Morse Code

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Morse code is a type of character encoding that transmits
telegraphic information using rhythm. Morse code uses a
standardized sequence of short and long elements to represent
the letters, numerals, punctuation and special characters of a
given message. The short and long elements can be formed by
sounds, marks, or pulses, in on off keying and are commonly
known as dots and dashes or dits and dahs. The speed
of Morse code is measured in words per minute !W"M# or
characters per minute, while fi$ed%length data forms of
telecommunication transmission are usually measured in baud
or bps.
&riginally created for 'amuel F. (. Morse)s electric telegraph
in the early *+,-s, Morse code was also e$tensively used for
early radio communication beginning in the *+.-s. For the
first half of the twentieth century, the ma/ority of high%speed
international communication was conducted in Morse code,
using telegraph lines, undersea cables, and radio circuits. 0owever, the variable length of the Morse characters
made it hard to adapt to automated circuits, so for most electronic communication it has been replaced by
machine readable formats, such as (audot code and 1'233.
The most popular current use of Morse code is by amateur radio operators, although it is no longer a
requirement for amateur licensing in many countries. 3n the professional field, pilots and air traffic controllers
are usually familiar with Morse code and require a basic understanding. 4avigational aids in the field of
aviation, such as 5&6s and 47(s, constantly transmit their identity in Morse code. Morse code is designed to
be read by humans without a decoding device, making it useful for sending automated digital data in voice
channels. For emergency signaling, Morse code can be sent by way of improvised sources that can be easily
keyed on and off, making Morse code one of the most versatile methods of telecommunication in e$istence.
Development and history
1 typical straight key. This 8.'. model, known as the 9%:+, was
manufactured in huge quantities during World War 33, and remains in
widespread use today. 3n a straight key, the signal is on when the
knob is pressed, and off when it is released. ;ength and timing of
the dots and dashes are entirely controlled by the operator.
(eginning in *+:<, 'amuel F. (. Morse and 1lfred 5ail developed an
electric telegraph, which sent pulses of electrical current to control an
electromagnet that was located at the receiving end of the telegraph wire. The technology available at the time
made it impossible to print characters in a readable form, so the inventors had to devise an alternate means of
communication. 3n *+:=, William 2ooke and 2harles Wheatstone began operating electric telegraphs in
>ngland that also had electromagnets in the receivers? however, their systems used needle pointers that rotated
to indicate the alphabetic characters being sent.
3n contrast, Morse)s and 5ail)s initial telegraph, which first went into operation in *+,,, made indentations on a
paper tape when an electrical current was transmitted. Morse)s original telegraph receiver used a mechanical
clockwork to move a paper tape. When an electrical current was received, an electromagnet engaged an
armature that pushed a stylus onto the moving paper tape, making an indentation on the tape. When the current
was interrupted, the electromagnet retracted the stylus, and that portion of the moving tape remained unmarked.
The Morse code was developed so that operators could translate the indentations marked on the paper tape into
te$t messages. 3n his earliest code, Morse had planned to only transmit numerals, and use a dictionary to look
up each word according to the number which had been sent. 0owever, the code was soon e$panded by 1lfred
5ail to include letters and special characters, so it could be used more generally. The shorter marks were called
dots, and the longer ones dashes, and the letters most commonly used in the >nglish language were assigned
the shortest sequences.
3n the original Morse telegraphs, the receiver)s armature made a clicking noise as it moved into and out of
position to mark the tape. &perators soon learned to translate the clicks directly into dots and dashes, making it
unnecessary to use the paper tape. When Morse code was adapted to radio, the dots and dashes were sent as
short and long pulses. 3t was later found that people become more proficient at receiving Morse code when it is
taught as a language that is heard, instead of one read from a page.
@*A
To reflect the sound of Morse code,
practitioners began to vocalise a dot as dit, and a dash as dah.
Morse code was an integral part of international aviation. 2ommercial and military pilots were required to be
familiar with it, both for use with early communications systems and identification of navigational beacons
which transmitted continuous three letter 37)s in Morse code. 1s late as the *..-s, aeronautical charts listed the
three letter 37 of each airport in Morse and sectional charts still show the Morse signals for 5ortac and 47(
used for in flight navigation.
Morse code was also used as an international standard for maritime communication until *..., when it was
replaced by the Blobal Maritime 7istress 'afety 'ystem. When the French navy ceased using Morse code in
*..=, the final message transmitted was 2alling all. This is our last cry before our eternal silence. See also:
C-- k0z
Modern International Morse Code
Morse code has been in use for more than *<- years D longer than any other electronic encoding system. What
is called Morse code today is actually somewhat different from what was originally developed by 5ail and
Morse. The Modern 3nternational Morse code, or continental code, was created by Friedrich 2lemens Berke in
*+,+ and initially used for telegraphy between 0amburg and 2u$haven in Bermany. 1fter some minor changes,
in *+<C it was standardised at the 3nternational Telegraphy congress in "aris !*+<C#, and later made the norm by
the 3nternational Telecommunication 8nion !3T8# as 3nternational Morse code. Morse)s original code
specification, largely limited to use in the 8nited 'tates, became known as American Morse code or railroad
code. 1merican Morse is now very rarely used e$cept in historical re%enactments.
Aviation
3n aviation, instrument pilots use radio navigation aids. To ensure the stations they are using are serviceable they
all emit a short set of identification letters !usually a EFC letter version of the station name# in Morse code.
'tation identification letters are shown on air navigation charts. For e$ample the Manchester 5&6 based at
Manchester 1irport is cut down to M2T, and Morse code M2T is broadcast on the radio frequency. 3f a station
is unserviceable then it broadcasts T'T !for T>'T# and tells pilots that the station is unreliable.
Amateur radio
5ibrople$ semiautomatic key !also called a bug#. The paddle, when
pressed to the right by the thumb, generates a series of dits, the length
and timing of which are controlled by a sliding weight toward the rear of
the unit. When pressed to the left by the knuckle of the inde$ finger, the
paddle generates a dah, the length of which is controlled by the operator.
Multiple dahs require multiple presses. ;eft%handed operators use a key
built as a mirror image of this one.
3nternational Morse code today is most popular among amateur radio
operators, where it is used as the pattern to key a transmitter on and off
in the radio communications mode commonly referred to as continuous wave or 2W. The original amateur
radio operators used Morse code e$clusively, as voice%capable radio transmitters did not become commonly
available until around *.E-. 8ntil E--: the 3nternational Telecommunication 8nion !3T8# mandated Morse
code proficiency as part of the amateur radio licensing procedure worldwide. 0owever, the World
6adiocommunication 2onference of E--: !W62%-:# made the Morse code requirement for amateur radio
licensing optional.
@EA
Many countries subsequently removed the Morse requirement from their licence
requirements.
@:A
8ntil *..*, a demonstration of the ability to send and receive Morse code at C words per minute !W"M# was
required to receive an amateur radio license for use in the 8nited 'tates from the Federal 2ommunications
2ommission. 7emonstration of this ability was still required for the privilege to use the 0F bands. 8ntil E---,
proficiency at the E- W"M level was required to receive the highest level of amateur license !>$tra 2lass#?
effective 1pril *C, E---, the F22 reduced the >$tra 2lass requirement to C W"M.
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Finally, effective February
E:, E--=, the F22 eliminated the Morse code proficiency requirements for all amateur licenses.
While voice and data transmissions are limited to specific amateur radio bands under 8.'. rules, 2W is
permitted on all amateur bandsD;F, MF, 0F, 80F, and 50F, with one notable e$ception being the <- meter
band in the 8'. 3n some countries, certain portions of the amateur radio bands are reserved for transmission of
Morse code signals only. (ecause Morse transmissions employ an on%off keyed radio signal, it requires less
comple$ transmission equipment than other forms of radio communication. Morse code also requires less signal
bandwidth than voice communication, typically *--F*C- 0z, compared to the roughly E,-- 0z used by single%
sideband voice, although at a lower data rate. Morse code is received as a high%pitched audio tone, so
transmissions are easier to copy than voice through the noise on congested frequencies, and it can be used in
very high noise G low signal environments. The fact that the transmitted energy is concentrated into a very
limited bandwidth makes it possible to use narrow receiver filters, which suppress or eliminate interference on
nearby frequencies. The narrow signal bandwidth also takes advantage of the natural aural selectivity of the
human brain, further enhancing weak signal readability. This efficiency makes 2W e$tremely useful for 7H
!distance# transmissions, as well as for low%power transmissions !commonly called I6" operation, from the
I%code for reduce power#. There are several amateur clubs that require solid high speed copy, the highest of
these has a standard of <- W"M. The 1merican 6adio 6elay ;eague offers a code proficiency certification
program that starts at *- W"M.
The relatively limited speed at which Morse code can be sent led to the development of an e$tensive number of
abbreviations to speed communication. These include prosigns and I codes, plus a restricted standardized
format for typical messages. For e$ample, 2I is broadcast to be interpreted as seek you !3)d like to converse
with anyone who can hear my signal#, J; or HJ; !abbreviation for Joung ;ady, or the wife of the operator, a
Married Joung ;ady# or &M !&ld Man# for the operator himself. This use of abbreviations for common terms
permits conversation even when the operators speak different languages.
1lthough the traditional telegraph key !straight key# is still used by many amateurs, the use of mechanical semi%
automatic keyers !known as bugs# and of fully%automatic electronic keyers is prevalent today. 2omputer
software is also frequently employed to produce and decode Morse code radio signals.
Speed records
1 commercially manufactured iambic paddle used in con/unction with an
electronic keyer to generate high%speed Morse code, the timing of which is
controlled by the electronic keyer. Manipulation of dual%lever paddles is similar to
the 5ibrople$, but pressing the right paddle generates a series of dahs, and
squeezing the paddles produces dit%dah%dit%dah sequence. The actions are reversed
for left%handed operators.
&perators skilled in Morse code can often understand !copy# code in their heads at rates in e$cess of ,-
W"M. 3nternational contests in code copying are still occasionally held. 3n 9uly *.:. at a contest in 1sheville,
42 in the 8nited 'tates Ted 6. Mc>lroy set a still%standing record for Morse copying, =C.E W"M.
@CA
3n his
online book on high speed sending, William "ierpont 4-0FF notes some operators may have passed *-- W"M.
(y this time they are hearing phrases and sentences rather than words. The fastest speed ever sent by a
straight key was achieved in *.,E by 0arry Turner W.JK> !d. *..E# who reached :C W"M in a demonstration
at a 8.'. 1rmy base.
3n a special 6ufzH" competition at the 3168 0igh 'peed Telegraphy World 2hampionships seven competitors
attempted to crack speed *--- cpm. 8nder the supervision of official 3168 6ufzH" referees Mathias Lolpe
!7;,MM# and TomMN Mikeska !&LE(F4# and other spectators, Boran 0a/oNevic !JT=1W# and Fabian Lurz
!79*JFL# failed to copy ,. out of C- callsigns at 2W speed *--- cpm !E-- wpm#.
@<A
Other uses
1 8.'. 4avy seaman sends Morse code signals in E--C.
1s of E--. commercial radiotelegraph licenses are still being issued in the 8nited
'tates by the Federal 2ommunications 2ommission. 7esigned for shipboard and
coast station operators, they are awarded to applicants who pass written
e$aminations on advanced radio theory and show E- W"M code proficiency @this
requirement is waived for old !E- W"M# 1mateur >$tra 2lass licenseesA.
0owever, since *... the use of satellite and very high frequency maritime
communications systems !BM7''# have essentially made them obsolete.
6adio navigation aids such as 5&6s and 47(s for aeronautical use broadcast
identifying information in the form of Morse 2ode, though many 5&6 stations now also provide voice
identification.
@=A
Military ships, including those of the 8.'. 4avy, have long used signal lamps to e$change messages in Morse
code. Modern use continues, in part, as a way to communicate while maintaining radio silence.
Applications for the general public
6epresentation of '&'%Morse code.
1n important application is signalling for help through '&', . This can be sent many waysO
keying a radio on and off, flashing a mirror, toggling a flashlight and similar methods.
Morse code as an assistive technology
Morse code has been employed as an assistive technology, helping people with a variety of disabilities to
communicate. Morse can be sent by persons with severe motion disabilities, as long as they have some minimal
motor control. 3n some cases this means alternately blowing into and sucking on a plastic tube !puff and sip
interface#. "eople with severe motion disabilities in addition to sensory disabilities !e.g. people who are also
deaf or blind# can receive Morse through a skin buzzer.
3n one case reported in the radio amateur magazine QST, an old shipboard radio operator who had a stroke and
lost the ability to speak or write was able to communicate with his physician !a radio amateur# by blinking his
eyes in Morse. 1nother e$ample occurred in *.<< when prisoner of war 9eremiah 7enton, brought on television
by his 4orth 5ietnamese captors, Morse%blinked the word T&6T86>.
Representation and timing
3nternational Morse code is composed of five elementsO
*. short mark, dot or )dit) !P# D one unit long
E. longer mark, dash or )dah) !F# D three units long
:. intra%character gap !between the dots and dashes within a character# D one unit long
,. short gap !between letters# D three units long
C. medium gap !between words# D seven units long
@+A

Morse code can be transmitted in a number of waysO originally as electrical pulses along a telegraph wire, but
also as an audio tone, a radio signal with short and long tones, or as a mechanical or visual signal !e.g. a
flashing light# using devices like an 1ldis lamp or a heliograph.
Morse code is transmitted using /ust two states !on and off# so it was an early form of a digital code. 'trictly
speaking it is not binary, as there are five fundamental elements !see quinary#. 0owever, this does not mean
Morse code cannot be represented as a binary code. 3n an abstract sense, this is the function that telegraph
operators perform when transmitting messages. Working from the above definitions and further defining a )unit)
as a bit, we can visualize any Morse code sequence as a combination of the following five elementsO
*. short mark, dot or )dit) !P# D *
E. longer mark, dash or )dah) !F# D ***
:. intra%character gap !between the dots and dashes within a character# D -
,. short gap !between letters# D ---
C. medium gap !between words# D -------
4ote that this method works only under the assumption that dits and dahs are always separated by gaps, and that
gaps are always separated by dits and dahs.
Morse messages are generally transmitted by a hand%operated device such as a telegraph key, so there are
variations introduced by the skill of the sender and receiver D more e$perienced operators can send and receive
at faster speeds. 3n addition, individual operators differ slightly, for e$ample using slightly longer or shorter
dashes or gaps, perhaps only for particular characters. This is called their fist, and receivers can recognize
specific individuals by it alone.
The speed of Morse code is measured in wpm or cpm, according to the aris standard which defines the speed
of Morse transmission as the timing needed to send the word "aris a given number of times per minute. The
word "aris is used because it is representative for a typical te$t in the >nglish language, and the choice was
influenced by the fact that the decision was taken at the 3nternational Telegraph 2onference in "aris *+<C.
@citation
neededA
Today the length of the reference word is C- units !including = units of word spacing#. 1t the "aris 2onference
the standard word spacing was specified to be only C units,
@citation neededA
making the total length of the reference
word only ,+ units, which may be seen in older literature.
The ,- Q difference of the two word spacing lengths does have an impact on the evaluation of the results of
receiving speed competitions performed at various occasions. H W"M at C units word spacing is more difficult
to copy than the same te$t sent at the same nominal speed with = units word spacing.
3ncidentally the word Morse is also C- units.
The time for one unit can be computed by the formulaO
T R *E-- G W
or
T R <--- G C
WhereO T is the unit time in milliseconds, W is the speed in wpm, and C is the speed in cpm.
(elow is an illustration of timing conventions. The phrase M&6'> 2&7>, in Morse code format, would
normally be written something like this, where - represents dahs and represents ditsO
-- --- - -- --- -
M O R S E C O D E
4e$t is the e$act conventional timing for this phrase, with = representing signal on, and . representing signal
off, each for the time length of e$actly one ditO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
12345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789

M------ O---------- R------ S---- E C---------- O---------- D------ E
===.===...===.===.===...=.===.=...=.=.=...=.......===.=.===.=...===.===.===...===.=.=...=
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
| dah dit | |
sy!"# s$a%& #&tt&' s$a%& ("'d s$a%&
Morse code is often spoken or written with dah for dashes, dit for dots located at the end of a character, and
di for dots located at the beginning or internally within the character. Thus, the following Morse code
sequenceO
M O R S E C O D E
-- --- - )s$a%&* -- --- -
is verballyO
Dah-dah dah-dah-dah di-dah-dit di-di-dit dit, Dah-di-dah-dit dah-dah-dah dah-di-dit dit.
4ote that there is little point in learning to read written Morse as above? rather, the sounds of all of the letters
and symbols need to be learnt, for both sending and receiving.
!earning Morse Code
"eople learning Morse code using the "arns#orth method, named for 7onald 6. 6uss Farnsworth, also
known by his call sign, W<TT(, are taught to send and receive letters and other symbols at their full target
speed, that is with normal relative timing of the dots, dashes and spaces within each symbol for that speed.
0owever, initially e$aggerated spaces between symbols and words are used, to give thinking time to make the
sound shape of the letters and symbols easier to learn. The spacing can then be reduced with practice and
familiarity. 1nother popular teaching method is the $och method, named after Berman psychologist ;udwig
Loch, which uses the full target speed from the outset, but begins with /ust two characters. &nce strings
containing those two characters can be copied with .-Q accuracy, an additional character is added, and so on
until the full character set is mastered.
!etters% numbers% punctuation
Character Code Character Code Character Code Character Code Character Code Character Code
1 !info# 9 !info#


' !info# * !info#


"eriod @.A


2olon @OA


( !info#

L !info#

T !info# E !info#

2omma @,A


'emicolon
@?A


2 !info#


; !info#

8 !info# : !info#

Iuestion
mark @SA


7ouble dash
@RA

7 !info# M !info# 5 !info# , !info#

1postrophe
@)A


"lus @TA

> !info# 4 !info# W !info# C !info#

>$clamation
mark @UA


0yphen,
Minus @%A

F !info#

& !info#

H !info#

< !info#
'lash @GA,
Fraction bar


8nderscore
@VA


B !info#

" !info#


J !info#

= !info#

"arenthesis
open @!A


Iuotation
mark @A


0 !info# I !info#


K !info#

+ !info#


"arenthesis
closed @#A


7ollar sign
@WA

3 !info# 6 !info# - !info#

. !info#


1mpersand
@XA, Wait

1t sign @YA


There is no standard representation for the e$clamation mark !U#, although the LW digraph ! # was
proposed in the *.+-s by the 0eathkit 2ompany !a vendor of assembly kits for amateur radio equipment#.
While Morse code translation software prefers this version, on%air use is not yet universal as some amateur radio
operators in 2anada and the 8'1 continue to prefer the older M4 digraph ! # carried over from
1merican landline telegraphy code.
The X, W and the V signs are not defined inside the 3T8 recommendation on Morse code. The W sign code was
represented in the "hillips 2ode, a huge collection of abbreviations used on land line telegraphy, as 'H. The
representation of the X%sign given above is also the Morse prosign for #ait.
&n May E,, E--,Dthe *<-th anniversary of the first public Morse telegraph transmissionDthe
6adiocommunication (ureau of the 3nternational Telecommunication 8nion !3T8%6# formally added the Y
!commercial at or commat# character to the official Morse character set, using the sequence denoted by the
12 digraph ! #. This sequence was reportedly chosen to represent 1@TA 2@&MM>6231;A or a
letter a inside a swirl represented by a 2.
@.A
The new character facilitates sending electronic mail addresses
by Morse code and is notable since it is the first official addition to the Morse set of characters since World War
3.
rosigns
Main articleO "rosigns for Morse code
Character&s' Code Character&s' Code Character&s' Code
Wait ( >rror 8nderstood (
3nvitation to transmit ( ( >nd of work ( ( 'tarting 'ignal ( ( (
7efined in the 3T8 recommendation.
Alternative display of more common characters for the international
code
'ome methods of teaching or learning morse code use the dichotomic search table below.
See also
6ussian Morse code
12"%*:*
2hinese telegraph code
Buglielmo Marconi
0igh 'peed Telegraphy
3nstructograph
Morse 2ode 1bbreviations
Morse 2ode Mnemonics
41T& phonetic alphabet
Wabun 2ode
References
*. ) 166;WebO 166;WebO ;earn Morse 2ode !2W#U
E. ) 3168WebO The 3nternational 1mateur 6adio 8nion
:. ) 166;WebO 3taly 9oins 4o%2ode 6anks as F22 6evives Morse 7ebate in the 8'
,. ) *..+ (iennial 6egulatory 6eview D 1mendment of "art .= of the 2ommission)s 1mateur 'ervice
6ules. !"7F#. httpOGGwww.arrl.orgGannounceGregulatoryGwt.+%*,:ro.pdf. 6etrieved on 7ecember ,
E--C.
C. ) The 1rt X 'kill of 6adio Telegraphy. 1pril E-, E--E. httpOGGwww.qsl.netGn.borGn-hff.htm. 6etrieved
on E--<%-,%E*.
<. ) The Telegraph &ffice. httpOGGwww.telegraph%office.com. 6etrieved on E--<%-,%E*.
=. ) 1eronautical 3nformation Manual !13M#.
httpOGGwww.faa.govGairportsVairtrafficGairVtrafficGpublicationsG1TpubsG13MG2hap*Gaim-*-*.html.
6etrieved on E--=%*E%*-.
+. ) International Morse Code, 3T8%6 M. *<==, E--,, httpOGGwww.godfreydykes.infoGinternational
QE-morseQE-code.pdf, retrieved on E--+%-*%-E
.. ) 3nternational Morse 2ode Bets a 4ew 3T8 0ome, 4ew 2haracter.
httpOGGwww.arrl.orgGnewsGstoriesGE--:G*EG*-GEGSncR*. 6etrieved on February E= E--=.