go on the courses for pedagogic training because their attendance is not valued in
terms of potential promotion.
As regards research activity, the Department of Accounting is split into four research groups (Accounting; New
Environments for Accounting Information; Management Information Systems; and Empirical Research on
Financial Economy and Accounting), and this structure has not been affected by the LOU. The basic functions
of these groups are to promote their research areas and to get financing for their research activity.
The interviewees felt that the research activity level of the Department was acceptable. However, they also
thought that the LOU had caused deterioration in the level of their research activity. An interviewee stated:
There are two problems relating to research: the first one is that the research activity of teachers who
have carried out systematic research has been assessed negatively by the National Commission of
Assessment of the Research Activity; and the second one is that the new regulation has changed the
perception of an academic career in terms of rewards which has caused a reduction in the of the number
of PhD students and therefore a reduction in the number of doctoral theses.
In this respect the number of PhD students in the Department of Accounting has reduced by 50% in the last
decade (Research Records of the Department of Accounting).
The interviewees also felt that there was a greater pressure to publish, especially for younger teachers who
have just begun their academic career and as such do not have a permanent job, and for a minority of
teachers who have a permanent job and are seeking promotion. The interviewees pointed out that there was
an increase in pressure for teachers to publish and this leads to a focus on research lines perceived as
enabling easier publication. Also greater pressure to finish the doctoral thesis and other research papers in
order to gain promotion. This has contributed to the promotion of the research activity of teachers to the
detriment of their teaching activity.
Control and assessment of the activities developed by teachers
The controls on teaching and research activities carried out by teachers differ. The only control on teaching
activity are the surveys completed by students. These surveys are voluntary for teachers and the results are
confidential. Thus, the Department cannot use these surveys as an evaluation mechanism
In respect of research activity there was not a systematic assessment of the research performance of
teachers in the old system. The Department formed a Research Committee at the beginning of 1990s to carry
out this assessment. However, the Research Committee only performed one assessment of the research
performance of every teacher in the middle of 1990s and teachers were not given the results.
The LOU demands that there is an assessment of the CV of both teachers who want to get their qualification
to be a civil servant (tenured) and those who want to get their accreditation in order to gain promotion. In
the case of the qualification to be a civil servant, most of the interviewees consider the qualification is a
suitable requirement because it avoids the use of the discretionary power of the departments. In the second
case, ANECA established new assessment criteria in 2005, subsequently modifying the criteria to specify the
required level of each step towards accreditation. Several months later AAECAU also published its own
International Journal of Management Education 7(3)
21
assessment criteria and levels (Table 2).
Table 2. Levels of the assessment criteria established by the ANECA and AAECAU
N.A.: National Agency A.A.: Andalusian Agency
The levels of the criteria make it clear that research is more valued than teaching for Doctor Contracted and
Doctor Assistant categories, and vice versa for the Collaborator category. All the new teachers pointed out
their priority activity is research because, according to the LOU, the Department of Accounting can not
contract Collaborators.
The CNEAI is another national assessment mechanism. This Commission is external to the University of Seville
and it is composed mainly of University Professors. Only civil servants can submit their research CVs to the
CNEAI. If the assessment is positive, teachers will get a sexenio. Although the CNEAI began work in 1989, the
specific assessment criteria were not published until 2005. For Business and Economics Studies, the CNEAI
demands of the candidates that one of their academic contributions is at least a: (a) special research book
with international circulation; (b) paper published in a journal that is collected in the Social Sciences
Citation Index; (c) patent or computer program which is registered. According to the interviewees, the
definition and application of these assessment criteria continues to be too ambiguous and the requirements
are very demanding.
As a consequence of the assessment of the teaching and research activity, teachers of the Department are
mainly focused on their research until they become a civil servant. From then on teachers often reduce their
research activity considerably. An interviewee noted that:
You have to comply with the teaching activity, but the research activity is on your own initiative when
you become civil servant. If you dont teach, the University will take a disciplinary action against you,
but if you dont research, nothing will happen, there isnt a sanction.
The changes to the SUS are continuing. The Spanish government is currently developing regulation of the
Spanish HE system, including work on the final implementation of the new education plans for all the HE
degrees in the next academic year, 2009-2010.
Discussion of results from an institutional perspective
The case study evidences the influence of institutional and political processes on the formation of the SUS
(Brignall & Modell, 2000). In particular, the results reinforce the idea of coercion of political and legal
environments as a source of institutional isomorphism (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Dacin et al., 2002) because
they are steering the restructuring of the SUS. The coercive isomorphism originates from the formal pressures
exerted on universities by other organisations upon which they are dependent (Pfeffer, 1981; Powell &
DiMaggio, 1991). These formal pressures are the new laws and rules which were introduced in Spain and
Andalusia for regulating the HE system. The Bologna Declaration was instrumental in pressuring the Spanish
government to initiate this restructuring process.
It can be argued that the force exerted on the SUS has been created in a way that cascades from the upper
levels to the bottom ones which shows the high inter-connectivity in this institutional field. The informal
pressures, mainly the cultural expectations in the society within which universities operate (Powell &
DiMaggio, 1991; Scott, 2001), have not had a significant influence on the change. This fact confirms what all
the interviewees pointed out: a rift between society and universities in Spain.
The propositions of institutional theory are next contrasted with the changes that were analysed in the
previous section. This theory in particular can contribute to the achievement of a better understanding of the
changes and reactions that are taking place in the SUS.
Assessment criteria
Doctor Contracted Doctor Assistant Collaborator
NA AA NA AA NA AA
Research experience 60% 50% 60% 55% 10% 25%
Pedagogic training and educational experience 30% 40%
Academic training and professional experience 8% 8%
Academic training, and professional and
educational experience
35% 40%
Academic training and educational experience 40% 40%
Professional experience 40% 25%
Other merits 2% 2% 5% 5% 10% 10%
International Journal of Management Education 7(3)
22
Restructuring of HE studies
According to new institutionalism (Scott & Meyer, 1994; Scott, 2001), nation states often exercise coercive
isomorphism and they impose their frameworks on HE systems. On the other hand, professional associations
exercise normative isomorphism and they fit the rationalised cultural systems into those frameworks. For
example, this happens in the United Kingdom where the government regulates the structure of the HE
system, and the professional accounting associations establish the rules and norms for the practice of the
accounting profession. These rules and norms are taken into account by universities in the teaching and
training of their students.
In Spain, the government established the structure of the SUS through the LOU but two factors have hindered
the development of the normative isomorphism (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Mizruchi & Fein, 1999). The first
factor is the lack of a specific degree in accounting in the SUS. The degrees in business require the joint input
of various professions which causes a dispersion of effort in the professionalisation of students. The second
factor is the lack of a professional association of accountants with power to impose its criteria on the degrees
in business. The minor influence that these associations can exercise is due to the political character of the
negotiations of education plans.
Although professionals should participate in the design of education plans, in practice they do not take part
because university departments want to keep their position and power in the HE system, and the
participation of professionals may challenge the entrenched order (Beckert, 1999; Seo & Creed, 2002; Modell,
2005b). As a consequence the efficiency of education plans are reduced and this extends the gap between
universities and business organisations.
Quality assurance
The quality assessment of the SUS is a result of the coercive isomorphism exerted by the European Union and
the Spanish government on this institutional field. However, the mimetic isomorphism can also explain what
has happened in the Spanish case. The aims, structure and functions of ANECA are similar to other agencies
that were formed in other European countries, such as the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education in
the United Kingdom (Gonzlez et al., 2007). The incorporation of ANECA into the ENQA reinforced this
mimetic isomorphism because ANECA took the guidelines established by ENQA as a reference for developing
its functions.
This mimetic isomorphism is also evidenced in the region of Andalusia. Because of the uncertainty generated
by the regulation change, and the fact that ANECA had already been working for several years, the Andalusian
government took ANECA as a reference to establish the aim, structure and functions of the AAECAU.
ANECA and AAECAU have become important institutional constituents in the SUS because they give legitimacy
to universities through their assessment procedures. In turn, this legitimacy will provide universities with
resources that assure their survival (Meyer & Rowan, 1977; Pfeffer & Salancik, 1978; Pfeffer, 1981). Spanish
universities that get the accreditation of these Agencies will attract students and they will have preference in
obtaining resources from the central or regional governments.
These quality agencies have also increased the functional institutional pressure on the SUS because they have
implemented technical criteria for assessing universities which reduces the ambiguity of university
performance (Oliver, 1992). Thus the methods and criteria for evaluating university outcomes have become
more precise and the university objectives have become more technically specific.
New academic career
ANECA and AAECAU are exercising a coercive isomorphic pressure that is causing the homogenisation of
teachers CVs. The increased competition introduced by the new national qualification system, and the
specific and restrictive criteria established by the ANECA and AAECAU to get accreditation, are influencing
the CVs of candidates who want to gain promotion. In this respect ANECA and AAECAU have been formed as
certification organisations that grant regulatory legitimacy in the HE system to educators (Scott, 1991, 2001).
The case study has also evidenced that an action that would be illegitimate according to the new institutional
environment could be transformed in a legitimate action (e.g. the last civil servants of the Department did
not need to pass the qualification process established by the LOU). According to the typology of reactions to
the institutional pressures identified by Oliver (1991), we can argue that this behaviour of teachers
corresponded with the avoidance reaction because they precluded the necessity of conformity to the new
promotion system established by the LOU.
The case study also highlights that change has mainly affected labour teachers because civil servant teachers
have a permanent job that cannot be put at risk by any regulation change, putting them in a very favourable
position when facing changes in their institutional environment. As a consequence the resistance to change
shown by labour teachers has been much greater than the resistance to change shown by civil servant
International Journal of Management Education 7(3)
23
teachers.
In spite of the design of a new academic career pathway, the remuneration system continues to be based
mainly on seniority and teachers with most seniority in the Department have larger salaries than the younger
teachers. Therefore, according to the argument of Meyer and Rowan (1977), the remuneration of teachers is
not established as a function of their efficiency but as a function of the legitimacy that is contributed by
their educational experience.
Pedagogic training and research activity
Our results corroborate the institutionalist argument regarding the strive for legitimacy to the detriment of
efficiency (Meyer & Rowan, 1977; Scott & Meyer, 1994; Scott 2001). Teachers put fulfilment of the rules
before the primary aim of their pedagogic training. Therefore teachers obtain regulatory legitimacy because
they comply with the requirements of the new regulation and they also obtain cognitive legitimacy because
their behaviour consists of boosting their CV in order to achieve their potential promotion within a university
which adapts to the institutionalised norms (Suchman, 1995)]. In this respect the fixation of teachers for
obtaining points for their CVs is similar to the fixation for the university degree pointed out by Brint and
Karabel (1991, p. 354) in their analysis of the United States university school system.
The search for legitimacy to the detriment of efficiency is also evidenced by the research activity of
teachers. For example, the assessment criteria established by ANECA and AAECAU regarding the academic
promotion of teachers results in a rush to prepare and finish research work. This supposes a sacrifice of the
contribution to knowledge in favour of the obtaining of legitimacy through conformity with the established
criteria.
Control and assessment
In SUS there are some external organisations that carry out assessment of the activities developed by
teachers (e.g. ANECA and CNEAI). However, there is not currently any effective formalised mechanism of
internal control in the Department of Accounting of the University of Seville. The members of this
Department also consider that in general terms the teaching and research levels are appropriate. These
results corroborate the arguments of new institutionalism that as an effect of the institutional isomorphism,
institutionalised organisations minimise and ceremonialise inspection and evaluation (Meyer & Rowan, 1977;
Modell, 2005b). Firstly, inspection and evaluation can uncover events and deviations that undermine
legitimacy. Also they are public assertions of societal control which violate the assumption that everyone is
acting with competence and in good faith. Secondly, the ceremonial activity has ritual significance because it
maintains appearances and validates an organisation. This justifies the maintenance of the Research
Committee of the Department although it does not fulfil its inspection and evaluation functions.
Conclusions
The present study highlights that the recent changes in the SUS are not simply a result of either an internal
decision of the Spanish government or the search for higher efficiency by universities. On the contrary,
according to new institutionalism, the pressures of the external environment of universities, in particular the
introduction of the Bologna Declaration by the European Union, as well as the institutionalised characteristics
and behaviours of the SUS, are the factors which help us to explain the structure and operation of the SUS
which is currently forming. Thus the LOU has entailed an advance in the implementation of the EHEA and this
advance has been based on the institutionalised norms and behaviours developed during the last decades with
the LRU.
Specifically, the analysis of the Department of Accounting of the University of Seville has made it clear that
the changes in accounting education and educators are not only a consequence of the search for a higher
efficiency but also of the search for legitimacy that can often conflict with efficiency.
Also, as new institutionalism theory suggests (Powell, 1991), our case study has evidenced that initial choices
and behaviours can preclude future options, including those that would have been more effective in the long
run. The adopted choices and behaviours can cause institutions to become a source of legitimacy,
independent of their immediate organisational functionality or efficiency. This happened, for example, in the
preparation of the education plans in the University of Seville where the participation of professionals was
not considered significant.
The promotion system is one of the aspects that has changed most in the SUS. The new structure of academic
careers has been introduced in a coercive way by the Spanish government and ANECA is the organisation that
exercises an effective control, through the accreditations and qualifications that teachers have to get for
promotion. According to new institutionalism theory, where there is not an effective control behaviours tend
to remain unchanged and a ceremonial control is introduced in order to maintain appearances for the
external environment. This has taken place in the Department of Accounting of the University of Seville.
International Journal of Management Education 7(3)
24
In short, new institutionalism suggests the institutionalised norms and behaviours in a specific environment
provide stability and they tend to hinder change. For this reason, in the evolution of the SUS and the systems
of its European counterparts towards the EHEA, it is necessary to introduce changes to institutions which can
have a direct effect on the rules and norms of the sector that are taken for granted. If this does not happen,
rules and behaviours will tend to remain and only appearances in terms of the external environment will
change.
The study is limited in that it is a single department, a department of accounting. Nevertheless, the aim was
to explain and understand the repercussions and consequences of change upon accounting education and
accounting educators, rather than to provide any empirical generalisation. Similarly, the case study was
conducted for a specific period of the organisational life of the Department of Accounting of the University of
Seville. However, the studied period is sufficiently extensive and significant for tackling the aim of the
research. In this respect, longitudinal case studies are a suitable research method for analysing the evolution
of the European HE systems towards the EHEA since this research method allows the systematic consideration
of the significant aspects that are subjected to study.
Regulatory changes in other European countries in order to facilitate the formation of the EHEA will have an
influence on other European university systems. This may lead to opportunities for future comparative
empirical case studies to further the understanding of how accounting education and accounting educators
are influenced by institutional forces, as well as the interplay between institutional forces and intra-
university power relationships.
The case study was analysed following new institutionalism theory. Malmi (1999) argued that the selection of
a specific theoretical perspective to assist data collection and interpretation can entail problems. Specifically
Malmi (1999, p. 668) noted that our way of seeing is a way of not seeing. For this reason the use of other
theoretical perspectives will also be valuable for enabling a deeper and more complete knowledge
concerning the change processes that many European HE systems are currently undertaking.
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