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Heat and Mass Transfer

Prof. S. P. Sukhatme
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
Lecture No. 31
Boiling and Condensation - 3

Last time we derived the expression for the heat transfer coefficient during condensation
of a saturated, pure saturated, vapor on vertical plate. The expression we derived was first
derived by Nusselt and after deriving the expression based on the fundamental laws of
conservation of mass, Newtons second law of motion and the first of law
thermodynamics, after deriving that simple expression we then went on to use it to solve
a numerical problem of condensation on a vertical tube. Now, today we will extend that
result further; we will use a similar result for condensation on horizontal tubes. So today,
we are going to take up film condensation on horizontal tubes.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:52)


The expression for the heat transfer coefficient will be derived. So, we are going to study
heat transfer during laminar film condensation of a pure stationary and saturated vapor at
a temperature T
s
condensing on the outside of a horizontal tube maintained at a
temperature T
w
. This is what we are going to study and this problem was also analyzed

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by Nusselt. The difference between this problem and the earlier problem is in the
geometry. Earlier, it was a vertical plate, now it is a horizontal tube on the outside of
which the condensation is taking place; this is the difference. Let us look at the geometry;
focus your attention first on the left hand side of the figure

(Refer Slide Time: 02:51)


That is film condensation on a horizontal single horizontal tube; this is the tube of
diameter D, outside diameter D and vapor which is at a temperature T
s
- saturation
temperature T
s
, pure saturated vapor at temperature T
s
- is condensing on the outside of
this tube and it is maintained at a temperature T
w
. The wall of this tube is maintained at a
temperature T
w
; this is the outside wall and this is maintained at a temperature T
w
. So, it
is an identical problem to the problem we studied earlier with the difference that now
instead of vertical plate you have a horizontal tube and Nusselt analyzed this problem
also. Then he went on to analyze the problem ba ba; just let me go back of a moment.

Look at this horizontal tube. Notice I have drawn on the outside is the liquid film
growing in thickness as we go down along the circumference and finally the liquid film
falls off at the bottom of the tube. It is of course, its thickness is shown exaggerated. It is
very thin film I have made that point repeatedly earlier also. So, it is a very thin film here

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in this sketch; the thickness of this liquid film is shown exaggerated. Having studied this
problem, then Nusselt went on to look at the problem of a bank of tube. So it is, this is
one tube, this is a second tube, there could be a third tube one above the other. And he
studied condensation on this with the assumption that the condensate from the first tube
fell on to the second tube, added to the flow rate on the second tube which in turn fell on
to the third tube and so on.

So, he also studied condensation on a bank of n tubes - n horizontal tubes. So, I will give
you both those formula. We are not going to derive those now because, as I said, the
derivation proceeds along similar lines. It is a little more complicated in terms of the
integration that is to be done because we have to move along a curved surface. So, the
integration is a little harder but in principle he has used the same equations that we used
earlier in deriving the expression for a vertical plate; there is no difference. It is only the
geometry; that means your work working your way around the circumference and the
thickness of the film is increasing. Instead of going down along a vertical plate as was the
case earlier, now the expression which Nusselt obtained for condensation on a single
horizontal tube, the expression for the heat transfer coefficient which he obtained was the
following.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:57)


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For a single tube the average heat transfer coefficient is given by and this is the
expression - h bar is equal to .725 within square bracket lambda rho squared gk cube
divided by T
s
minus T
w
multiplied by mu D close the square bracket. The whole thing
raise to the power of 1 by 4 where capital D is the diameter of the tube outer diameter of
the tube. So, there is, if you look at this formula, let me write that - D is the outer
diameter of the tube. You will notice how similar this expression is to the one we had
earlier for vertical plate. Earlier also we had in the numerator lambda rho square gk cube
rise to one fourth T
s
minus then the denominator T
s
minus T
w
into mu.

Earlier we had a length L which was the length of the vertical plate. Now, we have a
diameter D which is the diameter of the horizontal tube and the constant earlier was .943,
now the constant becomes .725. This is to be expected if the same type of derivation, the
same type of assumptions so you have to get the similar expression. Only the constants
change because of the nature of the integration which we have to do in moving along the
circumference of a horizontal tube. And of course, instead of L you have to get D because
D is now the characteristic dimension. So, the expression is very very similar to what we
had earlier and as I said we are not deriving this but it is available in certain books. One
can look it up the classical derivation of Nusselt for this formula.

Now, having done this it is possible also to express the result in term of a film Nusselt
number, film Reynolds number sorry exactly as we did for a vertical plate. So, the result
can also be expressed in terms of the film Reynolds number.










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(Refer Slide Time: 08:17)


This is the result h bar by k within bracket mu square by g to the one third. The left hand
side is the same as what we had for a vertical plate, is equal 1.51 Re
D
to the minus one
third. Now, I would like to derive this on your own. It should be possible just as I asked
you to derive the similar expression for a vertical plate on your own. You should be able
to derive this on your own. The constant notice again is different; earlier it was something
else now it is 1.51. Otherwise, the nature of the expression is the same. Earlier the film
Reynolds number was Re
L
- it was the Reynolds number at the bottom of the plate. Now
Re
D
is the film Reynolds number at the bottom of the tube and it is given by - the film
Reynolds number at the bottom of the tube is given by, Re
D
is the film Reynolds number
at the bottom of the tube given by - Re
D
is equal to 4 m dot by L divided by mu, very
similar to what we had earlier where m dot by L is equal to the rate of condensation per
unit length of the tube. So, the units of m dot by L will be kilograms per second per meter
length kilograms per second meter - that will be the unit.

So, Re
D
is the Reynolds number is the film Reynolds number at the bottom of the tube
and alfa here, in case you are wondering what it is, alfa is the angle measured from the
top of the tube. We havent used it because we havent done the actual derivation but alfa
is this angle. You start as the alfa equal to 0 at the top of the tube here and as you move

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along, alfa increases from 0 all the way to the bottom that is at alfa equal to pi. So Re
D
is
effectively the film Reynolds number at alfa equal to pi. So, these are our 2 expressions
for the heat transfer coefficient on a single horizontal tube. Now, as I said, Nusselt
extended this result to a bank of n tubes and let me give you that result also. It is very
simple result which he derived for a bank of n tubes.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:26)


For a vertical bank of n horizontal tubes the average heat transfer coefficient h bar is
given by same constant as for one tube .725 lambda rho square g k cubed divided by n T
s

minus T
w
mu D the whole thing to the power of 1 by 4. So, what is the difference? The
difference is due to the fact - an extra symbol n here in the denominator. That is what you
have when you have a bank of n horizontal tubes one above the other. So, the result
indicates that the average heat transfer coefficient for n tubes is n to the minus one fourth
times the value for a single tube. That is what the result indicates so if you have bank of n
tubes, you get the value for the topmost tube single tube. And then if you just multiply it
by n to the power of minus 1 by 4 - whatever n is, n may be bank of 2 tubes, 3 tubes, 4
tubes, 5 tubes - then you will get the value for all those number of tubes, the average
value for all those number of tubes so there is a slight reduction in the average heat

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transfer coefficient when you go from a single tube to bank of n tubes. And the reduction
is multiplication by a factor n to the power of minus 1 by 4.

Now, these were the expressions all derived by Nusselt as I said. Now, let us do a
problem just to illustrate the use of this expression

(Refer Slide Time: 13:11)


The problem we are going to do is the following. Let me read it out slowly. Saturated R-
22 vapor at 262 Kelvin condenses as a film on a horizontal tube (22 mm OD) whose
outer wall is at a temperature of 258 K. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient
that is h bar for that single tube and the film Reynolds number at the bottom of the tube.
It is a straightforward substitution into the Nusselt expression for a single horizontal tube
which I have given you just now. So, let us do the problem; so what does the problem
say? Let us put down the data now; we have a single tube.






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(Refer Slide Time: 14:36)


We have a single tube whose diameter is 22 mm. This is single tube; condensation is
taking place out on the side of this tube. I will show that the film condensation taking
place on the outside of this tube like this and falling off at the bottom, this is liquid film
being formed at the outside of this tube and falling off at the bottom. Now, the saturation
temperature, it is a pure saturated vapor and it is at a temperature T
s
equal to 262 K. This
is R-22 vapor, 260 K and you are told that T
w
, that is the wall temperature inside, is T it
is maintained, the outer wall of the tube is maintained at 258 K. Find the average heat
transfer coefficient.

Now, the first thing is properties. We need properties of R-22 and you have to take
properties at the mean film temperature. So, what is the mean film temperature? Mean
liquid film temperature, mean film temperature, is equal to 262 plus 258 divided by 2 -
that is equal to 260 K. Properties of R-22: liquid refrigerant - 22, liquid at 260 K. You
have to look these up in the tables for R-22. We will need the following properties; we
will need the density rho of the liquid which is, if you look it up, will be 1324 kilograms
per meter cubed. We will need the thermal conductivity K which is .1008 watts per meter
Kelvin. You will need the viscosity. In the table set I looked up the kinematic viscosity
was available so nu which is 1.90 into 10 to the minus 7 meter squared per second. You

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can always get mu once you know nu because mu is equal to kinematic viscosity into
density. So, you always get mu from that; so these are the 3 liquid properties we will
need. In addition we will need the latent heat of course. So, let me put that down, from
the tables if you look up - as we need the latent heat and would be at the saturation
temperature - so latent heat would be at 262 K

(Refer Slide Time: 18:01)


For R-22 vapor, if you look it up in the tables for R-22, it is 215.1 into the 10 to the
power of 3 so many joules per kilogram. So, these are the relevant properties that we
need; now substitute into our formula. So, we have, h bar is equal to .725 into lambda.
lambda is 215.1 into 10 to the power of 3, rho squared is 1324, the whole squared into g
which is 9.81 into k cubed .1008 cubed the whole thing divided by 262 minus 258 that is
the delta T - T
s
minus T
w
- multiplied by mu. mu is nu rho so it will be rho multiplied -
the kinematic viscosity 1.90 into 10 to the minus 7. This is mu and finally D which in
meters will be .022 the whole thing to the power of 1 by 4 the whole thing to the power
of 1 by 4. And if you work this out you will get equal to 26262.3 watts per meter squared
Kelvin. So, this is the first answer that you are looking for - the value of the average heat
transfer coefficient.

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The second thing you are asked to find, we have been asked to find is the Reynolds
number, the film Reynolds number at the bottom of the tube. So, first let us get the
condensation rate per meter length. Condensation rate per meter length, condensation rate
per meter length, that will be m dot by L will be equal to h bar that is the average heat
transfer coefficient multiplied by the area pi D into 1 meter length 1 multiplied by T
s

minus T
w
. This would give you the heat flux and if you divide this heat flux in watts per
meters, this is not heat flux, sorry, it is the rate at which heat is flowing q if you divide
this by lambda, that is the latent heat. Then we will get the condensation rate for 1 meter
length because we are taking 1 meter length, l equal to 1. So, now again, substitute the
numbers here.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:32)


If you substitute the numbers we get this is equal to m dot by l is equal to 2622.3
multiplied by pi .022 into 262 minus 258, that is the delta T, divided by lambda which is
215.1 into 10 to the power of 3. So, this comes to 3.37 multiplied by 10 to the minus 3 so
many kilograms per second per meter length. Therefore, the film Reynolds number at the
bottom, film Reynolds number - this is the condensation number rate at the bottom of the
tube because it is for the whole tube. So, film Reynolds number at bottom of tube is equal
to 4 multiplied by m dot by l that is 3.37 into 10 to the minus 3 divided by the viscosity

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mu. So, we will get divided by viscosity, mu is 1324, multiplied by 1.90 into 10 to the
minus 7; so this comes out to be 53.6 so the film Reynolds number at the bottom of the
tube is 53.6.

Let us look at the sketch again, we are talking of the film Reynolds number right here at
the bottom. The condensate comes to the bottom right here at the bottom; this is the film
Reynolds number as it drips off as the condensate falls off from the bottom of the tube.
Film Reynolds number will go on increasing because the condensation goes on
accumulating on this, more and more vapor condenses and finally it is at its maximum
value and that is 53.6 at the bottom of the tube. So, these are the 2 answers that we were
looking for - the average heat transfer coefficient and the film Reynolds number at the
bottom of the tube.

Now, you might want to note that the Nusselt formula which we have given is generally
experimentally found to be valid up to film Reynolds numbers of about 30. Above 30
what happens is - above 30 ripples form on the condensate surface because the there is
more condensation taking place, film Reynolds number higher means more condensation
rate. So, above 30 there are ripples on the surface and these ripples tend to enhance the
heat transfer coefficient a little. It is still laminar flow but they tend to enhance the heat
transfer coefficient by 15, 10, 15, 20 percent.

This is what is observed experimentally. Therefore, in the present case this value 53.6
seems to indicate that perhaps the value which we have got in this case of the h that is
2622 may be slightly underestimated. The actual value h bar in this case for this tube may
be about 10 or 15 percent higher. It is possible because the film Reynolds number at the
bottom is more than 30; 30 is considered a kind of a dividing line. Upto 30 we get a very
smooth interface, above 30 one finds that ripples tend to form on the condensate film
surface. So, this is one comment which you may want to note at the end.

Now we want to pass on. We have now finished with what we wanted to do with
condensation. We have studied condensation on a vertical plate, we have studied

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condensation on a single horizontal tube, we have studied - not studied - but we have at
least given the expression for condensation on a bank of horizontal tubes. In all cases are
given you the expressions but the h bar when a saturated vapor condenses on a surface
which is at the temperature T
w
a little less than T
s
. Now we want to move on to the
second half of this topic and that is towards boiling. We want to start today now with
boiling so let us first of all now let us start with boiling

(Refer Slide Time: 26:16)


The first question we are going to ask in boiling is - when does boiling occur? That is the
first question we want to answer. Well, let me state, make the statement. When heat is
added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface, when heat is added to a liquid from a
submerged solid surface which is at a temperature higher than the saturation temperature
of the liquid, it is usual for a part of the liquid to change phase and become vapor. This is
an experimental observation. If I have liquid and heat is added to it from a submerged
solid surface which is at a temperature higher than the saturation temperature of the
liquid, it is usual for a part of the liquid to change phase and become vapor. This change
of phase is called boiling. Now, let me just show a sketch to illustrate this idea. Let us
look at a figure. Here are 2 examples of boiling which could take place.


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(Refer Slide Time: 29:39)


Here is a vessel, this is a figure a and this is the figure b. In figure a, there is a vessel
containing a liquid - could be water or could be any other liquid - and let us say saturation
temperature of this liquid it is at some pressure. So, obviously corresponding to that
pressure there would be saturation temperature T
s
. The liquid may be at a temperature
lower than T
s
; it doesnt have to be at the saturation temperature but corresponding to its
pressure there is a saturation temperature T
s
and the vapor, I am sorry, the liquid is
contact with the bottom of this vessel and through the bottom heat flux is being supplied.
Heat is being supplied through a heater and the temperature of the bottom is T
w
, the
temperature of the bottom is T
w
.

The liquid is at a pressure corresponding to which the saturation temperature is T
s
or in b,
slightly different example in which we again have pool of liquid. In a pool of liquid in a
vessel but the heat is being added through a heater coil; that means it could be an
electrical heater coil which is emerged in that liquid and heat is coming out of the surface
of that heater coil. In which case, the temperature of this heater coil - the surface
temperature here - is what we mean by T
w
. This is T
w
and again the liquid is a pressure
and the temperature saturation temperature corresponding to that pressure is T
s
.

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Now if T
w
is greater than T
s
- that is what we have said earlier - if T
w
is greater than T
s
,
then it is usual for a part of this liquid which is surrounding this heated surface either here
or here to change phase, that means to go into the vapor form and we call this as boiling.
In this particular example that I am showing you, note that the liquid is contained as a
pool in a vessel. Out here it is in pool and heat is being supplied from the bottom. Out
here also, the liquid is in pool and heat is being supplied through a heater coil. That is the
only difference but in both cases the liquid is in the form of a pool, in a pool of liquid in
some vessel, therefore it is also referred to as pool boiling.

We call this as pool boiling. So, pool boiling means the liquid is in the form of a pool in
some vessel. There is no bulk motion of the fluid, any bulk any motion of the fluid that
occurs, any motion of the liquid that occurs will occur only because of the heat that I
give. If I give heat some bubbles may be formed or some natural convection currents may
be formed whatever it is, any motion is because of the heat I am giving. There is no other
motion if I stop giving the heat. The liquid will just be sitting stationary then as a pool.
So, that is why this is called pool boiling; the example that I have shown is called as pool
boiling. In contrast to this - this is one classification of boiling that is we could have pool
boiling - the other classification is that we could have flow boiling. So in boiling there are
2 classifications - one is pool boiling which I have shown you.













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(Refer Slide Time: 33:42)


And now let us look at the other which is flow boiling. Flow boiling means the following
- the liquid is forced to move by an external agency like pump through a tube or tubes.
Let us draw say one tube, let me draw one tube here. Let us say this is a tube like this.
This is one tube and liquid. Let us say, from the left hand side, liquid is being forced
through this tube. Some pump is used to pump the liquid through this tube. And the
saturation temperature of this liquid is T
s
; it is a certain pressure P
s
and the saturation
temperature corresponding to that pressure P
s
, the saturation temperature is T
s
.

Now, as the liquid goes through this tube, heat is added through the walls of the tube like
this. Heat is added through the walls of this tube by some means - there could be a hot
liquid flowing on the outside, there could be an electrical heater on the outside, whatever
it is - heat flux is supplied from the outside like this. And let us say that the wall of this
tube is maintained at a temperature, the wall of this tube is maintained at a temperature
T
w
because of the heat being supplied. Now if T
w
is greater than T
s
, we have the same
situation that the wall is maintained at a temperature higher than the saturation
temperature of the liquid which is flowing through and therefore at the surface of the
tube, at the inner surface of the tube, boiling will take place.

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And in this case, since the liquid is being forced through the tube, it is called as flow
boiling. The boiling may be in the form of bubbles, in the form of film of vapor formed at
the surface, whatever it is. The fact is boiling will take place - that means change of phase
will take place from the liquid to vapor. So this is called as flow boiling. Flow boiling
means the liquid is going through a series of tubes or single tube, so enforced by an
external agency, through that tube. Like external agency like a pump and at the same time
heat is being added and the surface temperature is greater than the saturation temperature
of the liquid.

So, these are 2 classifications of boiling. Now we are only going to look at pool-boiling.
In this, in this, in the lectures that we are giving here, we are going to only do an
elementary study of pool boiling. Now let us go back again for a moment. Let us say I do
the following experiment now. Let me go back to the sketch of pool-boiling and say I
have a pool of liquid heat is added. Heat flux is q by a and the surface temperature is T
w

and T
w
is greater than T
s
, Ts is the saturation temperature of the liquid. So, let me draw
an arrow and say the pool of liquid is having, is at a, let us say it is a saturated pool at a
temperature T
s
, T
w
is greater than T
s
. So, boiling is going to take place and we are going
to conduct the experiment as follows.

We are going to systematically raise the value of T
w
. T
s
is fixed - it depends of the
particular liquid and the condition of pressure that it is in. So, we are going to
systematically raise the value of T
w
. We will first work by say T
w
minus T
s
equal to 1
degree, then T
w
minus T
s
equal to say 2 degrees, then 5 degrees, then 10 degrees, then 20
degrees, then 100 degrees, as much as we can go. So, we are going to systematically raise
the value of T
w
and get in each steady state different value of T
w
minus T
s
ranging from
say 1 all the way up to a few hundreds. For each case, we will measure what is the q by a
that we have to supply because you got to supply heat in order to maintain this T
w
.

So, what is the q by a? What is the heat flux watts per meter squares that we will
supplying at the surface? That is what we would like to measure at the same time. So the
2 parameters are T
w
minus T
s
which we are controlling and q by a is the heat flux that we

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are supplying in order to get that particular value of T
w
minus T
s
. Now, if you do this
experiment for pool of saturated liquid, a typical pool boiling curve which you will get is
as follows. This is the pool boiling curve that you will get.

(Refer Slide Time: 39:22)


On the x axis you have T
w
minus T
s
and it is on a logarithmic scale. So, you can see .1, 1,
1000 and a thousand. So, this is the values of T
w
minus T
s
which we are controlling
during the experiment. Then on the y axis we have the values of heat flux - the heat flux
that we are supplying for maintaining these values. So, in each steady state, a T
w
minus
T
s
equal to one steady state. What is the q by a? Measure that and put down that value.
Next go to say 10, find a value of q by a, you get another experimental. So, you generate
a series for experimental points and then draw the curve and the curve which you get is
something like this.

It is a very interesting shape - q by a doesnt keep on going up with T
w
minus T
s
. It first
increases slowly, then it increases more sharply, then it goes through a maximum and
goes down and then again it goes through a minimum and keeps going up. This is the
nature of the curve that you get as you increasing, repeating the experiment with higher
and higher values of T
w
minus T
s
. Now, the curve that we have got is called the pool

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boiling curve. The curve that we have got is called pool boiling curve. It is a typical curve
first generated by J apanese scientist Nukuyama I think in 1934 and it is a curve that is
being very widely studied.

Now let us break up into regions - the first region is the region in which q by a is
increasing with T
w
minus T
s
but increasing with the slope; this is the logarithmic slope.
This is log scale that I am talking about - increasing slowly. This is the region of natural
convection - this is called the region natural convection. Now in this region, in this region
of natural convection, if you are observing the pool, let us say I will go back to the pool
of liquid here, if you are observing the pool through a window on the side, what you will
observe is the following. You have got a very low value of T
w
minus T
s
so you need a
low heat flux and in this natural convection region, the first one, what really happens is
the temperature is just a little more than the temperature T
s
. T
w
is just a degree or 2 more
than T
s
, a natural convection current is set up inside this pool of liquid and the natural
convection current is set up because the liquid at the bottom gets super heated, goes a
little above T
s
by a degree or half degree more. Its density decreases so it rises so the
heated liquid rises, comes to the surface and from the surface evaporation takes place; a
little evaporation takes place. And this is what we call as the natural convection region.
There is really no boiling taking place, it is more of a natural convection occurring inside
the pool of liquid.

The hot liquid - superheated liquid - rising to the surface, an evaporation taking place
from the surface in the form of the vapor which comes off from this pre surface of the
liquid. Let us go back again now so this is the first region the natural convection region.
Then at a certain stage, you will see that the q by a starts increasing more steeply with T
w

minus T
s
. The slope of the curve becomes much steeper and again if you were to observe
the boiling phenomenon, what you will find? In this region which is called the nucleate
boiling region, what you will observe is the following. In the nucleate boiling region, one
observes if one keeps looking at this heated surface at which heat is being supplied, one
observes vapor bubbles forming at the surface.

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Vapor bubbles form at particular points on the surface. The vapor bubble increases with
size; after it increases to a certain size under the effect of buoyancy it separates from the
surface and goes to the top. Then the next one forms, so like this bubbles keep forming at
the surface. The bubbles keep on increasing in size and then they leave at a certain point
because of buoyancy effects. They detach from the surface and rise to the free surface;
this is the region which is called as the nucleate boiling region and as you go on
increasing T
w
minus T
s
the number of places where these bubbles nucleate increases; the
frequency with which bubbles form also increases.

So, you just, first you may see a few bubbles forming here and there, then you will see
more bubbles forming at the same locations more frequently and then you will see
bubbles forming not just a few locations but all over on the heated surface. So as you go
up along this curve, you and the T
w
minus T
s
goes on increasing. You get nucleate
boiling in bubbles, nucleate at the surface grow in size, leave the surface, more bubbles
form and then gradually they go up. Now at a certain point, what we observe is that the
curve goes through a maximum and this is called the peak heat flux. This is the point a
which is called as the peak heat flux.

Now interestingly so many bubbles are being formed on the surface that some of the
locations at which the bubbles are formed are very close to each other. So. bubble
forming at 1 location and another location is so close that they tend to coalesce with each
other - that close to each other. Now, the moment that happens on the heated surface,
instead of having bubbles forming, you have a small vapor film on the surface because
they are forming too close to each other, joining up and forming a vapor film on the
surface. Now, when this happens, when partly the heated surface is covered by film of
vapor and partly it is having bubbles forming on the surface, then we find that because of
the formation of a film, the film of vapor - the vapor obviously - has a lower thermal
conductivity so the heat flux in fact decreases with temperature difference. And then at a
certain stage, so much bubble formation takes place and they are so close to each other
that they are all coalesced with each other and we have a vapor film separating the liquid
from the heated surface. Then we have a region of what is called a stable film boiling.

20
So, let me go back now. We have natural convection region. Let me show the regions
again.

(Refer Slide Time: 46:35)


We have the natural convection region that is region 1 in which we have superheated
liquid rising to the surface and evaporation taking place only from the pre surface. Then,
secondly, region 2 we have nucleate boiling region in which bubbles form at the surface
and the bubbles grow in size and leave the surface. The frequency of formation goes on
increasing as T
w
minus T
s
increases. Then we go through a maximum and once we have
gone through a maximum, we have a region 3 which we call as a transition boiling region
in which part of the heated surface is covered by a vapor film and partly bubbles are
nucleating and finally we have so many bubbles forming so close to each other that the
whole heated surface is covered by a stable vapor film which separates the liquid from
the heated surface that we call as the stable film boiling region. The point a which is the
point at which the heat flux goes through a maximum is called the critical heat flux or
peak heat flux. Now this point is particularly important. Why is it so?

Let me just tell you why. Suppose, instead of being able to control, let us go back to the
figure of the pool boiling, suppose instead of being able to control T
w
minus T
s
- this is

21
T
w
minus T
s
. Suppose instead of being able to control T
w
minus T
s
, I am controlling the
y axis coordinate that is q by a. That is, I am systematically giving more and more heat
flux to the surface. Then what will happen? Let us say I give this heat flux; at this heat
flux if I go horizontally and come down I will get this value of T
w
minus T
s
. I go up, go
in heat flux; let us say I go to a value here. Then if I go to this value here, go horizontally,
go down vertically, I will get a value of T
w
minus T
s
say about 10. Now let us say I
approach this point a at this point. I will get a value which is q by a - the critical heat flux.
I will get a value of T
w
minus T
s
equal to say 20 or something.

Now let us say I go to a value of heat flux which is just a little higher than the critical
heat flux. Let us say I go to a value which is a little higher than the critical heat flux. Let
me draw that - a value of q by a which is just a little higher than the critical heat flux.
Now see what happens. I am controlling critical heat flux so I have given a value slightly
higher than value corresponding to the point a. Now notice the value of T
w
minus T
s
now
suddenly will go up; earlier the value of T
w
minus T
s
- if I was at the critical heat flux
that is at this point - value of T
w
minus T
s
was given here, out here with q by a critical.
Now suddenly if I go to a value which is just a little higher than the critical heat flux;
now notice what happens. I have gone to value of T
w
minus T
s
which will be somewhere
here. That means instead of having a value of T
w
minus T
s
which might be about 20, I
have gone to value which could be few hundred or even thousand.

Now what are the implications? Suddenly, in order to supply that heat flux, the surface
temperature has to rise from a value which is only about 20 degrees more than T
s
to a
value which is probably a hundred degrees or thousand degrees more than T
s
. This could
be dangerous. The surface T
w
because of this high temperature may melt or may get
damaged and that is why we call this point the critical heat flux and in practice wherever
heat flux is the controlling factor - and it is in many situations - it is important not to
exceed this value in order to see that the wall temperature doesnt go above the critical
value, which wall temperature doesnt go above some safe value and doesnt get
damaged. So, that is why we have, it is important that this point be known and the value
of critical heat flux be known.

22
So let me again repeat the types of boiling: natural convection - region 1, nucleate boiling
- region 2, film boiling - region 3. Film boiling itself has 2 parts - a part in which heat
flux decreases with temperature difference - transition boiling - which is region 3 a and if
part later where heat flux increases with T
w
minus T
s
which is called as stable film
boiling region 3 b. And finally we made a comment on what is the critical heat flux. Now
we need to next, what we are going to do is to look at a number of correlations. I am
going to give you next a number of correlations in saturated pool boiling. We will look at
correlations in natural convection, correlations in nucleate boiling correlations, in film
boiling or equations derived in film boiling and solve a few problems in the next lecture.