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T H E HOW A N D WH Y WON D E R BOOK OF
T H E F I R S T
W O R L D W A R
Wr i t t en by Fel i x Sut t on
I l l ust r at ed by Rober t Dor emus
Edi t or i al Pr oduc t i on
Donal d D. Wo l f
Edi t ed under t he super vi si on of
Dr . Paul E. Bl a c k wo o d , Was hi ngt on, D. C.
Text and i l l ust r at i ons appr ov ed by
Oak es A. Whi t e, Br ook l y n Chi l dr en' s Museum, Br ookl yn, Ne w Yo r k
WON D E R BOOKS NE W Y ORK
I n t r o d u c t i o n C o n t e n t s
Just 50 year s ago, a gunshot r ang out in
a t i ny t own i n t r oubl ed Eur ope and t he
Fi r st Wor l d Wa r began. So t he year 1964
mar ks an "anni ver s ar y" but har dl y t he
ki nd t o cel ebr at e happi l y. On t he cont r ar y,
war t he ver y t hought of war is sober-
i ng. Ho w else can we l ook back on t he Fi r st
Wor l d Wa r and t he mar ch of event s i n t hat
embat t l ed per i od i n ma n' s hi st ory?
Thi s How and Why Wonder Book of the
First World War gives an aut hent i c account
of t he day by day c o mb a t i n t he t r enches,
in t he sky, at s e a a ga i ns t its backgr ound
of cri ses: how nat i on after nat i on al i gned
agai nst ot her gr oups of nat i ons; how t he
t i de of bat t l e t ur ned agai n and agai n; how
t he hopes and fears of t he peopl e mot i vat ed
t hei r deeds; and, finally, how Amer i ca
hel ped t o br i ng t he war t o an end.
To t oday' s t een-agers, even t he Second
Wor l d Wa r is di st ant and r emot e; t he Fi r st
Wor l d Wa r seems l i ke anci ent hi st ory. Yet ,
nei t her of t hose war s is over t he hor i zon of
hi st ori c t i me. Someone i n al most every
family fought i n one or bot h. The effects
of bot h t he Fi r st and Second Wor l d Wa r s
have t ouc he de ve n c h a n g e d t h e lives
of each of us, young and ol d.
Whi l e you r ead t hi s How and Why Won-
der Book of the First World War, sear ch
for t he cl ues t hat will hel p you under s t and
bet t er why nat i ons engage ot her s in war .
Readi ng t hi s book will st r engt hen t he re-
sol ve of each of us t o wor k i n every possi bl e
way for a worl d of nat i ons i n whi ch wor l d,
nat i onal , and i ndi vi dual goal s can be real-
ized wi t hout r ecour se t o war .
Paul E. Blackwood
Dr. Blackwood is a professional employee in the U. S. Office of
Education. This book was edited by him in his private capacity
and no official support or endorsement by the Office of Educa-
tion is intended or should be inferred.
1964, by Wonder Books, Inc.
AH rights reserved under International
and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
Printed in the United States of America.
EUROPE IN 1914
What triggered the war? 3
What were the basic causes of the war? 5
THE WAR IN THE WEST TO 1917
THE GERMAN ATTACK
What was "the Scrap of Paper"? 8
THE BATTLE OF THE MARNE
What was "the Taxicab Army"? 10
THE TRENCHES
What was No Man's Land? 13
What was the Germans' "secret weapon"? 14
SLAUGHTER AT VERDUN
Who said, "They shall not pass"? 15
THE BLOODY SOMME
What was England's "secret weapon"? 17
1917 "THE FATEFUL YEAR"
Why was General Nivelle replaced? 18
THE EASTERN FRONT TO 1917
What was the Russians' great weakness? 19
OFFSTAGE IN AFRICA AND
THE PACIFIC
Why did Japan declare war? 22
What happened to the German colonies
in Africa? 22
TURKEY, ITALY, AND THE BALKANS
GALLIPOLI
Why were the Dardanelles important? 23
WAR IN THE NEAR EAST
What was "the hell of Kut"? 25
Who was Lawrence of Arabia? 25
ITALY, RUMANIA, AND BULGARIA
Why did they declare war? 26
WAR IN THE SKY
Who were "the Aces"? 28
What was a Zeppelin? 30
THE WAR AT SEA
What was the U-boat campaign? 33
What was the Battle of Jutland? 34
THE COURSE OF THE WAR 1917-1918
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
Who was Rasputin? 38
UNCLE SAM DECLARES WAR
Why did the Americans fight? 40
THE YANKS GO INTO ACTION
What was "Big Bertha"? 41
THE ALLIES ATTACK
What was "the Lost Battalion"? 42
THE ARMISTICE
What happened to the Kaiser? 45
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
What were "the Fourteen Points"? 46
WHAT DID THE WAR COST - I N
LIVES AND MONEY? 47
MAJOR EVENTS BEFORE, DURING,
AND AFTER THE WAR 48
E u r o p e i n 1 9 1 4
T h e s hot t h a t t r i gge r e d t h e Wa r of
1 9 1 4 - 1 9 1 8 wa s fired
Wha t t r i gger ed , .
n
. ,
l L
_ b y a 1 9 - y e a r - o l d
t he wa r ?
J J
s t u d e n t , G a v r i l o
Pr i n c i p , i n t h e l i t t l e Ba l k a n t o wn of
Sa r a j e vo, c a pi t a l of t h e Au s t r o - Hu n -
g a r i a n p r o v i n c e of Bo s n i a , o n J u n e 2 8 ,
1914. Be f o r e i t s e c h o e s di e d a wa y , Eu -
r o p e wa s d r e n c h e d i n t h e mo s t t e r r i bl e
b l o o d b a t h t h e wo r l d h a d e ve r k n o wn ;
t h e wa r b e c a me k n o wn as " t h e Fi r s t
Wo r l d Wa r , " b e c a u s e i t wa s t h e first
t ot a l wa r i n hi s t or y wh i c h i nvol ve d
wh o l e n a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g ci vi l i ans ; i t
s p r e a d t o 2 8 c o u n t r i e s o n si x c o n t i n e n t s ;
ba t t l e s r a g e d o n l a n d f r o m Af r i c a t o
Ch i n a , a n d o n t h e s eas f r o m J u t l a n d i n
t h e No r t h Se a t o t h e F a l k l a n d I s l a n d s
i n t h e So u t h At l a n t i c Oc e a n ; mo r e
t h a n 1 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 me n i n u n i f o r m we r e
d e a d , t wi c e t h a t ma n y wo u n d e d , a n d
mo r e t h a n 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ci vi l i ans ki l l ed,
mo s t of t h e E u r o p e a n c o n t i n e n t l a y i n
r ui ns ; t h e ma p of t h e wo r l d wa s
c h a n g e d ; a n d " t h e wa r t h a t wa s f o u g h t
t o e n d al l wa r s " h a d set t h e s t a ge f or
t h e Se c o n d Wo r l d Wa r 2 0 y e a r s l a t e r .
Bo s n i a h a d k n o wn a s t o r my p a s t .
Ru l e d b y Cr o a t i a n k i n g s i n t h e 10t h
c e n t u r y , o c c u p i e d b y Hu n g a r y i n t h e
b e g i n n i n g of t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , i t be-
c a me a n i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e d u r i n g a
s h o r t p e r i o d of Se r b i a n d o mi n a t i o n ;
c o n q u e r e d b y t h e T u r k s i n 1 4 6 3 , i t be -
c a me p a r t of t h e Ot t o ma n Emp i r e . T h e
s c e ne of ma n y i n s u r r e c t i o n s a g a i n s t
T u r k i s h r ul e , e s pe c i a l l y d u r i n g t h e be-
g i n n i n g a n d mi d d l e of t h e 19t h c e n t u r y ,
t h e p o we r f u l Au s t r o - Hu n g a r i a n E mp i r e
g o t a ma n d a t e af t er a b l o o d y u p r i s i n g i n
1 8 7 5 t o o c c u p y t h e c o u n t r y a n d k e e p
t h e p e a c e . I n 1908, t h e Au s t r o - Hu n g a -
r i a n Go v e r n me n t we n t b e y o n d t hi s
ma n d a t e , a n n e x e d Bo s n i a f or ma l l y, a n d
ma d e i t a p r o v i n c e of t h e Emp i r e .
Ma n y of t h e p e o p l e of Bo s n i a , l i ke
Pr i n c i p , we r e Se r b i a n b y a n c e s t r y a n d
f a v o r e d a u n i o n wi t h o t h e r Sl avi c s t a t e s
f r ee f r o m Au s t r o - Hu n g a r i a n s uppr e s -
s i on, a n d n o w f o u g h t t h e Au s t r o - Hu n -
Gavrilo Princip kills
Archduke Franz Ferdi-
nand and his wife So-
phie. Moments later, he
was seized by officers,
knocked down, and
beaten nearly to death.
He died in prison.
KING GEORGE V. PRESIDENT RAYMOND POINCARE
TRIPLE ENTENTE (ALLIED POWERS)
ALUED POWERS
CENTRAL POWERS
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EUROPE, 1914
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Before the echoes of Princip's shot had
died away, mankind had plunged into
the bloodiest battles it had ever known.
GERMANY
g a r i a n Go v e r n me n t a s t h e y h a d f o u g h t
t h e T u r k i s h Go v e r n me n t be f or e . Ma n y ,
l i ke Pr i n c i p , we r e me mb e r s of t h e se-
c r e t " Bl a c k Ha n d , " a s oc i e t y of pa t r i -
ot i c t e r r or i s t s wh o s e mo t t o wa s " Un i o n
o r De a t h . " T h e y t h o u g h t t h e y s a w a
c h a n c e f or f r e e d o m wh e n t h e Au s t r i a n
Ar c h d u k e F r a n z F e r d i n a n d , he i r t o t h e
t h r o n e of Au s t r i a - Hu n g a r y , c a me t o
Sa r a j e vo o n a n i n s p e c t i o n t r i p. A b o mb -
i ng a t t e mp t h a d f ai l ed i n t h e mo r n i n g ,
b u t as t h e c a r c a r r y i n g t h e Ar c h d u k e
mo v e d d o wn t h e s t r e e t l a t e r t h a t d a y ,
Pr i n c i p s t e p p e d o u t of t h e c r o wd ,
wh i p p e d o u t a r e vol ve r , a n d fired t wo
s hot s . On e s t r u c k t h e Ar c h d u k e a n d t h e
o t h e r hi s wi f e, ki l l i ng t h e m b o t h a l mo s t
i ns t a nt l y.
Pr i nc i p' s r a s h a c t wa s n o t , of c o u r s e ,
t h e f u n d a m e n t a l
Wha t we r e t he
c a u s e o f t h e w a r
basic causes . , , .,
.
K
. - Bu t i t s p a r k e d t h e
of t he wa r ? .
r
d y n a mi t e w h i c h
h a d b e e n pi l i ng u p u n d e r n e a t h E u r o p e ' s
EMPEROR FRANCIS JOSEPH
TRIPLE
ALLI ANCE
(CENTRAL
POWERS)
KING VICTOR EMMANUEL III.
p l a c i d s ur f a c e f or mo r e t h a n t wo
g e n e r a t i o n s .
E v e r s i nce t h e de f e a t of Na p o l e o n a
c e n t u r y be f or e , E n g l a n d h a d b e e n t h e
r i c he s t a n d mo s t p o we r f u l n a t i o n o n
e a r t h . He r me r c h a n t ma r i n e a n d n a v y
r u l e d t h e seas, a n d h e r a r my p o l i c e d a
c ol oni a l e mp i r e t h a t gi r dl e d t h e gl obe .
" T h e s u n , " En g l i s h me n l i ke d t o b o a s t ,
" n e v e r set s o n t h e Un i o n J a c k . " Wi t h
r a w ma t e r i a l s f r o m h e r c ol oni e s s uppl y-
i ng h e r f a c t or i e s a t h o me , E n g l a n d eas-
i l y d o mi n a t e d wo r l d i n d u s t r y a n d t r a d e .
T h e p o u n d s t er l i ng wa s t h e s t a n d a r d
mo n e t a r y u n i t i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l finance.
I n vi r t ua l l y e ve r y a s pe c t of wo r l d af-
f ai r s, E n g l a n d wa s " t o p d o g " a n d
s he s a w n o g o o d r e a s o n wh y t hi ngs
s h o u l d n ' t s t a y t h a t wa y .
O n t h e c o n t i n e n t of E u r o p e , t h e l ead-
i ng n a t i o n wa s a y o u n g , vi g o r o u s , a n d
u p c o mi n g Ge r ma n y . She h a d w o n t h a t
pos i t i on i n 1 8 7 1 af t er s he h a d s o u n d l y
wh i p p e d F r a n c e i n t h e F r a n c o - P r u s s i a n
Wa r . Al o n g wi t h o t h e r s poi l s of t h a t
wa r , Ge r ma n y h a d s ei zed t h e p r o v i n c e
of Al s a c e a n d mo s t of Lo r r a i n e , a r e a s
r i c h i n mi n e r a l , f a r mi n g , a n d i n d u s t r i a l
p r o d u c t s . So o n , Ge r ma n p r o d u c t s be-
g a n t o c o mp e t e wi t h t h o s e of E n g l a n d
i n mo s t wo r l d ma r k e t s .
T o f e e d h e r b o o mi n g f a c t or i e s , Ge r -
ma n y n e e d e d mo r e a n d mo r e r a w ma t e -
r i al s a n d s he s o o n a c q u i r e d c ol oni e s
i n Af r i c a a n d t h e Ca r o l i n e , Ma r s h a l l ,
Pe l e w, a n d Ma r i a n a I s l a n d s i n t h e Pa -
cific. Th i s me a n t t h a t s he n e e d e d mo r e
me r c h a n t s hi ps , a n d a l s o wa r s h i p s t o
p r o t e c t t h e m. Ka i s e r Wi l h e l m I I , E m-
p e r o r of Ge r ma n y , a n a r r o g a n t , ego-
t i s t i cal , a mb i t i o u s y o u n g ma n , o r d e r e d
hi s a d mi r a l s t o b u i l d a n a v y t h a t wa s
bi gge r t h a n En g l a n d ' s .
F r a n c e i t c h e d f or a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o
t a k e r e v e n g e a n d t o r e g a i n h e r p o s i t i o n
o n t h e E u r o p e a n c o n t i n e n t . Br i t a i n
p e e r e d f ear f ul l y o ve r h e r s h o u l d e r a t
Ge r ma n y ' s g r o wi n g s t a t u r e i n wo r l d af-
f ai r s. A n d s o t he s e t wo c ount r i e s ,
F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d , a dve r s a r i e s s i nce
t h e d a y s of Wi l l i a m t h e Co n q u e r o r ,
s u d d e n l y f o u n d t h e ms e l ve s i n t h e un-
f a mi l i a r p o s i t i o n of al l i es wi t h a c o m-
mo n c a us e .
Me a n wh i l e , t h e b i g Au s t r o - Hu n g a r -
i a n E mp i r e wa s c ove t ous l y e ye i ng t h e
Ba l k a n c ount r i e s , a n d l o o k i n g b e y o n d
t h e m t o t h e r i c h l a n d s of t h e Ne a r Ea s t .
Bu t Ru s s i a s t o o d i n t h e i r p a t h . Ru s s i a ,
t h e l a r ge s t c o u n t r y i n t h e wo r l d , wa s
a l s o t h i n k i n g a b o u t e x p a n s i o n n o t
es peci al l y i n t e r ms of mo r e t e r r i t or y, b u t
p r i ma r i l y t o o p e n u p a p a s s a g e wa y
t h r o u g h t h e St r a i t s of Bo s p o r u s a n d t h e
Da r d a n e l l e s i n t o t h e Me d i t e r r a n e a n f or
h e r me r c h a n t s hi ps f r o m t h e Bl a c k Se a .
Bu t t h e g u n s of T u r k i s h f or t s b l o c k e d
t h e wa y i n t he s e n a r r o w wa t e r s . E v e n
t h o u g h i t s a r my , t h o u g h h u g e , wa s t h e
mo s t pr i mi t i ve i n E u r o p e , a n d i t s n a v y
a s h a mb l e s , Ru s s i a , t o o , wa s s poi l i ng
f or a fight.
I n 1 8 7 9 , Ge r ma n y a n d Au s t r i a - Hu n -
g a r y h a d s i gne d a t r e a t y wh i c h p l e d g e d
e a c h of t he s e n a t i o n s t o c o me t o t h e ai d
of t h e o t h e r i n c a s e of e n e my a t t a c k .
Wh e n , t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , I t a l y j o i n e d t h e
p a c t , t hi s l i n e u p b e c a me k n o wn a s t h e
Tr i p l e Al l i a n c e . By 1914, a s i mi l a r mu -
t u a l a s s i s t a nc e a g r e e me n t , t h e Triple
Entente, e xi s t e d b e t we e n Gr e a t Br i t a i n,
F r a n c e , a n d Ru s s i a .
T h u s t h e s t a ge wa s set wh e n t h e
c h a r g e f r o m Pr i n c i p ' s pi s t ol b l e w u p t h e
p o wd e r ke g. T h e ma j o r E u r o p e a n
p o we r s h a d a l r e a d y c h o s e n t he i r pl a c e s
o n t h e s t a ge .
Bl a mi n g t h e Ar c h d u k e ' s as s as s i na-
t i on o n Se r bi a , c o n t e n d i n g t h a t P r i n c i p
a n d hi s five f el l ow c o n s p i r a t o r s h a d r e-
c e i ve d t h e i r g u n s a n d b o mb s i n t h e Ser -
b i a n c a p i t a l of Be l g r a d e wi t h t h e
k n o wl e d g e a n d h e l p of Se r b i a n offi ci al s,
Au s t r i a s e nt a stiff u l t i ma t u m t o Se r bi a .
I t l o o k e d t o a " pol i c e a c t i o n , " a l ocal -
i z e d wa r t h a t wo u l d n o t o n l y sat i sf y i t s
u r g e f or Ba l k a n c o n q u e s t b u t a l s o s e r ve
a s a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o t e a c h t h e P a n -
Sl avi c mo v e me n t a l e s s on a n d p r e v e n t
o t h e r s u c h a n t i - Au s t r i a n upr i s i ngs i n
o t h e r p a r t s of t h e mo n a r c h y wi t h pr e -
d o mi n a n t Sl avi c p o p u l a t i o n . Ge r ma n y
e n c o u r a g e d Au s t r i a , b e i n g c o n v i n c e d
t h a t t h e p o we r s of t h e Triple Entente
wo u l d n o t i nt er f er e. Ru s s i a , f e a r i ng
mo r e Au s t r o - Hu n g a r i a n e x p a n s i o n a n d
f eel i ng c o mp e l l e d t o d o s o a s t h e ma j o r
p o we r of t h e Sl avi c n a t i o n s , l et i t b e
k n o wn t h a t i t wo u l d s t a n d o n Se r bi a ' s
s i de u n d e r a n y c i r c u ms t a n c e s . F r a n t i c
d i p l o ma t i c n e g o t i a t i o n s s t a r t e d, Ge r -
ma n y a n d Au s t r i a st i l l c o n v i n c e d t h a t
e ve n if Ru s s i a wo u l d e n t e r a wa r ,
F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d c o u l d b e pe r -
s u a d e d t o s t a y o u t of i t . N o n e of t h e
n a t i o n s di r e c t l y o r i ndi r e c t l y i n vo l ve d ,
h o we v e r , wo u l d r i s k t h e l os s of f ace,
wo u l d r i s k gi vi ng t h e i mp r e s s i o n of be -
i ng t o o we a k t o fight o r t o l i ve u p t o t h e
c o mmi t me n t s . Se r b i a wo u l d n o t b o w t o
t h e Au s t r o - Hu n g a r i a n u l t i ma t u m.
Au s t r i a , r e f us i ng i n t e r n a t i o n a l ar bi -
NEWSPAPER HEADLINES, AUGUST, 1914
t r a t i o n , d e c l a r e d wa r o n Se r bi a J u l y 2 8 ,
1 9 1 4 . Ru s s i a o r d e r e d a g e n e r a l mobi l i -
z a t i on. So d i d Ge r ma n y a n d F r a n c e . I n
t h o s e da ys , mo b i l i z a t i o n me a n t wa r . O n
Au g u s t 1, Ge r ma n y d e c l a r e d wa r o n
Ru s s i a , a n d o n Au g u s t 3, o n F r a n c e .
Gr e a t Br i t a i n d e c l a r e d wa r o n Ge r ma n y
o n Au g u s t 4, a f t e r t h e G e r ma n A r my
h a d i n v a d e d Be l g i u m, wh o s e n e u t r a l i t y
h a d b e e n g u a r a n t e e d b y E n g l a n d . T h e
" l oc a l i z e d wa r " Au s t r i a a n d Ge r ma n y
h a d h o p e d f or h a d b e c o me wi t h i n a f ew
d a y s a wa r b e t we e n t wo p o we r s of t h e
Tr i p l e Al l i a n c e , t h e s o- cal l ed Ce n t r a l
P o we r s , Au s t r i a a n d Ge r ma n y ; a n d
t h o s e of t h e Triple Entente, E n g l a n d ,
F r a n c e , a n d Ru s s i a wi t h t h e t wo s ma l l
c o u n t r i e s of Se r bi a a n d Be l g i u m o n
t he i r s i de.
( I t a l y , t h e t h i r d me mb e r of t h e Tr i p l e
Al l i a n c e , d e s e r t e d i t s al l i es, ma k i n g t h e
l e ga l e xc us e t h a t t h e o b l i g a t i o n of mu -
t u a l a s s i s t a nc e e xi s t e d o n l y if o n e of t h e
p a r t n e r s wa s a t t a c k e d , b u t t h a t u n d e r
t h e c i r c u ms t a n c e s , s he d i d n ' t h a v e t o
j o i n h e r al l i es ; t h e y h a d d e c l a r e d wa r
o n t h e o t h e r s . )
T h e Ce n t r a l P o we r s we r e j o i n e d o n
Oc t o b e r 30, 1 9 1 4 , b y T u r k e y a n d o n
Oc t o b e r 5, 1915, b y Bu l g a r i a . T h e
t h r e e p o we r s of t h e Triple Entente,
wh i c h b e c a me k n o wn a s " t h e Al l i e s "
we r e j o i n e d b y 2 2 n a t i o n s , b o t h g r e a t
a n d s ma l l , b e f o r e t h e wa r wa s ove r .
- N e w a r k tj&i ( Tr i bune
Badly prepared and
equipped, the tiny Bel-
gian Army nevertheless
tried to hold back the
German onslaught.
Dogs were used to
make up for the lack of
mechanized weapons;
they pulled machine
guns and carriages
laden with ammunition.
T h e W a r i n t h e W e s t t o 1 9 1 7
A G e r ma n p l a n f or t h e q u i c k c o n q u e s t
of F r a n c e , t h e so-
Wha t wa s " t he , , ,
c
, , .
C

n
,.* c a l l e d S c h h e t t e n
Scrap of Pa pe r " ? , , , ,
p l a n , h a d b e e n
wo r k e d o u t t o t h e s ma l l e s t de t a i l b y t h e
h e a d of t h e Ge r ma n Ge n e r a l St aff, Ge n -
e r a l v o n Schl i ef f en, 10 y e a r s b e f o r e a n d
t h e n filed a wa y i n a t op- s e c r e t d r a we r
unt i l t h e t i me wa s r i pe . O n t h e d a y Ge r -
ma n y d e c l a r e d wa r , a h u g e G e r ma n
a r my of mo r e t h a n a mi l l i on me n mo v e d
swi f t l y t o p u t i t i n t o a c t i o n .
T h e p l a n c a l l e d f or f o u r G e r ma n
A r my uni t s t o p o u r t h r o u g h Be l g i u m
a n d t h e n c e d o wn i n a g r e a t s cyt he- l i ke
s we e p t h r o u g h F r a n c e . T h e p r i ma r y ob-
j ect i ves we r e t wo f o l d : ( 1 ) t o c a p t u r e
Pa r i s , a n d ( 2 ) t o s q u e e z e t h e l i fe o u t of
t h e F r e n c h A r my i n t h e gr i p of a g i a n t
pi nc e r s . T h e f act t h a t t i ny Be l g i u m wa s
n e u t r a l a n d t h a t , mo r e o v e r , i t s t er r i -
t or i a l i nt e gr i t y h a d b e e n a s s u r e d b y
Ge r ma n y a s wel l a s b y E n g l a n d a n d
F r a n c e ma n y ye a r s b e f o r e ma d e n o
8
di f f er ence t o t h e G e r ma n wa r l or ds .
Wh e n t hi s t r e a t y wa s b r o u g h t t o t h e
a t t e n t i o n of G e r ma n Ch a n c e l l o r v o n
Be t h ma n n - Ho l l we g , h e s h r u g g e d i t off
a s b e i n g " j us t a s c r a p of p a p e r . "
When the war broke out,
General Helmuth von
Moltke, who had taken
over as Chief of Staff
of the German Army,
changed the stoutly-
designed Schlieffen Plan,
which had envisioned an
invasion through Holland
and Belgium to avoid the
French border fortresses.
At the same time, a Ger-
man army stationed in Lor-
raine was supposed to
withdraw slowly in case
the French would attack
there and lure the French
deeper into the trap be-
tween the big sweep of
the main forces, with
which the retreating army
from Lorraine would finally
unite for the last fatal
IfMBR^MEfl RMi i i Hi SEHEVRHEi i MRi i i i HEMRRMEWRMMi ^^MIRBMRi i i i BRBEBEBMIBEi HEMi i V
blow. Moltke attacked
only through Belgium and Luxembourg. When the French, instead of concentrating on defense, attacked the
Germans in Alsace-Lorraine as predicted by Schlieffen, Moltke did not order a slow retreat of his army, but
instead withdrew troops from the right wing, weakening it heavily, and tried to hold the French advance in
Lorraine by launching a counteroffensive. While the Schlieffen Plan had called for a sweep around Paris, Moltke
shortened the right wing east of Paris, allowing the French and British troops to make a stand at the Marne
that finally stopped the German offensive.
FRANCE
ALLIED ARMIES IN COUNTERATTACK
SWITZERLAND
KING ALBERT
OF BELGIUM
The Belgian population,
trying to flee from the
Germans, often got in
the way of their own
soldiers and disrupted
their orderly retreat.
T h e Ge r ma n Ge n e r a l Staff c a l c u l a t e d
t h a t t h e y c o u l d pol i s h off F r a n c e b e f o r e
t h e b u mb l i n g Ru s s i a n A r my c o u l d e ve n
or ga ni z e . T h e n , t h e y wo u l d t u r n e a s t
a n d t a k e c a r e of t h e Ru s s i a n Be a r . T h e
mo r e c onf i de nt e s t i ma t e s i n Be r l i n we r e
t h a t t h e wa r wo u l d b e finished i n si x
we e ks . S o me of t h e mo r e c o n s e r va t i ve
ge ne r a l s s ugge s t e d t wo mo n t h s a s mo r e
" r e a l i s t i c " t i mi ng.
Ge r ma n i nt e l l i ge nc e di d n o t e x p e c t
Be l g i u m t o r es i s t . Bu t t h e l i t t l e Be l g i a n
Ar my , ha s t i l y p u t i n t o t h e field b y Ki n g
Al b e r t , f o u g h t c o u r a g e o u s l y i n de f e ns e
of t he i r h o me l a n d . I n a ma t t e r of da ys ,
h o we v e r , de s pi t e t h e h e l p of F r e n c h
t r o o p s , t he i r f or t s a n d t he i r de f e ns i ve
t r e n c h e s we r e p o u n d e d t o a p u l p b y t h e
h e a v y G e r ma n s i ege guns . Br us s e l s a n d
Li e g e fel l t o t h e i nva de r s . T h e p o p u l a -
t i on s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y -
s i de, t r yi ng t o flee f r o m t h e Ge r ma n s ;
b u t t h e y o n l y s u c c e e d e d i n c l oggi ng al l
t h e r o a d s , ma k i n g a n y o r d e r l y r e t r e a t of
t he i r o wn s ol di er s i mpos s i bl e . T h e y a l s o
g o t i n t h e wa y of a d v a n c i n g u n i t s of t h e
Ge r ma n Ar my .
I n s pi t e of t h e f a c t t h a t Ki n g Al b e r t ' s
a r my wa s we a k a n d b a d l y e q u i p p e d
s o me of t he i r a n t i q u a t e d ma c h i n e g u n s
we r e p u l l e d b y t h e bi g s ha ggy d o g s t h a t
n o r ma l l y pul l mi l k c a r t s t h r o u g h t h e
s t r eet s of Be l g i a n t o wn s t he i r fierce
fighting s pi r i t h e l d u p t h e Ge r ma n ad-
v a n c e l o n g e n o u g h t o t h r o w t h e Ka i s e r ' s
t i me t a b l e o u t of ki l t er .
Bu t e ve n t h o u g h i t wa s s l i ght l y be-
h i n d s c he dul e , t h e g r i m Ge r ma n s t e a m-
r ol l e r s we pt o n wa r d i n t o F r a n c e . T h e
F r e n c h t r i e d va l i a nt l y t o s t o p t h e m, b u t
t h e y we r e n o ma t c h f or t h e Ka i s e r ' s
me n , wh o h a d b e e n t r a i n i n g f or t hi s
c a mp a i g n f or 10 ye a r s . A s ma l l Br i t i s h
f or c e l a n d e d i n F r a n c e a n d qui c kl y
j u mp e d i n t o t h e s c r a p. Bu t t he y, t oo,
we n t d o wn l i ke r i pe wh e a t be f or e t h e
r e l e nt l e s s G e r ma n s cyt he.
De s p i t e t h e mi s c a l c u l a t i o n t h a t t h e
Be l g i a n A r my wo u l d n o t fight, de s pi t e a
c o mmu n i c a t i o n b r e a k d o wn c a u s e d b y
t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of F r e n c h t e l e g r a p h
l i nes , t h e Ge r ma n A r my s t o r me d a c r os s
t wo- t hi r ds of F r a n c e j us t o n e mo n t h
af t er i t h a d c r o s s e d t h e Be l g i a n b o r d e r ,
a n d r e a c h e d t h e Ma r n e Ri ve r , onl y 15
mi l e s f r o m Pa r i s . O n i t s b a n k s , F r e n c h
r e s i s t a nc e st i f f ened. T h e F r e n c h c o m-
ma n d e r , Ge n e r a l Jof f r e hi s t r o o p s
a f f e c t i ona t e l y c a l l e d h i m " P a p a "
v o we d t h e Ge r ma n s wo u l d n e ve r go
b e y o n d t hi s p o i n t .
Me a n wh i l e , Ki n g Al b e r t a n d wh a t
wa s l eft of hi s b a t t e r e d a r my f o u g h t
t he i r wa y i n t o t h e n o r t h e a s t c o r n e r of
Be l g i u m, t h e f a me d F l a n d e r s , a n d d u g
i n.
THE BATTLE OF THE MARNE
I n t h e l i nes a l o n g t h e Ma r n e , 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0
me n we r e l o c k e d i n
d e a d l y c o mb a t
a mi l l i on o n e a c h
s i de. T h e F r e n c h a n d En g l i s h we r e
What was "the
Taxicab Army"?
10
h *
L
$
:
\ ^ m ^
de s pe r a t e . If t h e y l os t Pa r i s a n d if t h e y
h a d t o r e t r e a t t o wa r d t h e En g l i s h Ch a n -
nel c oa s t , t h e y wo u l d s o o n b e i n t h e
h a n d s of t h e e n e my . T h e Ge r ma n s , o n
t h e o t h e r h a n d , we r e f r us t r a t e d. T h e
c o n q u e s t of F r a n c e wa s n o t g o i n g ac-
c o r d i n g t o t h e i r wel l - l ai d p l a n s .
At o n e p o i n t i n t h e fighting, i t l o o k e d
a s t h o u g h t h e F r e n c h l i ne wo u l d gi ve
wa y . Hu r r i e d l y , t h e F r e n c h c o mma n d e r
p u t i n a cal l t o Pa r i s f or mo r e t r o o p s .
Du r i n g t h e ni ght , al l of t h e t a x i c a b s
a n d b u s e s i n t h e ci t y we r e r o u n d e d u p
t o r u s h t he s e 6 , 0 0 0 r e i n f o r c e me n t s
t o t h e Ma r n e . Hu n d r e d s of ve hi c l e s
s t r e a me d o u t f r o m Pa r i s . I t i s d o u b t f u l
t h a t " t h e T a x i c a b A r my " t u r n e d t h e
t i de of ba t t l e . Bu t i t h a s c o me d o wn i n
hi s t or y as o n e of t h e g r e a t mo me n t s of
Wo r l d Wa r I .
Wh a t r e a l l y h a p p e n e d wa s t h a t Ge r -
ma n Ge ne r a l - i n- Chi e f v o n Mo l t k e p a n -
i c ke d a n d c h a n g e d t h e G e r ma n ma s t e r
p l a n . I n t r yi ng t o p u l l t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s
of hi s f ar - f l ung " s c y t h e " mo v e me n t t o-
ge t he r , h e a c t u a l l y o p e n e d u p g a p s be-
t we e n t h e m wh i c h t h e c o mb i n e d F r e n c h
a n d Br i t i s h f or c e s c o u l d a t t a c k pi ece-
me a l . Wh e n h e l os t c o n t a c t wi t h s o me
of hi s c o mma n d e r s , a g e n e r a l G e r ma n
r e t r e a t wa s o r d e r e d i n t h e c onf us i on.
b Army" on its way to the front during
Battle of the Marne.
V o n Mo l t k e ' s a r my wi t h d r e w s l owl y
f r o m t h e Ma r n e t o a p o s i t i o n n e a r l y 5 0
mi l e s f r o m Pa r i s . Th e r e , t h e y d u g i n t o
t h e g r o u n d a n d t h e c h a i n of t r e n c h e s
t h a t wa s t o c u t a c r o s s We s t e r n E u r o p e
wa s b e g u n .
T h e Ka i s e r r e c a l l e d v o n Mo l t k e t o
Be r l i n a n d fired h i m. T h e G e r ma n
g r a n d p l a n f or a q u i c k a n d e a s y vi c t o r y
h a d g o n e u p i n t h e b a t t l e s mo k e a l o n g
t h e Ma r n e .
What was "the
Race to the Sea"?
Wh e n t h e G e r ma n a r mi e s we r e f i nal l y
s t o p p e d a t t h e
Ma r n e , t h e Hi g h
C o m m a n d d e -
vi s e d a n e w p l a n . T h e y p r o p o s e d t o
s t r i ke n o r t h wa r d t o t h e En g l i s h Ch a n -
n e l p o r t s of Ca l a i s , Du n k i r k , a n d Bo u -
l ogne , b r i n g t h e s o u t h e r n c oa s t s of
E n g l a n d wi t h i n r a n g e of t he i r hi gh-
p o we r e d c a n n o n , a n d c u t off t h e Br i t i s h
l i ne of s uppl i e s .
I n Be l g i u m, Br i t i s h T o mmi e s h e l d
t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t of t h e Al l i e d l i ne a s
f ar a s t h e t o wn of Yp r e s . Be y o n d Yp r e s
t o Ni e u wp o o r t o n t h e No r t h Se a , i t wa s
ma n n e d l a r ge l y b y wh a t Be l g i a n A r my
Ki n g Al b e r t h a d s a l va g e d af t er t h e f al l
of mo s t of hi s c o u n t r y t o t h e i nva de r s .
Fi g h t i n g wi t h t h e Br i t i s h we r e r e g i me n t s
of Si khs , Gh u r k a s , a n d Ra j p u t s f r o m
t h e Br i t i s h a r mi e s i n I n d i a .
T h e Ge r ma n s s t r u c k Ni e u wp o o r t ,
Yp r e s , L a Ba s s e e , a n d Ar r a s , t h e f o u r
ma i n p o i n t s of t h e Al l i e d def ens e, al -
mo s t s i mu l t a n e o u s l y i n l a t e Oc t o b e r .
T h e y we r e a b o u t t o t a k e Ni e u wp o o r t
wh e n t h e Be l g i a n s o p e n e d t h e d y k e s of
11
In the first few months
of the war, British cav-
al ry, using lances,
courageously but vainly
charged German artil-
lery units and machine
gun nests. The toll they
paid for their bravery
was heavy.
Left to right: a French, a German and a British, infan-
tryman in full battle dress. (The French red trousers,
visible for miles, were changed later for blue.)
t h e c a n a l s a n d flooded t h e bat t l ef i el d.
Wi t h mu c h of t he i r a r t i l l e r y l os t i n t h e
d e l u g e a n d t h o u s a n d s of t he i r me n
d r o wn e d , t h e Ge r ma n s we r e f o r c e d t o
b a c k t r a c k . At Yp r e s , t h e y f ai l ed, t o o .
T h e y d i d n ' t h a v e e n o u g h r e s e r ve f or ces
t o c o mb a t t h e c o mb i n e d s t r e n g t h of
F r e n c h , Br i t i s h, a n d r e i n f o r c e me n t s
f r o m C a n a d a ( wh o we r e , i nc i de nt a l l y,
s e e i ng t he i r first E u r o p e a n a c t i o n ) .
St i f f ened Al l i e d r e s i s t a nc e p u s h e d t h e m
b a c k , t o o , a t b o t h L a Ba s s e e a n d Ar r a s .
T h e b a t t l e a t Yp r e s wa s t h e l as t bi g
b a t t l e o n t h e We s t e r n F r o n t i n 1914.
I t r a g e d f ur i ous l y f r o m Oc t o b e r 2 0 t o
No v e mb e r 11, wi t h o n e s i de ga i ni ng a
bi t of h a r d - wo n g r o u n d o n l y t o l os e i t
t o t h e o t h e r . Bu t a t l as t , t h e Ge r ma n
a t t a c k wa s b e a t e n b a c k . Bo t h a r mi e s
s et t l ed d o wn i n t he i r t r e n c h e s , wh e r e
t h e y wo u l d r e ma i n d e a d l o c k e d , f or t h e
n e x t t wo ye a r s . Wh e n t h e fighting
s t o p p e d f or a bl e s s e d h o u r o r t wo ,
c o mmu n i q u e s r e a d : " Al l qui e t o n t h e
We s t e r n F r o n t . "
12
THE TRENCHES
T r e n c h wa r f a r e
What was No
Man's Land?
wa s n o t n e w b u t
o n l y o n c e b e f o r e i n
t h e h i s t o r y of wa r h a d
t w o s t a l e m a t e d a r -
mi e s s et t l ed d o wn o p p o s i t e e a c h o t h e r
i n p e r ma n e n t t r e n c h e s f or s u c h a p r o -
l o n g e d s i ege of ne r ve s . T h a t wa s a t
Pe t e r s b u r g , Vi r g i n i a , i n 1 8 6 4 a n d ' 65,
d u r i n g t h e Ame r i c a n Wa r Be t we e n t h e
St at es . Bu t t h e t r e n c h wa r f a r e a l o n g t h e
We s t e r n F r o n t i n Wo r l d Wa r I ma d e
t h e P e t e r s b u r g c a mp a i g n l o o k l i ke
chi l d' s pl a y. Wo r l d Wa r I v e t e r a n s r e-
cal l i t a s d e v a s t a t i n g h o r r o r , s a yi ng t h a t
t h e o n l y wa y a ma n c o u l d s ur vi ve i t wa s
t o l e a r n t o " s e e t hi ngs b u t n o t f eel
t h e m. "
By t h e wi n t e r of 1 9 1 4 , a s ys t e m of
o p p o s i n g t r e n c h e s s n a k e d s o me 6 0 0
mi l e s d o wn t h r o u g h t h e mi d d l e of
F r a n c e f r o m t h e En g l i s h Ch a n n e l t o t h e
Swi s s b o r d e r . T h e y we r e ha s t i l y d u g a t
first a s e me r g e n c y de f e ns i ve me a s u r e s .
Bu t a s t h e we a r y mo n t h s d r a g g e d o n ,
t h e y we r e e l a b o r a t e d i n t o e x t r e me l y
c o mp l i c a t e d s ys t e ms . Se c ond- , t hi r d- ,
a n d f our t h- l i ne t r e n c h e s we r e c on-
s t r u c t e d b e h i n d t h e first l i ne, s o t h a t
t h e t r o o p s c o u l d r e t r e a t f r o m o n e t o
t h e o t h e r i n c a s e of o v e r wh e l mi n g at -
t a c k . Al l of t he s e l i nes we r e c o n n e c t e d
b y c o mmu n i c a t i n g t r e nc he s . Su p p l y
t r e n c h e s we r e d u g f r o m t h e f r ont l i nes
as mu c h a s t h r e e o r f o u r mi l e s b a c k , s o
t h a t r e p l a c e me n t t r o o p s a n d s uppl i e s
c o u l d b e b r o u g h t u p f r o m t h e r e a r wi t h-
o u t e x p o s u r e t o e n e my s ni pe r s .
Of f i cer s' h e a d q u a r t e r s a n d first a i d
s t a t i ons we r e l o c a t e d i n d u g o u t s . Ho t
y ~\
f o o d wa s b r o u g h t u p f r o m field k i t c h e n s
i n t h e r e a r a r e a s . T h e s ol di er s wh o
ma n n e d t h e t r e n c h e s s o me i n t he i r
e a r l y t e e ns , o t h e r s wi t h o n l y t h r e e
we e k s ' t r a i n i n g s t o o d a r o u n d mi s er -
a b l y i n t h e mu d , fighting off t h e r a t s a n d
v e r mi n t h a t s wa r me d al l ove r t h e m a t
ni ght .
A t al l t i me s , s ni pe r s ma n n e d t h e "fir-
i ng s t e p " f r o m wh i c h t h e y c o u l d l o o k
a c r os s t o t h e e n e my t r e n c h a n d p i c k off
a n y t h i n g t h a t mo v e d . Wh e n a n u mb e r
of t h e m we r e s hot t h r o u g h t h e h e a d ,
c r u d e pe r i s c ope s t h r o u g h wh i c h t h e me n
c o u l d s c a n N o Ma n ' s L a n d wi t h o u t ex-
p o s i n g t he ms e l ve s t o e n e my fire we r e
devi s ed.
A t s o me pl a c e s , t h e t r e n c h e s we r e
b u t a mi l e o r t wo a p a r t ; a t ot he r s , t h e y
we r e a s c l os e as 3 0 o r 4 0 y a r d s . I t wa s
t hi s , t h e i n t e r ve n i n g y a r d s of t o r n - u p ,
s he l l - poc ke d g r o u n d t h a t wa s k n o wn as
N o Ma n ' s L a n d s i mpl y b e c a u s e n o ma n
c o u l d v e n t u r e i n t o i t wi t h mu c h h o p e of
c o mi n g b a c k al i ve. O n b o t h si des, N o
Ma n ' s L a n d wa s b o u n d e d b y t h e t h i c k
b a r r i c a d e s of b a r b e d wi r e t h a t p r o t e c t e d
t h e f r ont - l i ne t r e nc he s .
E v e n so, p a t r o l s v e n t u r e d o u t i n t o
N o Ma n ' s L a n d n e a r l y e ve r y n i g h t t o
t r y a n d find o u t wh a t t h e e n e my wa s u p
t o. Bu t b e f o r e l ong, b o t h si des b e g a n
s e n d i n g u p flares wh i c h l i t t h e n i g h t s ky
t o h i g h n o o n br i ght ne s s , a n d s u c h pa -
t r ol i ng b e c a me e ve n mo r e r i s ky. Ac t u -
al l y, t h e p a t r o l s ma d e ve r y l i t t l e s ens e,
f or b o t h g r e a t a r mi e s we r e hope l e s s l y
b o g g e d d o wn .
At t h e c r a c k of d a wn , t h e h e a v y ar -
t i l l er y f r o m b e h i n d t h e l i nes b e g a n l ob-
b i n g shel l s i nt o t h e o p p o s i n g t r e n c h e s .
A n d t h e b o mb a r d me n t u s u a l l y k e p t u p ,
14
off a n d o n , al l d a y . Sol di e r s j us t h u d d l e d
d e e p e r i n t he i r d u g o u t s wh e n t h e shel l -
i ng s t a r t e d ; h u n d r e d s of me n we r e ki l l e d
e ve r y d a y .
Ev e r y d a y o r so, a f t e r t h e ar t i l l er y
b o mb a r d me n t a t d a wn , t h e me n i n t h e
f r ont l i nes wo u l d b e o r d e r e d " Ov e r t h e
t o p ! " i n a c h a r g e t h a t wa s me a n t t o t a k e
t h e e n e my t r e n c h b y s t o r m a n d c a p t u r e
i t . Bu t mo s t of t he s e c ha r ge s , d o o me d
t o f a i l ur e b e f o r e t h e y s t a r t e d, r a n u p
a g a i n s t s ol i d wa l l s of ma c h i n e g u n
bul l e t s . O n t h e r a r e o c c a s i o n s t he y
s u c c e e d e d , t h e t r e n c h e s we r e us ua l l y
q u i c k l y r e t r i e ve d b y me n f r o m t h e sec-
o n d a n d t h i r d l i nes of de f e ns e .
T h e l o n g e r t h e f ut i l e s l a u g h t e r of
t r e n c h wa r f a r e we n t o n , t h e mo r e i m-
p r e g n a b l e t h e t r e n c h s ys t e ms b e c a me .
T h e c o mma n d e r s of b o t h a r mi e s b e g a n
t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e wa r wa s goi ng t o
b e a mu r d e r o u s st and- of f unl e s s o n e
s i de t h o u g h t of s o me s or t of " s e c r e t
we a p o n . " Bo t h t h e Ge r ma n s a n d t h e
Al l i e s d e s p e r a t e l y set o u t t o find one .
T h e Ge r ma n s f o u n d t he i r s first. On e
m o r n i n g i n t h e
s p r i n g of 1 9 1 5 ,
wh e n t h e d r e a r y
w a r f a r e i n t h e
t r e n c h e s h a d d r a g g e d i t sel f o u t f or mo r e
t h a n si x b l o o d - s o a k e d mo n t h s , Al l i e d
What was
the Germans'
"secret weapon"?
s ol di er s a t Yp r e s s a w a ye l l owi s h- gr e e n
mi s t mo v e s l owl y t o wa r d t h e m. I t wa s
c hl or i ne gas ! Be h i n d t h e wi n d s we p t
c l o u d s ma r c h e d a l i ne of G e r ma n
i nf a nt r y.
T h e d e a d l y ga s finally r e a c h e d t h e
s ol di er s . Ch o k i n g , b l i n d e d , vo mi t i n g ,
t h e y r a n i n p a n i c . Te r r i f i e d of t he i r o wn
p o i s o n , t h e Ge r ma n s a d v a n c e d c a u-
t i ous l y; n o w a n d t h e n , v a g r a n t puf f s of
wi n d wo u l d b l o w t h e ga s b a c k i n t o t he i r
f aces . T h e b r e a c h e s ma d e i n t h e Al l i e d
l i ne we r e b u t mo me n t a r y ; r e s e r ve s
q u i c k l y p l u g g e d u p t h e ga ps .
Ga s ma s k s we r e i s s ue d t o al l f r ont -
l i ne p e r s o n n e l f or p r o t e c t i o n f r o m t h e
ga s a t t a c k s ma d e off a n d o n t h r o u g h o u t
t h e wa r . Bu t h o r r i b l e a s i t wa s , p o i s o n
ga s di d n o t p r o v e t o b e t h e b r e a k -
t h r o u g h t h e Ka i s e r a n d hi s g e n e r a l s h a d
h o p e d f or .
T r e n c h wa r f a r e o n t h e We s t e r n F r o n t
we n t o n a n d on. N o o n e o n e i t h e r
s i de c o u l d s ee a n e n d t o i t .
SLAUGHTER AT VERDUN
I t wa s t h e b e g i n n i n g of 1 9 1 6 a n d t h e
W e s t e r n F r o n t
Who sai d, "They . . . . . .
shal l not pa s s " ?
W S S S
f " | *
e
g r i p of a b l o o d y
d e a d l o c k . T h e gl or i ous G e r ma n d r e a m
of wi n n i n g t h e wa r i n si x we e k s h a d
f a d e d i n t h e gr i s l y r e a l i t y of N o Ma n ' s
L a n d . St i l l , t h e y h e l d Be l g i u m a n d al l
of t h e i ndus t r i a l a r e a s of F r a n c e . A
d o z e n effi ci ent r a i l r o a d s s t r e t c h e d b a c k
i n t o Ge r ma n y t o p r o v i d e a n e ndl e s s
s u p p l y l i ne. T h e Ge r ma n Hi g h Co m-
ma n d n o w d e c i d e d t h a t t h e t i me h a d
c o me f or a n al l - out t h r u s t i n t h e We s t ,
o n e t r e me n d o u s s l edge h a mme r b l o w
t h a t wo u l d e n d t h e wa r .
As t he i r s t r i ki ng p o i n t , t h e y c h o s e t h e
f or t r e s s ci t y of Ve r d u n , t h e p r i d e of
F r a n c e . T h e b a t t l e t h a t f ol l owe d l a s t e d
f or 10 mo n t h s f r o m F e b r u a r y t o
De c e mb e r , 1 9 1 6 a n d h a s g o n e d o wn
i n hi s t or y b o o k s a s o n e of t h e b l o o d i e s t
e ve r f o u g h t . I n t h e s l a u g h t e r h o u s e of
Ve r d u n , mo r e t h a n hal f a mi l l i on
F r e n c h me n we r e ki l l ed, wo u n d e d , o r
c a p t u r e d . T h e Ge r ma n s h a d p r o mi s e d ,
" T h e r e wo n ' t b e a n y t h i n g l eft l i vi ng o u t
t he r e . . . . " Th e i r c a s ua l t i e s , h o we v e r ,
we r e n e a r l y a s gr e a t .
T h e Ge r ma n s o p e n e d t h e me l e e wi t h
a 12- hour a r t i l l e r y b a r r a g e d u r i n g wh i c h
mo r e t h a n a mi l l i on shel l s p o u n d e d t h e
A look into one of the trenches, for so long
"home" for so many friend and foe alike.
"Over the top" was the command that
began the daily charges and that cost
?""* so many lives without changing anything.
15
German mine-throwers
bombarded Al l i ed
trenches with deadly
explosives continuously.
The tank, the British
secret weapon during
the battle at the Somme
in 1916, was not too
successful at first.
The flame-throwers first used by the
Germans during the Battle of Verdun
frightened even the German troops.
By 1918, the tank, armed with cannons
and machine guns, was a formidable
weapon. Here are 1918 models of French
"land battleships" in action.
#*. \ S
\ T V >
* * .
< / j
- mm
F r e n c h . O n t h e he e l s of t h e b a r r a g e
c a me wa v e af t er wa v e of i nf a nt r y. Ye t ,
e ve n i n t h e f ace of t hi s p o we r f u l s t e a m-
r ol l er , t h e F r e n c h de f e ns e s h e l d firm.
At t h e he i ght of t h e ba t t l e , a n un-
k n o wn poilu ( a s t h e F r e n c h p r i va t e s
we r e c a l l e d ) s h o u t e d : " Us n e p a s s e r o n t
p a s ! " A n d t hi s " T h e y s hal l n o t p a s s ! "
b e c a me t h e i ns pi r e d F r e n c h b a t t l e c r y
unt i l t h e si ege h a d a t l as t e n d e d .
T h e fighting r a g e d wi t h h a r d l y a l e t u p
al l t h r o u g h t h e s pr i ng, s u mme r , a n d f al l .
I t wi l l n e ve r b e k n o wn h o w ma n y t e ns
of mi l l i ons of h e a v y a r t i l l e r y s hel l s t h e
Ge r ma n s s h o we r e d d o wn o n t h e e n e my
t r e nc he s , a n d t h e F r e n c h bi g g u n s
t h u n d e r e d b a c k . T h e a r e a b e t we e n t h e
o p p o s i n g a r mi e s b e c a me a c h u r n e d - u p
wa s t e l a n d , s p a t t e r e d wi t h s hel l hol es , lit-
t e r e d wi t h t h e pi e c e s of b l o wn - u p t r e e s
a n d me n . F r e n c h s ol di er s s ai d i t wa s
as if t h e e n e my h a d p o i n t e d o n e c a n n o n
at e a c h of t h e m. Cr a z e d b y t h e h o r r o r ,
ma n y me n mu t i n i e d a n d o t h e r s s hot
t he ms e l ve s . At o n e pl a c e , a n e nt i r e
t r e n c h wa s filled u p b y t h e de br i s of a n
e xpl os i on; onl y t h e t i ps of t h e s ol di er s '
b a y o n e t s p r o t r u d e d a b o v e t h e g r o u n d .
( Af t e r t h e ba t t l e , t h e F r e n c h l eft i t a s
i t wa s , a me mo r i a l t o t he i r b r a v e d e a d . )
T h e Ge r ma n s l o b b e d s hel l s i n t o t h e
F r e n c h t r e n c h e s t h a t we r e filled wi t h a
n e w a n d e ve n de a dl i e r k i n d of p o i s o n
gas , s o t h a t t h e de f e nde r s h a d t o we a r
gas ma s k s a r o u n d t h e c l oc k. Gr a d u a l l y ,
t h e wh o l e ci t y wa s r e d u c e d t o f or ml e s s
r ubbl e .
Ve r d u n wa s s u r r o u n d e d b y a s t r i ng
of f or t s ; s o me of t he s e fel l t o t h e Ge r -
ma n s af t er f ur i ous fighting. La t e r , t he y
we r e r e c a p t u r e d i n c o u n t e r a t t a c k s j us t
as fierce. Ab o u t mi d wa y t h r o u g h t h e
ba t t l e , s o me of t h e F r e n c h l e a de r s sug-
ge s t e d t h a t t h e a r my s h o u l d fal l b a c k
a n d s u r r e n d e r t h e City t o t h e a t t a c ke r s .
At t hi s , F r e n c h Ge n e r a l Jof f r e d e c l a r e d
t h a t a n y officer wh o o r d e r e d a r e t r e a t
wo u l d b e c o u r t - ma r t i a l e d a n d s hot .
De s p i t e t h e p o we r of t he i r a t t a c k ,
de s pi t e t he i r s u p e r i o r n u mb e r s , de s pi t e
t he i r e xc e l l e nt s u p p l y l i nes a n d t h e i n-
a d e q u a t e o n e s of t h e F r e n c h , t h e Ge r -
ma n s c o u l d ma k e n o h e a d wa y a ga i ns t
Ve r d u n . By De c e mb e r 15, t h e y a b a n -
d o n e d t he i r p l a n a n d wi t h d r e w.
If i t c a n b e s a i d t h a t a n y g o o d c a me
f r o m t h e t r a g e d y of Ve r d u n , i t wa s t h e |
f a c t t h a t t h e h e r o i c r e s i s t a nc e of t he i r
me n s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e r e s ol ve of t h e pe o-
pl e of F r a n c e t o wi n if onl y i n t h e
n a me of t he i r d e a d . >
THE BLOODY SOMME
Wh i l e t h e fighting a t Ve r d u n wa s a t i t s
peak, t he Br i t -
What was England's . , ,
_ i sh mount ed a
secret weapon ?
ma s s i ve a t t a c k
a g a i n s t t h e Ge r ma n l i nes a l o n g t h e
Ri v e r S o mme , a l i t t l e mo r e t h a n a h u n -
d r e d mi l e s t o t h e n o r t h . Un f o r t u n a t e l y ,
t h e y e l e c t e d t o hi t wh a t wa s p r o b a b l y
t h e Ge r ma n s ' s t r onge s t de f e ns e s o n t h e
e nt i r e We s t e r n F r o n t .
Ge n e r a l Si r Do u g l a s Ha i g , t h e Br i t -
i s h c o mma n d e r , l i ne d u p 1, 500 bi g g u n s
a l o n g a n 18- mi l e f r ont , p l a c i n g t h e m
a b o u t 2 0 y a r d s a p a r t . O n J u l y 1, 1916,
t hi s mi g h t y b a t t e r y o p e n e d up,, s p e wi n g
o u t a ma s s b a r r a g e of d e a t h a n d de s t r uc -
t i on, pos s i bl y t h e he a vi e s t of t h e wa r .
T h u s b e g a n a b l o o d y b a t t l e t h a t r a g e d
b a c k a n d f or t h f or f our mo n t h s .
I n ma n y r e s pe c t s , t h e S o mme wa s l i ke
17
Ve r d u n . Al t h o u g h mo r e t h a n a mi l l i on
me n di e d i n t h e f ut i l e a t t a c k s a n d
c o u n t e r a t t a c k s , n e i t h e r s i de a c c o m-
pl i s he d a n y t h i n g of r e a l i mp o r t a n c e .
Bu t e a c h s i de b l e d t h e o t h e r whi t e .
I t wa s a t t h e S o mme t h a t t h e Br i t i s h
unve i l e d t he i r " s e c r e t we a p o n . " T h e y
i n t e n d e d i t t o b e t h e k e y t o t h e d e a d l o c k
of t r e n c h wa r f a r e . An d , i n d e e d , i t di d
mu c h t o c h a n g e fighting t act i cs . T h e
n e w we a p o n wa s t h e t a n k .
Br a i n c hi l d of Br i t i s h Co l . E r n e s t D.
Swi n t o n , t h e t a n k wa s a he a vi l y a r mo r e d
a d a p t a t i o n of t h e Ho l t Ca t e r p i l l a r f a r m
t r a c t o r t h a t h a d b e e n d e v e l o p e d i n
Pe o r i a , I l l i noi s . Ma n n e d b y c r e ws of
ei ght , t he y c a r r i e d e i t he r s i x- pound g u n s
o r ma c h i n e guns , a n d r u mb l e d a l o n g
t h e t e r r a i n a t a p a c e of f our o r five mi l e s
a n h o u r . Of f i ci al l y, t h e ma c h i n e s we r e
k n o wn a s " l a n d b a t t l e s h i p s . " Bu t f or
t h e s a k e of s ecr ecy, t h e c r a t e s i n wh i c h
t h e y we r e s h i p p e d t o t h e f r ont we r e
l a be l e d " T a n k . " Th i s i s t h e n a me t h a t
s t uc k.
Wh e n t h e t a n k s first ma d e t he i r ap-
p e a r a n c e a t t h e S o mme , Br i t i s h s ol di er s
we r e j us t a s s ur pr i s e d as t h e Ge r ma n s ;
a n d t h e Ge r ma n s we r e t er r i f i ed. T h e
t a n k c o u l d mo v e a c r os s t r e n c h e s a n d
c r u s h ma c h i n e g u n ne s t s o n i t s wa y , t h u s
o p e n i n g a h o l e f or t h e i nf a nt r y t o a t t a c k
t h r o u g h . T h e first c l u ms y t a n k s b o g g e d
d o wn a f t e r a wh i l e i n t h e bat t l ef i el d
mu d . Bu t n e w a n d i mp r o v e d ve r s i ons
we r e l a t e r d e v e l o p e d b y b o t h t h e Br i t i s h
a n d Ame r i c a n s .
T h e c a s ua l t i e s a t t h e S o mme we r e
e ve n mo r e gha s t l y t h a n t h o s e of Ve r d u n .
T h e Br i t i s h l os t 4 2 0 , 0 0 0 ; t h e F r e n c h ,
1 9 5 , 0 0 0 ; a n d t h e Ge r ma n s , 6 5 0 , 0 0 0 .
T h e Br i t i s h di d n o t a c hi e ve t h e b r e a k -
t h r o u g h t h a t Ha i g h a d h o p e d f or . T h e y
di d, h o we v e r , r e c a p t u r e a b o u t 2 0 0
s q u a r e mi l e s of t e r r i t or y a n d p u s h t h e
G e r ma n l i nes f a r t h e r b a c k . T h e We s t e r n
F r o n t s e t t l e d b a c k o n c e a g a i n t o t h e
g r i m bus i ne s s of a wa r d e a d l o c k e d i n t h e
t r e nc he s .
1 9 1 7 - " T HE FATEFUL YEAR"
T h e y e a r 1 9 1 7 b e g a n as a b a d o n e f or
t h e Al l i es . T h e
Why wa s Gener al -,
. . . .. . , G e r m a n s w e r e
Nivelle replaced?
s o l i d l y e n -
t r e n c h e d b e h i n d wh a t t h e y c a l l e d t h e
Hi n d e n b u r g Li n e , a de f e ns i ve z o n e t h a t
wa s 2 0 mi l e s wi d e i n pl a c e s .
At Ea s t e r , t h e Br i t i s h a n d Ca n a d i a n s
In July, 1917 when what was officially called "the
Third Battle of Ypres" and popularly referred to as
"the Battle of Passchendaele Ridge" began not
much was left of the city of Ypres.
a t t a c k e d Ar r a s wh e r e t h e Li n e ' s n o r t h -
we s t e r n flank wa s a n c h o r e d o n Vi my
Ri d g e . T h e y ma d e a l i t t l e pr ogr e s s , b u t
at a t e r r i bl e cos t i n c a s ua l t i e s .
Al l s pr i ng, t h e Br i t i s h h a d b e e n di g-
gi ng a l ong t u n n e l u n d e r t h e Li n e a t
Me s s i n e s Ri d g e . I n Ma y , t h e y l o a d e d i t
wi t h a mi l l i on p o u n d s of d y n a mi t e a n d
set i t off. T h e r i dge a n d t h e G e r ma n
t r e nc he s o n t o p of i t we r e b l o wn sky-
wa r d , a n d t h e Br i t i s h s wa r me d t h r o u g h .
I n t h e e nd, h o we v e r , t hi s a d v a n c e wa s
s t o p p e d , al s o.
I n Ap r i l t h e F r e n c h , t o o , mo u n t e d a
g r a n d a s s a ul t o n t h e 50- mi l e Ge r ma n
f r ont f r o m Soi s s ons t o Rh e i ms . T h e y
we r e de f e a t e d s o b a d l y t h a t t h e t r o o p s
we n t o n s t r i ke. Ge n e r a l Ni ve l l e , wh o
h a d p l a n n e d t h e i l l - f at ed a t t a c k , wa s
r e p l a c e d b y Ge n e r a l He n r i Pe t a i n , t h e
h e r o of Ve r d u n . H e p u t d o wn t h e
mu t i n y a n d r e s t o r e d s o me s e mb l a n c e
of esprit de corps t o t h e d i s c o u r a g e d
t r o o p s .
At P a s s c h e n d a e l e Ri d g e , i n J ul y, a n d
a g a i n a t Ca mb r a i , i n No v e mb e r , t h e
Br i t i s h t r i e d t wi c e mo r e t o b r e a c h t h e
f o r mi d a b l e Hi n d e n b u r g Li n e . Al t h o u g h
Ca n a d i a n t r o o p s s u c c e e d e d i n t a k i n g
t h e Ri d g e a n d t a n k s , n o w pe r f e c t e d,
we r e first u s e d i n ma s s ( a f o r mi d a b l e
3 2 4 ) a t Ca mb r a i , q u i c k Ge r ma n c oun-
t e r a t t a c k s wo n b a c k a l a r g e p a r t of t h e
Al l i e s ' ga i ns .
T h e E a s t e r n F r o n t t o 1 9 1 7
What was
the Russians'
great weakness?
At t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e wa r , t h e
Ru s s i a n s we r e ful l
of f i g h t . T h e i r
a r my , k n o wn a s
" t h e s t e a m r ol l e r , "
a n d t h e l a r ge s t t h e wo r l d h a d e ve r
k n o wn , n u mb e r e d 1 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 me n . O n
p a p e r , t hi s l o o k e d l i ke a f or c e va s t
e n o u g h t o mo w d o wn a n y o p p o s i t i o n i t
c a me u p a ga i ns t . Bu t t h e figures g a ve a
f al se pi c t ur e .
Ru s s i a , c o u n t r y of i l l i t er at e p e a s a n t
f a r me r s , l a c k e d t h e i n d u s t r y n e c e s s a r y
t o wi n a mo d e r n wa r . Co n s e q u e n t l y ,
t he y r u s h e d t o wa r def i ci ent i n ar t i l l er y,
a i r pl a ne s , t r uc ks , a n d mo t o r c a r s . T h e y
di dn' t e ve n h a v e e n o u g h s hel l s f or t h e
f ew bi g g u n s t h e y pos s e s s e d. T h e i ndi -
vi d u a l s ol di er s we r e a r me d , a r bds t , wi t h
o u t mo d e d rifles. T h e I | u s s i a n c a va l r y,
t h e d r e a d e d Co s s a c k s / h a d a f e a p b me
r e p u t a t i o n . Bu t a s / t a c t i c a l mi l i t a r y
uni t s , t h e y we r e n e x f t o wor t hl e s s . Mo f e-
ove r , t h e offi cers, s e l e c t e d us ua l l y f or
s oci al r e a s ons , we r e p o o r l y t r a i n e d ;
mo s t of t h e n o n - c o ms , t h e c o r p o r a l s a n d
s e r g e a n t s wh o a r e t h e b a c k b o n e of a n y
i nf a nt r y, c o u l d n o t e ve n r e a d or wr i t e .
R a d i o c o mmu n i c a t i o n a n d field t el e-
p h o n e s we r e al l b u t u n k n o wn t o t h e
Ru s s i a n f or ces .
Wo r s t of al l , Ru s s i a h a d vi r t ua l l y n o
r a i l r o a d s ove r wh i c h t r o o p s c o u l d b e
mo v e d a n d s uppl i e d. St a c k e d u p a ga i ns t
19
: -- . ^
S* ,
'fWp*MK <->
t h e c r a c k G e r ma n a r mi e s , t h e d y n a mi c
G e r ma n i n d u s t r i a l c o mp l e x , a n d t h e
super - ef f i ci ent G e r ma n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
s ys t e m, t h e s t u mb l i n g Ru s s i a n wa r
ma c h i n e wa s l i c ke d b e f o r e i t s t a r t e d.
Bu t t h e Ru s s i a n s d i d n ' t k n o w i t . Al mo s t
a s s o o n a s wa r wa s de c l a r e d, t h e Cz a r ' s
a r my mo v e d o n E a s t Pr u s s i a , de t e r -
mi n e d t o t a k e t h e f or t r e s s ci t y of Ko n i g s -
be r g, c l os e t o t h e Ge r ma n - Ru s s i a n
b o r d e r o n t h e Ba l t i c Se a .
So u t h e a s t of Ko n i g s b e r g , t h e y en-
c o u n t e r e d a n a t u r a l def ens e, t h e 50- mi l e
l o n g Ma s u r i a n La k e s . Ac c o r d i n g l y , t h e
C z a r spl i t u p hi s a r my i n t o t wo s e p a r a t e
f or ces , o n e t o a t t a c k n o r t h of t h e L a k e s
a n d t h e o t h e r t o ma k e a s wi n g s o u t h of
t h e m. T h e s o u t h e r n a r my wa s c o m-
ma n d e d b y Ge n e r a l Al e x e i S a ms o n o v ;
t h e n o r t h e r n , b y Ge n e r a l P a v e l Re n n e n -
k a mp f .
No w, s u c h wa s t h e s or r y or ga ni z a -
t i on of t h e Ru s s i a n a r mi e s t h a t t h e t wo
c o mma n d e r s h a d b e e n bi t t e r e n e mi e s
s i nce t he i r y o u t h f u l da ys . T h e y d i d n o t
s p e a k t o e a c h o t h e r pe r s ona l l y, a n d
o n c e t h e y we r e i n t h e field, t h e y r e f us e d
t o c o mmu n i c a t e wi t h e a c h o t h e r .
T h e G e r ma n c o mma n d e r i n E a s t
Pr u s s i a , Ge n e r a l Ma x v o n Pr i t t wi t z ,
wi t h n o t ma n y mo r e t h a n 1 9 5 , 0 0 0
me n a t hi s di s pos a l , h a d r e c e i ve d t h e
di ffi cul t a s s i g n me n t f r o m t h e Ge r ma n
Chi e f of t h e Ge n e r a l St aff v o n Mo l t k e
of d e f e n d i n g E a s t Pr u s s i a a n d h a l t i n g
t h e Ru s s i a n a r mi e s unt i l Ge r ma n y wa s
vi c t o r i o u s i n t h e We s t a n d c o u l d s wi t c h
t h e a r mi e s f r o m t h e We s t e r n F r o n t t o
t h e Ea s t . Bu t h e c o u l d n o t af f or d t o r i s k
hi s a r my . H e wa s t o r n b e t we e n t h e de-
s i r e t o a t t a c k a n d t h e u r g e t o r e t r e a t .
Re n n e n k a mp f c r o s s e d t h e Ge r ma n
b o r d e r wi t h hi s 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 me n o r s o o n
Au g u s t 17, 1 9 1 4 . H e s u c c e e d e d i n de-
f e a t i ng t h e G e r ma n t r o o p s i n hi s p a t h
a n d s t a r t e d hi s t r i u mp h a n t ma r c h o n
Ko n i g s b e r g . Ge n e r a l v o n Pr i t t wi t z sug-
ge s t e d t o Be r l i n t o o r d e r a r e t r e a t , e ve n
if i t me a n t t h e sacr i f i ce of E a s t Pr u s s i a .
I n s t e a d , t h e G e r ma n S u p r e me Co m-
ma n d r e c a l l e d v o n Pr i t t wi t z a n d t u r n e d
c o mma n d of t h e a r mi e s i n t h e E a s t ove r
t o Ge n e r a l P a u l v o n Hi n d e n b u r g , w h o m
t h e y h a d r e c a l l e d f r o m r e t i r e me n t , a n d
ma d e Ge n e r a l E r i c h v o n Lu d e n d o r f f ,
wh o h a d wo n p r a i s e d u r i n g t h e Ba t t l e of
Li e g e o n t h e We s t e r n F r o n t , hi s Chi e f
of St aff. T o g e t h e r wi t h Li e u t e n a n t
20
Sabers drawn, a unit of the
dreaded Cossacks charges.
The map gives the loca-
tion of the major events
on the Eastern Front.
VIENNA CARPATHJAN MTS.
AU
STRI A-*^
GARY
BUDAPEST
;
Co l o n e l Ma x v o n Ho f f ma n n , o n e of
vo n Pr i t t wi t z ' s staff offi cers, t h e y ma d e
a n e xc e l l e nt t e a m wh i c h f ul l y e xpl oi t e d
t h e s or r y s i t ua t i on wi t h i n t h e Ru s s i a n
c o mma n d . V o n Hi n d e n b u r g t o o k o ve r
c o mma n d o n Au g u s t 2 3 a n d wa s ma s t e r
of t h e s i t ua t i on j us t a f ew we e k s l a t e r .
At T a n n e n b e r g , s o u t h of t h e La k e s ,
v o n Hi n d e n b u r g p o u n c e d o n Sa ms o n -
ov' s a r my a n d i n t h e l as t we e k of
Au g u s t , 1 9 1 4 d e s t r o y e d i t . H e t h e n
l o a d e d hi s t r o o p s i n r a i l wa y c a r s , t o o k
t h e m n o r t h of t h e Ma s u r i a n s , a n d g a v e
t h e s a me bi t t e r me d i c i n e t o Re n n e n -
k a mp f o n e mo n t h l a t e r . I n a ma t t e r of
da ys , t h e Ru s s i a n a r mi e s we r e r e d u c e d
t o a s h a mb l e s . T h e y r e t r e a t e d pel l - mel l
b a c k i n t o Mo t h e r Ru s s i a , a n d t h e r e
t he y b e g a n t o di g de f e ns i ve t r e nc he s .
T h e Ru s s i a n s h a d b e t t e r l u c k wh e n
t he y me t t h e e n e my a l o n g t h e Au s t r i a n
b o r d e r . I n Ga l i c i a , t he i r s he e r n u mb e r s
s e nt t h e Au s t r i a n a r mi e s r e e l i ng b a c k -
wa r d i n def eat , a n d t h e y p e n e t r a t e d
d e e p i n t o t h e Ca r p a t h i a n Mo u n t a i n s
af t er t a k i n g t h e Au s t r i a n f or t r e s s e s of
L e mb e r g a n d Pr z e my s l . T h e Au s t r i a n
a r mi e s c ol l a ps e d, b u t t h e y we r e s a ve d
f r o m u t t e r di s gr a c e b y G e r ma n r ei n-
f o r c e me n t s . N o w t h e G e r ma n Ka i s e r
k n e w t h a t t h e s t or i e d mi l i t a r y mi g h t of
t h e Au s t r o - Hu n g a r i a n E mp i r e wa s go-
i ng t o b e of n o u s e t o h i m. If Ge r ma n y
wa s t o wi n t h e wa r , s he wo u l d h a v e t o
d o i t b y her s el f .
T h e t e mp o r a r y Ru s s i a n vi c t or i e s i n
Ga l i c i a we r e a s d e v a s t a t i n g t o t h e Ru s -
s i ans a s t h e y we r e t o t h e Au s t r i a n s . T h e
me n r a n o u t of f ood, guns , a n d a mmu n i -
t i on. Pr e s s e d b y t h e Ge r ma n s , t h e y
s l owl y s t u mb l e d b a c k wa r d i n t o t h a t
p a r t of Ru s s i a wh i c h i s n o w P o l a n d .
Th e r e , l i ke t he i r b r o t h e r s u p n o r t h , t h e y
d u g t r e nc he s . A n d t h e wa r i n t h e E a s t
s e t t l e d d o wn t o t h e s a me f r us t r a t i ng
s t a l e ma t e as i n t h e We s t .
21
Why did Japan
declare war?
O n Au g u s t 2 3 , 1914, onl y t h r e e we e k s
af t er t h e fighting
s t a r t e d i n E u r o p e ,
J a p a n d e c l a r e d wa r
a g a i n s t Ge r ma n y . Bu t t h e c r a f t y J a p a -
ne s e h a d n o i n t e n t i o n of s e n d i n g t r o o p s
t o h e l p t h e Al l i e s i n F r a n c e . T h e pr i nci -
p a l wa r a i ms of E mp e r o r Yo s h i h i t o a n d
hi s wa r l or ds we r e t e r r i t or i a l b o o t y a n d
pr e s t i ge . J a p a n ' s s oci al a n d pol i t i c a l s u n
h a d b e e n r i s i ng s i nce t h e Ru s s o - J a p a -
ne s e Wa r . J a p a n ' s t r u e mot i ve s , h o w-
ever , wo u l d n o t r e ve a l t he ms e l ve s unt i l
a q u a r t e r - c e n t u r y l a t e r ; a t t h e t i me , t h e y
we r e n o t c o n s i d e r e d .
Ge r ma n y h a d e s t a bl i s he d a c o l o n y a t
Ki a o - Ch a u i n t h e p r o v i n c e of S h a n t u n g
o n t h e Ch i n e s e c oa s t . He r e , t h e y h a d
bui l t a s t r o n g n a v a l b a s e f or t he i r Paci f i c
fleet. No w, wi t h t h e h e l p of Br i t i s h n a v a l
s q u a d r o n s , t h e J a p a n e s e a t t a c k e d t h e
Ge r ma n s t r o n g h o l d . Af t e r a t hr ee-
mo n t h c a mp a i g n , t h e Ge r ma n g a r r i s o n
s u r r e n d e r e d . Th u s , J a p a n g a i n e d i t s first
b e a c h h e a d o n t h e Ch i n e s e ma i n l a n d of
Ch i n a .
The war comes to Africa: A burn-
ing native village in the Cameroons.
A t t h e s a me t i me , J a p a n e s e a n d Br i t -
i s h fleets a t t a c k e d a n d c a p t u r e d t h e
Ge r ma n - h e l d Paci f i c i s l a nds . As a r es ul t ,
t h e s t r a t e gi c Ma r s h a l l s , La d r o n e s ,
Pe l e ws , a n d Ca r o l i n e s we r e l a t e r ma n -
d a t e d t o J a p a n b y t h e vi c t or i ous Al l i es .
A n d so, J a p a n got t h e S o u t h Paci f i c
b a s e s t h a t we r e t o p l a y s u c h a vi t al p a r t
i n h e r Paci f i c c o n q u e s t s of 1 9 4 1 - 4 2 dur -
i ng t h e Se c o n d Wo r l d Wa r . By t he s e
swi ft mo ve s , t h e J a p a n e s e a dr oi t l y t o o k
wh a t t h e y wa n t e d o u t of t h e t u r mo i l of
t h e E u r o p e a n wa r . T h e n , t h e y s et t l ed
b a c k a n d wa t c h e d t h e r es t of i t f r om t h e
s i del i nes .
T h e r e we r e f our G e r ma n c ol oni e s i n
Af r i c a To g o -
l a n d , t h e Ca ma -
r o o n s , G e r m a n
Ea s t Af r i c a , a n d
Ge r ma n So u t h we s t Af r i c a . Th e s e we r e
a t t a c k e d a t t h e wa r ' s b e g i n n i n g b y
What happened
to the German
colonies in Africa?
22
F r e n c h a n d En g l i s h c ol oni a l t r o o p s .
Sp o r a d i c fighting i n t h e j ungl e s a n d o n
t h e r i ver s a n d l a ke s we n t o n f or mo r e
t h a n a ye a r . T h e Ge r ma n s c o u l d n o t
s p a r e t r o o p s f r o m t h e E u r o p e a n f r ont s
f or r e i n f o r c e me n t s . By t h e mi d d l e of
1916, Ge r ma n y ' s Af r i c a n pos s e s s i ons
we r e i n Al l i e d h a n d s .
T h e b r i g h t Ge r ma n h o p e s of wi n n i n g
t h e wa r i n a h u r r y we r e g r o wi n g d i mme r
a n d d i mme r .
E v e n t h o u g h t h e f a t e of t h e G e r ma n
c ol oni e s wa s de c i de d, o n e G e r ma n offi-
cer st i l l k e p t o n fighting. Li e u t e n a n t
Co l o n e l ( l a t e r Ge n e r a l ) P a u l v o n
Le t t o w- Vo r b e c k h a d b e e n s t a t i o n e d i n
Ge r ma n Ea s t Af r i c a wh e n wa r b r o k e
o u t i n 1914. F o r f our ye a r s , h e l e d t h e
Br i t i s h a me r r y c h a s e t h r o u g h i t s j un-
gl es. E v e n af t er G e r ma n Ea s t Af r i c a
wa s c l e a r e d of r e g u l a r Ge r ma n t r o o p s
b y t h e Br i t i s h, h e a n d hi s b a n d of guer -
i l l as r e ma i n e d u n c a p t u r e d . T h e y wo u l d
a p p e a r o u t of t h e j ungl e , s t a ge a s u d d e n
r a i d o n a Br i t i s h o u t p o s t , a n d t h a n va n-
i s h i n t o t h e j u n g l e a ga i n. H e wa s t h e
d e s p a i r of t h e Br i t i s h, b u t i n al l t h a t
t i me t h e y we r e n e ve r a bl e t o c a t c h u p
wi t h h i m.
O n No v e mb e r 2 3 , 1918, t we l ve d a y s
af t er Ge r ma n y s i gne d t h e Ar mi s t i c e ,
v o n Le t t o w- Vo r b e c k h e a r d of i t whi l e
l e a d i n g hi s me n o n a r a i d t h r o u g h
No r t h e r n Rh o d e s i a . St i l l u n d e f e a t e d , h e
we n t i n t o a Br i t i s h h e a d q u a r t e r s a n d
h o n o r a b l y s u r r e n d e r e d .
T u r k e y , I t a l y , a n d t h e B a l k a n s
GALLIPOLI
Dardanelles
important?
Si nc e Ru s s i a h a d pr a c t i c a l l y n o s uc h
i n d u s t r y of h e r o wn ,
s he wa s d e p e n d e n t
u p o n E n g l a n d a n d
F r a n c e f o r g u n s ,
mu n i t i o n s , a n d s u n d r y s uppl i e s wi t h
wh i c h t o fight t h e wa r . T h e Ru s s i a n s
wo u l d r e p a y t he i r al l i es wi t h s h i p l o a d s
of wh e a t a n d o t h e r f oods t uf f s . Bu t t h e
onl y r o u t e b e t we e n t h e Me d i t e r r a n e a n
a n d Ru s s i a ' s Bl a c k Sea l ay t h r o u g h t wo
n a r r o w c h a n n e l s , t h e Da r d a n e l l e s a n d
t h e Bo s p o r u s , f a r t h e r n o r t h . Bo t h we r e
d o mi n a t e d b y Tu r k e y .
W h e n , i n N o v e m b e r o f 1 9 1 4 ,
Tu r k e y , wh o h a d s i gne d a s ecr et agr ee- The War Theater of the Near East.
23
me n t wi t h Ge r ma n y , c a me i n t o t h e wa r
o n Ge r ma n y ' s si de, t he s e t wo pa s s a ge -
wa y s we r e c l os e d a s t i ght a s a c o r k e d
bot t l e . F o r t h e Ru s s i a n s , t hi s wa s
di s a s t e r .
Bu t y o u n g Wi n s t o n Ch u r c h i l l , t h e n
Fi r s t L o r d of t h e Br i t i s h Ad mi r a l t y ,
a r g u e d t h a t t h e p a s s a g e s c o u l d b e f o r c e d
o p e n b y a di r e c t f r ont a l a t t a c k b y ba t t l e -
s hi ps . H e c l a i me d t h a t t h e o p e r a t i o n
wo u l d s h o r t e n t h e wa r b y a t l eas t a ye a r ,
p e r h a p s t wo . Ov e r t h e obj e c t i ons of
s o me me mb e r s of t h e Br i t i s h Wa r Co u n -
ci l , Ch u r c h i l l ' s p l a n , f o o l h a r d y a s i t wa s ,
wa s a d o p t e d .
I n F e b r u a r y of 1915, a Br i t i s h - Fr e n c h
fleet of 16 ma j o r ba t t l e s hi ps , a c c o m-
p a n i e d b y mi n e s we e pe r s a n d o t h e r
a uxi l i a r y cr af t , s t e a me d t o t h e a t t a c k . I n
t h e n a r r o w wa t e r s of t h e Da r d a n e l l e s ,
t h e y r a n i n t o a h e a v y field of mi n e s , a n d
a mu r d e r o u s c r os s fire f r o m T u r k i s h b i g
g u n s i n t h e f or t s a l o n g t h e s hor e . I n t h e
first a t t e mp t t o f or c e o p e n t h e St r a i t , o n e
F r e n c h a n d t wo Br i t i s h b a t t l e s h i p s we r e
s u n k ; t h e r e s t of t h e fleet, s t o p p e d c ol d,
wa s c o mp e l l e d t o wi t h d r a w f r o m t h e
ha pl e s s o p e r a t i o n .
T h e Br i t i s h t h e n d e c i d e d t o ma k e a
l a n d i n g o n t h e n a r r o w Ga l l i p o l i p e n i n -
s ul a, wh i c h l i es b e t we e n t h e Da r d a n e l l e s
a n d t h e Ae g e a n Se a . No t o n l y wa s t hi s
o n e of t h e wo r s t - p l a n n e d e x p e d i t i o n s i n
mi l i t a r y hi s t or y, b u t t h e T u r k s k n e w al l
a b o u t i t t h r o u g h i n f o r ma t i o n g a t h e r e d
b y t he i r s pi es i n Eg y p t . T h e y we r e wai t -
i ng wi t h bi g g u n s a n d b a r b e d wi r e en-
t a n g l e me n t s wh e n t h e first of t h e Br i t i s h
f or c e s b e g a n t o l a n d .
T h e r e s ul t wa s a b l o o d y s l a ught e r .
Br i t i s h a n d An z a c ( Au s t r a l i a n - Ne w
Z e a l a n d A r my C o r p s ) t r o o p s we r e
'
s
^ J
>
h T l \
mo we d d o wn b y t h e t e ns of t h o u s a n d s
a s t h e y t r i e d t o g a i n a t o e h o l d o n t h e
b e a c h e s . Ev e r y t h i n g f r o m t h e l a n d i n g of
s uppl i e s t o c a r e of t h e wo u n d e d wa s i n
a s t a t e of wi l d c onf us i on. T o ma k e ma t -
t e r s wo r s e , t h e r e wa s n o wa t e r o n t h e
Ga l l i p o l i de s e r t , a n d me n b e g a n t o di e
of t hi r s t . B u t f or al l t h e o d d s a g a i n s t
t h e m, t h e i n v a d i n g t r o o p s ma n a g e d t o
s e c ur e a t e n u o u s b e a c h h e a d a l o n g t h e
s h o r e ; t he r e , t h e y d u g i n.
T h e bi t t e r , f r ui t l es s fighting we n t o n
f or si x mo n t h s u n t i l t h e Br i t i s h l e a d e r s
i n L o n d o n r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e wh o l e t h i n g
h a d b e e n a gha s t l y mi s t a k e f r o m t h e be-
g i n n i n g a n d o r d e r e d a wi t h d r a wa l .
Wi n s t o n Ch u r c h i l l , wh o h a d p l a n n e d
t h e o p e r a t i o n , wa s r e mo v e d f r o m hi s
Ca b i n e t p o s t i n di s gr a c e .
T h e c a mp a i g n f or t h e Da r d a n e l l e s
a n d Ga l l i p o l i wa s o n e of t h e mo s t t r a gi c
of t h e e n t i r e wa r . F o r t u n a t e l y f or Br i t -
ai n, Ch u r c h i l l pr of i t e d b y t he i r l es s on
a n d s ur vi ve d di s gr a c e t o b e c o me o n e of
" t h e Bi g F o u r " of Wo r l d Wa r I I .
24
For the war in the Near
East, both sides de-
pended heavily on the
"ship of the desert,"
the camel.
WAR IN THE NEAR EAST
What was "the
hell of Kut"?
I n t h e f al l of 1914, t h e Br i t i s h l a n d e d a n
e x p e d i t i o n a r y f or c e
of I n d i a n s ol di e r s i n
M e s o p o t a m i a ,
Tu r k i s h t e r r i t or y o n t h e P e r s i a n Gu l f ,
a n d q u i c k l y t o o k t h e k e y ci t y of Ba s r a .
Th e i r obj e c t i ve wa s t wo f o l d : t o p r o t e c t
Br i t i s h oi l i nt e r e s t s i n t h a t p a r t of t h e
Ne a r Ea s t , a n d t o we a k e n Tu r k e y ' s wa r
effort b y e n c o u r a g i n g t h e Ar a b s t o r e-
vol t a g a i n s t t he i r h a t e d T u r k i s h ma s t e r s .
Sa dl y u n d e r e s t i ma t i n g hi s f oe, t h e
Br i t i s h g e n e r a l o r d e r e d a n a d v a n c e i n t o
t h e de s e r t t o c a p t u r e Ba g h d a d , of Ara-
bian Nights f a me . O n t h e wa y , t h e a r my
t o o k t h e mi s e r a b l e l i t t l e de s e r t t o wn of
Ku t al I ma r a , wh i c h wa s n o t h i n g mo r e
t h a n a f or l or n g r o u p of mu d h o u s e s
b a k i n g u n d e r t h e s c o r c h i n g de s e r t s un.
Se e i ng n o s i gn of hos t i l e T u r k s , t h e Br i t -
i s h mo v e d o n t o wa r d Ba g d a d .
Wi t h i n s i ght of t h e a n c i e n t ci t y, t h e
a r my wa s s u d d e n l y j u mp e d b y a T u r k -
i sh f or c e a b o u t t wi c e i t s si ze. Af t e r l os-
i ng n e a r l y hal f hi s me n i n t h e b a t t l e t h a t
f ol l owe d, Br i t i s h Ge n e r a l T o wn s h e n d
b e a t a r e t r e a t b a c k t o Ku t .
Th e r e , a h u g e T u r k i s h - Ar a b a r my
s u r r o u n d e d t h e t r a p p e d Br i t i s h t r o o p s
a n d s et t l ed d o wn f or a p r o l o n g e d si ege.
Wi t h s c a n t f o o d a n d wa t e r , a l mo s t n o
me d i c a l s uppl i e s , a n d n o h o p e of r el i ef ,
t h e Br i t i s he r s we r e h o l e d u p i n Ku t f or
n e a r l y five mo n t h s . Me n d i e d l i ke flies
f r o m h u n g e r a n d t r o p i c a l di s eas es .
Fi n a l l y , t h e pi t i f ul r e mn a n t s of t h e
a r my , a b o u t 9 , 0 0 0 " di r t y s ke l e t ons i n
r a g s , " s u r r e n d e r e d t o Fi e l d Ma r s h a l
v o n d e r Go l t z , s u p r e me c o mma n d e r f or
t h e Ce n t r a l P o we r s i n Me s o p o t a mi a .
Who was Lawrence
of Arabia?
I n t h e Syr i a n De s e r t , n e a r l y a t h o u s a n d
mi l e s we s t of
i l l - s t ar r ed Ku t ,
t h e Br i t i s h h a d
b e t t e r l uc k. Af t e r b e a t i n g off a n a t t a c k
b y T u r k i s h t r o o p s o n t h e Sue z Ca n a l ,
Ll o y d Ge o r g e i n L o n d o n o r d e r e d t h e
a r my t o p r o c e e d i n t o Pa l e s t i ne , wh i c h
25
wa s p a r t of t h e T u r k i s h Emp i r e , a n d
c a p t u r e J e r u s a l e m.
At first, i t wa s t o u g h goi ng. T h e
T u r k s we r e u s e d t o t h e de s e r t a n d t h e
Br i t i s h we r e n o t ; i n t h e first mo n t h s of
t h e c a mp a i g n , Br i t i s h de f e a t s we r e
s ever e. T h e n , a n e w ge ne r a l , Si r Ed -
mu n d Al l e n b y , n i c k n a me d " t h e Bu l l "
b e c a u s e h e wa s h u g e a n d f or cef ul , c a me
o u t f r o m E n g l a n d t o t a k e c o mma n d .
Br i t i s h f o r t u n e s b e g a n t o l o o k up. On e
of Al l e n b y ' s gr e a t e s t pi e c e s of l u c k wa s
hi s me e t i n g wi t h a s t r a n g e y o u n g ma n
n a me d T h o ma s E . La wr e n c e .
L a wr e n c e wa s a l i t t l e f el l ow, s c a r c e l y
five f eet t al l , b u t hi s b o d y s e e me d ma d e
of st eel wi r e. H e h a d b e e n a n a r c h a e o l o -
gi st di ggi ng u p de s e r t r u i n s wh e n t h e
wa r s t a r t e d, a n d h a d b e c o me t h e l e a d e r
of t h e A r a b r e vol t a ga i ns t t h e T u r k s
a f t e r b e i n g s e nt t o E g y p t t o h e a d t h e
mi l i t a r y i nt e l l i ge nc e t he r e . Hi s me n
c a l l e d h i m " Wr e c k e r of En g i n e s , " be-
c a u s e h e h a d b e e n h a r a s s i n g t h e T u r k s
b y wr e c k i n g t he i r r a i l wa y t r a i ns b y
b l o wi n g u p br i dge s a n d t e a r i n g u p
t r a c ks . H e wa s t o b e c o me f a mo u s i n t h e
hi s t or y b o o k s as L a wr e n c e of Ar a b i a
a n d f or hi s o wn a c c o u n t of hi s a d ve n -
t ur e s , The Seven Pillars of Wisdom.
Al l e n b y d e c i d e d t o wo r k wi t h t h e
l i t t l e fighting r o o s t e r , a n d g a v e h i m
a l mo s t l i mi t l es s acces s t o g u n s a n d s up-
pl i es. I t wa s t h e wi s es t de c i s i on of t h e
e nt i r e Ne a r E a s t c a mp a i g n .
Al t h o u g h h e h e l d t h e r a n k of c a p t a i n
i n t h e Br i t i s h Ar my , L a wr e n c e a l wa y s
dr e s s e d i n t h e l ong, flowing n a t i ve de s e r t
c o s t u me c o mp l e t e wi t h s wo r d a n d di s-
d a i n e d al l mi l i t a r y f or ma l i t y. Hi s Ar a b s
we r e a wi l d l ot , a n d onl y " El - Au r e n s "
c o u l d c o n t r o l t h e m. Bu t t h e y ma d e t h e
l i fe of t h e T u r k i s h A r my mi s e r a bl e , sur -
pr i s i ng t h e m i n g r o u p s a n d of t en ki l l i ng
t h e m t o t h e l as t ma n .
Me a n wh i l e , Al l e n b y bui l t u p a l a r ge
a r my . J u s t b e f o r e Ch r i s t ma s of 1917,
wi t h L a wr e n c e r a i d i n g t h e T u r k s a n d
c u t t i n g t he i r r a i l r o a d s a n d s u p p l y l i nes,
Al l e n b y wa s a bl e t o t a k e J e r u s a l e m. A
f ew mo n t h s l a t e r , a g a i n wi t h La wr e n c e ' s
he l p, h e d e f e a t e d t h e T u r k s a t t h e de-
ci s i ve b a t t l e of Me g i d d o . Th i s ba t t l e , i n
wh i c h Al l e n b y c a p t u r e d 7 6 , 0 0 0 pr i s on-
er s , wa s a deci s i ve f a c t or i n finally el i m-
i n a t i n g T u r k e y f r o m t h e wa r . T u r k e y
s u r r e n d e r e d o n Oc t o b e r 30, 1918.
ITALY, RUMANIA, AND BULGARIA
I t a l y wa s i n t h e Tr i p l e Al l i a n c e wi t h
Ge r ma n y a n d Au s t r i a -
* ? * ! ? ^
u n g a r y
'
b u t h a d r e
-
f us e d t o g o t o wa r
a ga i ns t Br i t a i n a n d F r a n c e i n 1 9 1 4 o n
t h e g r o u n d s t h a t Ge r ma n y wa s t h e ag-
gr e s s or . As a r es ul t , b o t h c a mp s t r i e d t o
wo o h e r t o t he i r si de. Ge r ma n y p r o m-
i s ed e x p a n d e d t e r r i t or y; t h e Al l i es , p a r t
of Au s t r i a a n d c ol oni a l pos s e s s i ons i n
Af r i c a . T h e Al l i e d offer l o o k e d mo s t
l uc r a t i ve ; s o I t a l y c a me i n t o t h e wa r o n
t h e Al l i e d s i de o n Ma y 2 3 , 1915.
I t a l y wa s i l l - pr e pa r e d f or wa r : He r
a r my wa s f a r f r o m up- t o- da t e . He r s c a n t
h e a v y i n d u s t r y wo u l d n e ve r s uppl y a
wa r effort . He r p e o p l e di d n o t wa n t t o
fight. Wh e n t h e I t a l i a n s a t t a c k e d Au s -
t r i a i n t h e r u g g e d Al p i n e c o u n t r y t o t h e
n o r t h , i t h a d l i t t l e effect . No t h i n g mu c h
wa s h a p p e n i n g o n t h e I t a l i a n f r ont c om-
p a r e d t o t h e e a r t h - s h a k i n g e ve nt s i n
F r a n c e . Ge n e r a l C a d o r n a a n d hi s a r my
h a d h a d t o r e t r e a t wh e n a s t r o n g Ge r -
ma n - Au s t r i a n a r my of a b o u t 4 0 0 , 0 0 0
26
me n a t t a c k e d t h e I t a l i a n s i n Ma y , 1 9 1 6 ,
o n t h e I s o n z o Ri v e r .
T h e n , o n Oc t o b e r 2 4 , 1917, a h u g e
a r my of Ge r ma n s a n d Au s t r i a n s s ud-
de nl y s t r uc k a t Ca p o r e t t o , i n n o r t h e r n
I t al y. T h e I t a l i a n l i ne c r u mb l e d a n d t h e
s ol di er s fled i n p a n i c b e h i n d t h e P i a v e
Ri ve r , wh e r e t h e y ma d e a s t a n d wi t h t h e
he l p of t h e Br i t i s h a n d F r e n c h . T h e di s-
a s t e r a t Ca p o r e t t o k n o c k e d t h e I t a l i a n s
o u t of t h e wa r a s a n a t i o n a l fighting
f or c e a l t h o u g h I t a l i a n r e g i me n t s c on-
t i n u e d t o fight a l o n g s i d e t h e F r e n c h a n d
Br i t i s h o n t h e We s t e r n F r o n t .
Ru ma n i a , t oo, h a d b e e n b a r g a i n i n g
wi t h b o t h si des. T h e n , o n Au g u s t 2 7 ,
1916, s he ma d e u p h e r mi n d t o t h r o w i n
wi t h t h e Al l i es . Al mo s t a t o n c e a n
Au s t r i a n - Ge r ma n a r my a t t a c k e d t h e
Ru ma n i a n s ; i n t h r e e mo n t h s , s he wa s
ut t e r l y de f e a t e d. Ru ma n i a ' s q u i c k col -
l a ps e p r o v i d e d Ge r ma n y wi t h mu c h -
n e e d e d oi l f r om t h e r i c h R u ma n i a n oi l
fields a n d t h o u s a n d s of t o n s of wh e a t
f r om h e r r ol l i ng f a r ml a n d s .
Af t e r h a v i n g dr i ve n t h e Ru s s i a n s o u t
of t h e Au s t r i a n l a n d s wh i c h t o d a y c o m-
pr i s e P o l a n d , t h e G e r ma n a r mi e s set
o u t t o finally p u n i s h Se r bi a . Be l g r a d e ,
t h e Se r b i a n c a pi t a l , fel l b e f o r e t h e Ge r -
ma n s a n d Au s t r i a n s o n Oc t o b e r 9 , 1 9 1 5 .
Bu l g a r i a , wh o h o p e d t o r e c o v e r t er -
r i t or y l os t i n 1 9 1 3 t o Se r bi a , d e c l a r e d
wa r o n Se r bi a o n Oc t o b e r 11. T h e
Se r bi a n l os s es we r e t e r r i bl e ; a n d ma n y
Ser bs fled t o Al b a n i a a n d Gr e e k i s l a nds .
Gr e e c e , t o r n b e t we e n i t s Ki n g Co n -
s t a nt i ne , wh o f a v o r e d t h e Ge r ma n s , a n d
i t s pr o- Al l i e d P r i me Mi n i s t e r Ve n i z e l o s ,
f or t h e o t h e r si de, h a d t r i e d t o s t ay
n e u t r a l b u t wa s finally f or c e d i n t o wa r
o n J u n e 27, 1917, o n t h e Al l i e d s i de.
Specially trained and equipped Ital-
ian mountain troops prepare an
attack in jagged Alpine territory.
AUSr
^z
THE ITALIAN WAR THEATER.
'Any
PORETTO
27
Some early Allied planes, from left to right: the Nieuport 17 (the favorite plane of the British ace, Albert Ball);
the Breguet 14 bomber (a two-seater built in France); the British-built DH-9A bomber; the S.P.A.D. (a French-
built fighter plane preferred by many American pilots).
W a r i n t h e S k y
Who were
"the Aces"?
T h e a i r p l a n e wa s b u t i n i t s i nf a nc y wh e n
Wo r l d Wa r I b u r s t i n t o
flame i n 1 9 1 4 . T h e
Wr i g h t b r o t h e r s h a d
ma d e t he i r first f a l t e r i ng he a vi e r - t ha n-
ai r flights t h e l onge s t of wh i c h h a d
l a s t e d l ess t h a n a mi n u t e onl y 11
y e a r s be f or e . Ye t , t h e a i r p l a n e devel -
o p e d f a s t e r a n d f u r t h e r i n t h e f o u r y e a r s
of t h e wa r t h a n a n y o t h e r we a p o n i n
h i s t o r y i n a c o mp a r a b l e p e r i o d of t i me .
I n t h e b e g i n n i n g , flimsy bi pl a ne s ,
bui l t l i ke t h e or i gi na l Wr i g h t p u s h e r ,
flew ove r o p p o s i n g l i nes t o o b s e r v e t h e
mo v e me n t s of e n e my t r o o p s . So me -
t i me s , a Br i t i s h pi l ot wo u l d p a s s c l os e t o
a G e r ma n pi l ot . O n t he s e oc c a s i ons ,
b o t h fliers wo u l d wa v e a g a l l a n t s a l ut e
t o e a c h o t h e r . Hi g h a b o v e t h e filthy mu d
a n d b l o o d of t h e bat t l ef i el d b e l o w, t h e y
f el t t h a t t h e y we r e k n i g h t s of t h e s ky.
T h e n o n e d a y , o n e of t h e s e Br i t i s h
" k n i g h t s " got a n i de a . H e p u t a pi s t ol
i n t o t h e p o c k e t of hi s flying s ui t . T h e
n e x t t i me a G e r ma n p l a n e flew wi t h i n
r a n g e , i n s t e a d of s a l ut i ng, h e fired.
Af t e r t h a t , al l t h e pi l ot s o n b o t h s i des
c a r r i e d h a n d g u n s , a n d t h e br i ef a g e of
c hi va l r y i n t h e ai r wa s finished.
Wi t h i n t h e n e x t y e a r , a i r p l a n e de s i gn
a d v a n c e d t r e me n d o u s l y . T h e Wr i g h t -
t y p e " Fl i e r " g a v e wa y t o a c o mp a r a -
t i vel y s ol i dl y- bui l t s hi p wi t h b i p l a n e
wi n g s a n d a n e n g i n e mo u n t e d i n f r ont
of t h e f us el age. A l i ght ma c h i n e g u n ,
s e c u r e d t o t h e t o p wi n g , fired ove r t h e
p r o p e l l e r . T h i s wa s a n a wk wa r d ar -
r a n g e me n t , h o we v e r , f or i t wa s a l mo s t
i mpos s i bl e f or a pi l ot t o a i m hi s g u n a t
a n e n e my p l a n e .
T h e n , a y o u n g Du t c h ma n n a me d
An t h o n y F o k k e r , wh o d e s i g n e d fighter
p l a n e s f or t h e Ge r ma n s , b e g a n t o
p o n d e r t h e p r o b l e m. H e l a t e r r e l a t e d
t h a t h e g o t hi s g r e a t i de a o n e n i g h t af t er
h e h a d g o n e t o b e d , j u mp e d u p , we n t t o
hi s d r a wi n g b o a r d , a n d h a d t h e wh o l e
de s i gn o n p a p e r b y mo r n i n g . T h e c on-
c e p t i o n wa s s i mpl i c i t y i t sel f t o a n
e ngi ne e r . L e t t h e mo t o r fire t h e g u n !
A n d s y n c h r o n i z e i t , s o t h a t t h e bul l e t s
wo u l d p a s s t h r o u g h t h e p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s
wh e n t h e b l a d e s we r e o u t of t h e l i ne of
fire! No w, t h e G e r ma n pi l ot c o u l d a i m
28
"Dogfight" between German Alba-
tross and British Martinsyde fighters.
hi s p l a n e di r e c t l y a t a n e n e my cr af t a n d
k n o c k i t d o wn wi t h pr e c i s i on.
F o r s e ve r a l mo n t h s , t hi s r e vol ut i on-
a r y g u n g a ve t h e Ge r ma n s a d e c i d e d
a d v a n t a g e i n a e r i a l wa r f a r e . Al l i e d
pi l ot s we r e c a l l i ng t h e ms e l ve s " F o k k e r
f o d d e r . " Bu t i t d i d n ' t t a k e Br i t i s h a n d
F r e n c h e ngi ne e r s l o n g t o c a t c h o n t o
wh a t F o k k e r h a d d o n e . Wh e n t h e y di d,
Ge r ma n a n d Al l i e d fl i ers we r e f ai r l y
e ve nl y ma t c h e d . T h e i r p l a n e s , hi ghl y
ma n e u v e r a b l e , c o u l d fly f r o m 1 0 0 t o
140 mi l e s p e r h o u r . Mo s t of t h e vi c-
t or i es t h e n we n t t o t h e pi l ot s wi t h t h e
gr e a t e s t flying ski l l .
Al t h o u g h b y 1 9 1 7 , b o t h s i des h a d
d e ve l o p e d l a r ge b o mb i n g p l a n e s t h a t
c a r r i e d o n e o r t wo me n be s i de s t h e
pi l ot , a e r i a l b o mb a r d me n t d i d n o t p l a y
t o o deci s i ve a p a r t i n t h e b a t t l e s of
FOKKER E4
Planes used by the early German Air Force.
Wo r l d Wa r I . Sc o u t i n g a n d o b s e r v a t i o n
( r e c o n n a i s s a n c e ) c o n t i n u e d t o b e t h e
p r i me f unc t i on of t h e ai r f or ces .
A mo r e g l a mo r o u s us e of t h e p l a n e ,
h o we v e r , i n t h e wa r a n d t h e o n e t h a t
ma d e n e ws p a p e r h e a d l i n e s wa s t h e
s h o o t i n g d o wn of e n e my a i r c r a f t . A n y
pi l ot wh o d e s t r o y e d five o r mo r e e n e my
p l a n e s wa s d e s i g n a t e d as a n " a c e . "
T h e l e a d i n g a c e wa s a Ge r ma n ,
Ba r o n Ma n f r e d v o n Ri c h t h o f e n , " t h e
R e d Kn i g h t , " wh o h a d 8 0 s i ngl e - ha nde d
ki l l s t o hi s c r e di t b e f o r e h e i n t u r n wa s
s h o t d o wn i n flames b y a k i d f r o m
C a n a d a n a me d R o y Br o wn . Ca p t a i n
R e n e F o n c k wa s t h e t o p F r e n c h a c e
wi t h a s c or e of 75. Ca p t a i n E d w a r d
Ma n n o c k h e l d t h e Br i t i s h r e c o r d of 7 3 .
In the early bombers, which had pusher propellers,
the bombardier had to crawl out of the cockpit onto
the wing to shoot with a rifle at a fighter attacking
from the rear. This way, he could at least avoid
hitting his own propeller. The planes in our illustration
are a French Voisin bomber defending itself against
a German Fokker attack.
Cl o s e o n hi s he e l s wa s C a n a d i a n Ma j o r
Bi l l y Bi s h o p wi t h hi s 7 2 . ( I n Wo r l d
Wa r I I , Bi s h o p wa s Ai r Ma r s h a l of t h e
Ro y a l C a n a d i a n Ai r F o r c e . )
T h e Ame r i c a n " Ac e of Ac e s " wa s
Ca p t a i n E d d i e Ri c k e n b a c k e r , a f o r me r
a u t o mo b i l e t es t dr i ve r wh o h a d s t a r t e d
o u t i n t h e wa r a s Ge n e r a l Pe r s h i n g ' s
c ha uf f e ur . H e s c o r e d 2 6 vi c t or i e s d u r i n g
t h e f e w mo n t h s t h a t Un i t e d St a t e s fight-
i ng p l a n e s we r e act i ve. Af t e r t h e wa r ,
Ca p t a i n Ri c k e n b a c k e r o r g a n i z e d , a n d is
n o w p r e s i d e n t of , o n e of Ame r i c a ' s l ead-
i ng c o mme r c i a l ai r l i nes .
What was a
Zeppelin?
On e of t h e mo s t t er r i f yi ng a i r c r a f t s
t o ci vi l i ans , a t l eas t
d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g t h e
wa r wa s t h e Ge r ma n
Ze p p e l i n . I t h a d b e e n i n v e n t e d s e ve r a l
y e a r s b e f o r e b y a G e r ma n s ci ent i s t ,
C o u n t F e r d i n a n d Ze p p e l i n , a s a pe a c e -
.-
--..
, '
-/**" ii
;:.-
J
-
V>',
<*,
In 1916, American volunteers in Europe formed the
Lafayette Escadrille which went over to American
Army command after the U.S.A. entered the war in
1917. The Indianhead emblem on the fuselage iden-
tifies the plane, piloted by an American flier, as one
belonging to the famous Lafayette Escadrille.
t i me p a s s e n g e r - c a r r y i n g a i r s hi p. Bu t t h e
Ka i s e r ' s Hi g h C o mma n d a t o n c e s a w i t s
pos s i bi l i t i es f or t h e b o mb i n g of En g l i s h
ci t i es, speci f i cal l y L o n d o n :
" T h e Ze p , " a s i t wa s cal l ed, wa s a
l i ght e r - t ha n- a i r cr af t , s h a p e d l i ke a h u g e
c i ga r a n d n e a r l y 7 0 0 f eet l ong, a b o u t t h e
l e ngt h of t wo a n d a hal f f oot ba l l fields.
T h r o u g h t h e mi d d l e , i t wa s 7 2 f eet
t hi c k. I t s f r a me wo r k wa s a l i ght b u t
s t r ong a l u mi n u m a l l oy c o v e r e d wi t h ai r -
p l a n e c l ot h. I t wa s b u o y e d u p , l i ke a
b a l l o o n , b y h y d r o g e n gas . Si x e ngi ne s
p r o p e l l e d i t t h r o u g h t h e a i r a t a t o p
s pe e d of a b o u t 6 0 mi l e s p e r h o u r . I t
/
Both sides used lighter-than-air craft in the form of
observation balloons. In the German "sausage bal-
loon," the observer, in a wicker basket hanging from
the balloon, kept a close eye on the front.
c a r r i e d a n o b s e r v a t i o n c a r t h a t c o u l d b e
l o we r e d b y a t h o u s a n d f eet of st eel
c a bl e . Th u s , t h e Ze p p e l i n wa s a b l e t o
sai l a l o n g a b o v e t h e c l o u d s whi l e t h e
o b s e r ve r s wu n g b e n e a t h t h e m a n d r e-
p o r t e d hi s findings b y p h o n e .
C r e w q u a r t e r s we r e i ns i de t h e hul l ;
31
c r e ws o n d u t y r o d e i n t wi n g o n d o l a s
s l ung u n d e r n e a t h t h e s hi p. T h e Ze p s
we r e a r me d wi t h ma c h i n e g u n s a n d l i ght
c a n n o n s a n d t h e y c a r r i e d 3 0 0 fire
b o mb s !
Bu t f or al l i t s f o r mi d a b l e a p p e a r a n c e ,
t h e Z e p h a d a n u mb e r of s e ve r e d r a w-
b a c k s . Hy d r o g e n gas , f or o n e t hi ng, i s
hi ghl y i n f l a mma b l e . If t h e s hi p wa s hi t
b y a n i n c e n d i a r y bul l e t , o r if a n y s or t of
s t r a y s p a r k wa s s t r u c k i ns i de i t , t h e en-
t i r e c r a f t e x p l o d e d i n a f ur i ous b u r s t of
flame. So, Z e p c r e ws r e a l l y h a d t h e mo s t
d a n g e r o u s j o b s of t h e wa r . Mo r e o v e r ,
b e i n g l i ght e r t h a n ai r a n d b u l k y , t h e Z e p
wa s a l mo s t i mpos s i bl e t o c o n t r o l i n a
h i g h wi n d .
T h e Ge r ma n s h o p e d t h a t t he i r Ze p -
pe l i n fleet, b y b u r n i n g t h e ci t y of L o n -
d o n a n d d e s t r o y i n g En g l i s h i n d u s t r y ,
mi g h t b r i n g t h e En g l i s h p e o p l e t o t he i r
kne e s . Bu t , l i ke p o i s o n gas , i t wa s a n-
o t h e r " s e c r e t we a p o n " t h a t f ai l ed. T h e
Ze p s di d t he i r b o mb i n g a t ni ght , a n d a t
first, t h e ci vi l i an p o p u l a t i o n wa s t er r i -
fied. Bu t s o o n , t h e y f o u n d t h a t t h e Ge r -
ma n b o mb s di d l i t t l e r e a l d a ma g e , a n d
r e l a t i ve l y f e w p e o p l e we r e ki l l e d. Af t e r
a n u mb e r of r a i ds , s o ma n y Ze p s we r e
s h o t d o wn i n flames t h a t t h e Ge r ma n s
c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e r e s ul t s we r e n o t
wo r t h t h e c os t . T h e y c a l l e d t h e b o mb i n g
c a mp a i g n off.
Ac t u a l l y , t h e Ze p p e l i n s h a d a n effect
t h e Ge r ma n s n e ve r e x p e c t e d . T h e r ut h-
l ess ki l l i ng of i n n o c e n t wo me n a n d chi l -
d r e n a n d t h e d e mo l i s h me n t of t he i r
h o me s i nf ur i a t e d t h e Br i t i s h p e o p l e a n d
st i f f ened t he i r wi l l t o de f e a t t h e Ge r ma n
" mu r d e r e r s . " I n t h e Un i t e d St a t e s , pe o-
p l e we r e hor r i f i e d a t s u c h wa n t o n b r u -
t al i t y. Ame r i c a wa s b r o u g h t a s t e p
c l os e r t o e n t e r i n g t h e wa r o n t h e s i de of
t h e Al l i es .
imf* \
The Zeppelin, a huge lighter-than-air dirigible, did not fulfill the expectations of the German High Command.
T h e W a r a t S e a
What was the
U-Boat campaign?
Ne x t t o Br i t a i n , Ge r ma n y h a d t h e mo s t
p o we r f u l n a v y i n
t h e wo r l d . Bu t
t h e G e r ma n fleet
wa s b a s e d a t Ki el , i n a b a y of t h e Ba l t i c
Sea, a n d i t wa s a l mo s t i mpos s i bl e f or
t h e ba t t l e s hi ps a n d c r ui s e r s t o p u t t o s ea
wi t h o u t b e i n g d e t e c t e d a n d e n g a g e d b y
t h e Br i t i s h. F o r t h e first t wo y e a r s of
t h e wa r , t h e G e r ma n fleet pr a c t i c a l l y
r us t e d a t i t s mo o r i n g s i n i t s h o me
h a r b o r .
Me a n wh i l e , Br i t i s h wa r s h i p s we r e
a bl e t o r o v e t h e wo r l d ' s o c e a n s a l mo s t
a t wi l l a n d c l e a r t h e s eas of Ge r ma n
s hi ps , b o t h me r c h a n t a n d n a va l . Wi t h i n
a f ew mo n t h s af t er t h e wa r b e g a n , t h e
Br i t i s h Na v y h a d c l a mp e d d o wn a n ef-
f ect i ve b l o c k a d e .
Ea r l y i n t h e fighting, t h e n , i t b e c a me
a p p a r e n t t h a t Ge r ma n y wo u l d h a v e t o
r e l y o n h e r s u b ma r i n e s f or a c t i o n o n t h e
h i g h seas. T h e y c a l l e d t he i r u n d e r s e a
b o a t s " U- Bo a t s . " G e r ma n s h i p y a r d s
d e s p e r a t e l y wo r k e d t o b u i l d a l a r g e
U- Bo a t fleet a s r a p i d l y a s t h e y c o u l d .
Th i s wa s a n o t h e r of t he i r t r i es a t a
" s e c r e t we a p o n . "
I n t h e s pr i ng of 1915, Ge r ma n y
b o l d l y a n n o u n c e d t o t h e wo r l d t h a t
U- Bo a t s wo u l d s i nk a n y Al l i e d s hi ps
t h a t a p p e a r e d wi t h i n c e r t a i n speci f i ed
" wa r z o n e s " wi t h o u t wa r n i n g . Al l s hi ps ,
e ve n t h o s e f r o m n e u t r a l c o u n t r i e s c a r r y-
i n g s uppl i e s t o En g l a n d , we r e con-
s i de r e d e ne mi e s . Al l of t h e ne ut r a l s , i n-
c l u d i n g t h e Un i t e d St a t e s , p r o t e s t e d
wh a t t h e y c o n s i d e r e d " unc i vi l i z e d" wa r -
f a r e . Bu t t h e Ge r ma n s r e pl i e d t h a t t he i r
U- Bo a t s wo u l d c o n t i n u e t o p r o wl t h e
German U-boat on blockade duty stops a British supply ship. The Allied crew takes to the lifeboats
s eas unt i l t h e s t r a n g l e h o l d o n t h e m wa s
b r o k e n . I t i s e s t i ma t e d t h a t d u r i n g t h e
c o u r s e of t h e wa r , mo r e t h a n 4 , 0 0 0
s hi ps , n e u t r a l a s wel l a s Al l i e d, we r e
s e nt t o t h e b o t t o m b y Ge r ma n s ubs .
Li k e t h e Ze p p e l i n r a i ds , t h e u n r e s t r i c t e d
U- Bo a t c a mp a i g n h a d a n a d ve r s e effect
f or t h e Ge r ma n s . Pu b l i c o p i n i o n i n t h e
Un i t e d St a t e s t u r n e d s h a r p l y a g a i n s t
Ge r ma n y .
T h e t u r n i n g p o i n t i n t h e U- Bo a t wa r
c a me o n Ma y 7, 1915. A we e k be f or e ,
t he Lusitania, Br i t a i n' s n e we s t a n d f ast -
est l u x u r y l i ner , h a d s ai l ed f r o m Ne w
Yo r k f or Li v e r p o o l . Ab o a r d h e r we r e
197 Ame r i c a n s , i n c l u d i n g wo me n a n d
c hi l dr e n. On l y a f e w mi l e s off t h e I r i s h
c oa s t , s he wa s s t r uc k b y a t o r p e d o f r o m
a s u b me r g e d U- Bo a t . T h e s t r i c ke n
Lusitania s a n k i n a ma t t e r of mi n u t e s ,
t a k i n g s o me 1 , 2 0 0 of h e r p a s s e n g e r s
wi t h h e r t o t h e b o t t o m. A m o n g t h e d e a d
Deadly torpedoes being loaded aboard a U-boat.
we r e 115 of t h e 197 Ame r i c a n s . T h e
Ge r ma n s d e f e n d e d t h e s i nki ng b y c l a i m-
i ng t h a t t h e Lusitania h a d b e e n c a r r y-
i ng mu n i t i o n s .
T h e p e o p l e of t h e Un i t e d St a t e s we r e
o u t r a g e d ; " R e me mb e r t h e Lusitania"
Sf
'./&<>
b e c a me a r a l l yi ng c r y f or wa r . I t wa s
o n l y a q u e s t i o n of t i me unt i l t h e U. S.
wo u l d e n t e r t h e wa r o n t h e s i de of t h e
Al l i es .
What was the
Battle of Jutland?
T h e r e wa s o n l y o n e ma j o r n a v a l b a t t l e
d u r i n g t h e e nt i r e
c o u r s e of t h e wa r
b e t we e n t h e Ge r -
ma n Hi g h Se a s Fl e e t a n d t h e Br i t i s h
G r a n d Fl e e t . I t t o o k p l a c e o n Ma y 31,
1916, i n t h e No r t h Se a off t h e Da n i s h
p e n i n s u l a of J u t l a n d .
O n Ma y 30, Ad mi r a l Sc he e r , Co m-
ma n d e r i n Chi e f of t h e Ge r ma n fleet,
s ai l ed i n t o t h e No r t h Sea wi t h vi r t ua l l y
al l hi s h e a v y ba t t l e s hi ps , e s c o r t e d b y
c r ui s e r s a n d de s t r oye r s . Hi s p u r p o s e
.
34
After America entered
the war, merchant ships
and troop transports,
protected by warships,
traveled in convoys
through the U-boat
blockade. First came
destroyers; then, cruis-
ers and torpedo boats
(with observation bal-
loons) followed by files
of merchant ships,
flanked by trawlers for
protection against tor-
pedoes. More torpedo
boats formed a rear
guard. Destroyers cir-
cled the convoy con-
stantly to engage and
sink enemy U-boats.
wa s t o t r y t o c o me t o gr i ps wi t h t h e
Br i t i s h Gr a n d Fl e e t a n d d e s t r o y i t . A
fighting a d mi r a l , h e s a w n o p o i n t i n a
h u g e n a v y t h a t s i mpl y s t a y e d i n i t s ha r -
b o r a n d s a w n o a c t i on.
Wh a t Ad mi r a l Sc h e e r d i d n ' t k n o w,
h o we v e r , wa s t h a t t h e Br i t i s h h a d
b r o k e n t h e s ecr et G e r ma n c o d e a n d
t hus , we r e wa r n e d of hi s pl a ns . T h e
Br i t i s h C o mma n d e r , Ad mi r a l J el l i coe,
a t o n c e t o o k t h e G r a n d Fl e e t t o s ea t o
h u n t d o wn t h e Ge r ma n s .
T h e t wo fleets c l a s h e d t h e n e x t d a y ,
Ma y 31. T h e ma i n a c t i on, o b s c u r e d b y
gr e a t c l o u d s of b l a c k p o wd e r s mo k e ,
l a s t e d onl y a b o u t t wo h o u r s . Bu t b y t h e
t i me t h e f ur i ous fighting wa s ove r a n d
t he b a t t l e s mo k e h a d c l e a r e d a wa y , t h e
Br i t i s h h a d l os t t h r e e b a t t l e cr ui s er s ,
t h r e e a r mo r e d cr ui s er s , a n d e i ght de-
s t r oye r s . T h e Ge r ma n l os s es we r e o n e
ba t t l e s hi p, o n e b a t t l e cr ui s er , f our l i ght
c r ui s e r s , a n d five de s t r oye r s . T h e Br i t i s h
l os s i n l i ves wa s 6 , 0 9 7 ; t h e Ge r ma n ,
2 , 5 4 5 .
T h e Pr i n c e of Wa l e s , wh o wa s s l a t e d
t o b e c o me Ki n g Ge o r g e V I of E n g l a n d ,
f o u g h t as a j u n i o r offi cer o n o n e of t h e
Br i t i s h ba t t l e s hi ps .
Bu t f or al l i t s s o u n d a n d s mo k e a n d
f ur y, t h e g r e a t s ea b a t t l e p r o v e d n o t h -
i ng. Wh e n i t wa s ove r , t h e Ge r ma n Hi g h
Se a s Fl e e t we n t b a c k t o i t s b a s e t o r e-
ma i n t he r e , d o i n g n o t h i n g , f or t h e r es t
of t h e wa r . A n d t h e Br i t i s h r e t a i n e d
t he i r ol d c o mma n d of t h e seas.
35
A German U-boat blows up her prize
after the crew has abandoned ship.
T h e B a t t l e o f J u t l a n d
The height of the Battle of Jutland:
Scheer's battleships attack again.
T h e C o u r s e o f t h e W a r 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 1 8
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
Re v o l u t i o n h a d b e e n b r e wi n g i n Ru s s i a
f or a great many
Who was Rasputin? ,
A
,
J
y e a r s b e f o r e t h e
wa r b e g a n . T h e Ru s s i a n p e a s a n t s o wn e d
n o l a n d of t he i r o wn a n d l i ved i n mi s e r y
a n d wa n t . T h e f a c t or y wo r k e r s we r e
l i t t l e b e t t e r t h a n s l aves , b a r e l y ma n a g -
i ng t o e k e o u t a me a g r e l i vi ng f r o m l o n g
h o u r s of t oi l . T h e r ul i ng cl as s es we r e
r i c h a n d al l - power f ul , a n d h a d n o u n d e r -
s t a n d i n g o r s y mp a t h y f or t h e pl i ght of
t h e l a b o r i n g ma s s e s .
Ye t wh e n wa r wa s de c l a r e d, t h e Ru s -
s i an p e o p l e r e s p o n d e d wi t h p a t r i o t i c
f e r vor , a n d r u s h e d t o t h e c ol or s b y t h e
mi l l i ons . Bu t t h e e a g e r n e s s of t h e c o m-
mo n s ol di e r s s o o n t u r n e d t o g l o o m.
S o me of t h e me n a c t u a l l y h a d n o rifles.
F o o d wa s s c a r c e . T h o u s a n d s we n t wi t h-
o u t s hoe s i n t h e f r eezi ng Ru s s i a n wi n-
t er s , a n d h a d t o wr a p t he i r f eet wi t h
r a gs .
Mo r e o v e r , Ru s s i a n c a s ua l t i e s a t t h e
f r ont we r e a ppa l l i ng. I n o n e c a mp a i g n
a f ut i l e ef f or t t o p u s h t h e Au s t r i a n s
a n d Ge r ma n s o u t of P o l a n d i n 1 9 1 5
t h e Ru s s i a n s l os t mo r e t h a n a mi l l i on
me n . T h e Ru s s i a n s ol di er wa s j us t a b o u t
r e a d y t o qui t . Al l t h a t wa s n e e d e d wa s
a s p a r k t o l i ght t h e fire. I r oni c a l l y, i t
wa s set off i n t h e p a l a c e of t h e Cz a r .
Si nc e b i r t h , t h e Cz a r ' s s ma l l s on h a d
b e e n a vi c t i m of h e mo p h i l i a , a r a r e
b l o o d di s e a s e wh i c h c a n c a u s e i t s vi c t i m
t o b l e e d t o d e a t h f r o m e ve n t h e s ma l l e s t
c ut . T h e r o y a l d o c t o r s c o u l d d o n o t h i n g
f or i t .
I n 1905, a l a y mo n k h a d a p p e a r e d i n
Mo s c o w t o b e c o me k n o wn a s a " h o l y
GRIGORI EFIMOVICH
ALIAS RASPUTIN
ma n , " a b l e t o h e a l ma n y a i l me n t s f or
wh i c h d o c t o r s k n e w n o c ur e . Hi s n a me
wa s Gr i g o r i Ef i movi c h, b u t h e b e c a me
k n o wn i n hi s t or y a s Ra s p u t i n ( r e a l l y hi s
n i c k n a me ) . H e a p p e a r e d a f ew y e a r s
l a t e r i n St . P e t e r s b u r g a s t h e l e a d e r of
a n e w r e l i gi ous c ul t a n d wa s i n t r o d u c e d
a t t h e c o u r t i n 1 9 0 7 . H e s o o n g a i n e d
t r e me n d o u s i nf l uence t h e r e i n al l ma t -
t er s , e s pe c i a l l y a f t e r t h e Cz a r a n d Cz a r -
i n a b e c a me c o n v i n c e d of hi s abi l i t y t o
c u r e t he i r a i l i ng s on. Wh e n hi s pol i t i c a l
i nf l uence g o t i n t h e wa y of s o me l ead-
i ng n o b l e me n , t h e Cz a r wa s f or c e d t o
b a n i s h h i m t o Si be r i a i n 1913, b u t h e
r e t u r n e d t o St . P e t e r s b u r g s o o n af t er
t h e o u t b r e a k of t h e wa r t o b e r e c e i ve d
wi t h r e n e we d f a vo u r b y t h e c o u r t . A
s i ni s t er pol i t i c a l i nf l uence, h e c o e r c e d
t h e Cz a r t o hi r e a n d fire c e r t a i n h i g h
offi ci al s, a n d hi s evi l wa y of life l os t
f or Cz a r Ni c h o l a s t h e l i t t l e r e s pe c t h e
h a d l eft .
L a t e i n 1916, a g r o u p of n o b l e me n
s u c c e e d e d i n a s s a s s i na t i ng Ra s p u t i n ,
b u t t h e d a ma g e h a d b e e n d o n e b y t he n.
Re v o l u t i o n a r y mo b s s t o r me d t h r o u g h
al l Ru s s i a n ci t i es c r yi ng f or t h e e n d of
t h e Cz a r ' s r ul e. Or d e r e d t o fire o n t h e
38
c r o wd s , t h e s ol di er s r e f us e d a n d j o i n e d
t h e Re vo l u t i o n a r i e s . A f ew mo n t h s
l at er , i n Ma r c h , 1917, t h e Cz a r wa s
f or c e d t o a b d i c a t e hi s t h r o n e , a n d h e
a n d hi s f a mi l y we r e i mp r i s o n e d a n d
e x e c u t e d n o t l ong a f t e r wa r ds .
T h e l e a d e r of t h e Re v o l u t i o n , Ke r e n -
s ky, f o r me d a n e w Soci al i s t g o v e r n me n t
i nt e nt o n c a r r y i n g o n t h e wa r o n t h e
s i de of t h e Al l i es . T h e Ru s s i a n s ol di er s ,
h o we ve r , h a d h a d e n o u g h of fighting.
Wh e n a n e w of f ensi ve wa s o r d e r e d o n
t h e Ga l i c i a n f r ont b y Ge n e r a l Br us i l ov,
t h e s ol di er s r e f us e d t o mo v e , f o r me d
c ounc i l s a n d e l e c t e d t he i r o wn l e a de r s ,
l eft t h e r a n k s of t h e a r my , a n d s t a r t e d
t o wa l k h o me t o ge t t he i r s h a r e i n t h e
l a n d of t h e r i c h p r o mi s e d t h e m. Ke r e n -
s ky' s g o v e r n me n t wa s o v e r t h r o wn b y
Le n i n , t h e Co mmu n i s t l e a de r , wh o m
t h e Ge r ma n s h a d h e l p e d s mu g g l e i n t o
t h e c o u n t r y f r o m exi l e i n Swi t z e r l a nd.
Un a b l e a n d unwi l l i ng t o c a r r y o n t h e
wa r , Le n i n ' s g o v e r n me n t n e g o t i a t e d a n d
s i gne d o n Ma r c h 3, 1918, t h e p e a c e
t r e a t y of Br e s t - Li t ovs k. T h e t e r ms we r e
h a r s h . T h e Ru s s i a n s h a d t o gi ve u p mo s t
of t he i r t e r r i t or y i n e a s t e r n E u r o p e ,
wh i c h me a n t hal f a mi l l i on s q u a r e mi l e s
of f er t i l e wh e a t l a n d a n d i n d u s t r y a n d
5 6 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e . Mo s t a d v a n t a g e o u s
a t t h e mo me n t f or t h e Ge r ma n s , t hi s
s e p a r a t e t r e a t y a l l o we d t h e m t o r e l e a s e
t he i r t r o o p s f r o m t h e Ea s t e r n F r o n t f or
us e i n t h e We s t . F o r Br i t a i n a n d F r a n c e ,
i t wa s t h e wa r ' s l owe s t p o i n t .
Lenin addresses a meet-
ing during the Russian
Revolution.
Soldiers, sailors, and
workers storm the Win-
ter Palace in Petrograd,
once St. Petersburg, on
November 7, 1917. The
Bolshevik Revolution
under Lenin's leader-
ship had begun.
39
February 2, 1917: President Wilson announcing to
Congress the breaking-off of diplomatic relations
with Germany prior to Congress' declaration of war
on April 6, 1917.
UNCLE SAM DECLARES WAR
At t h e wa r ' s b e g i n n i n g , t h e p e o p l e of
t h e Un i t e d St a t e s
Why di d t he , , . , .
A . o i .* we r e d e t e r mi n e d t o
Amer i cans fight? .
s t a y o u t of i t , a n d
t o t r a d e wi t h b o t h si des i mpa r t i a l l y.
Mo s t Ame r i c a n s e n t i me n t wa s o n t h e
s i de of Br i t a i n a n d F r a n c e , b u t t h e r e
we r e a l s o mi l l i ons of Ame r i c a n s of
Ge r ma n de s c e nt wh o s y mp a t h i z e d wi t h
" t h e F a t h e r l a n d . " Bu t o n o n e t hi ng,
e v e r y b o d y a g r e e d i t wa s Eu r o p e ' s
p r i va t e fight a n d n o n e of o u r bus i ne s s .
Li t t l e b y l i t t l e, h o we v e r , Ame r i c a n s
b e g a n t o t u r n s h a r p l y a ga i ns t Ge r ma n y .
P e o p l e we r e a p p a l l e d a t t h e r ut hl e s s i n-
va s i on of n e u t r a l Be l g i u m, t h e i n h u ma n
us e of p o i s o n gas , t h e Ze p p e l i n r a i d s o n
L o n d o n , t h e s i nki ng of u n a r me d s hi ps
b y U- Bo a t s . Wh e n t h e Lusitania wa s
t o r p e d o e d a n d i n n o c e n t Ame r i c a n l i ves
we r e l os t , t hi s i n d i g n a t i o n r e a c h e d a
c r e s c e n d o .
A n d t h e Ge r ma n s di d ma n y o t h e r
t hi ngs t h a t a n t a g o n i z e d t h e Ame r i c a n
p e o p l e . T h e y s e nt s pi es i n t o t h e Un i t e d
St a t e s t o b l o w u p mu n i t i o n f a c t or i e s as
wel l as mu n i t i o n s hi ps i n t h e h a r b o r s .
Ge r ma n a ge nt s , i t wa s s ai d, p l a n n e d t o
p o i s o n d r i n k i n g wa t e r i n r e s e r voi r s i n
Ame r i c a n ci t i es.
T h e n , i n F e b r u a r y , 1 9 1 7 , t h e
Ge r ma n F o r e i g n Se c r e t a r y, Al f r e d Zi m-
me r ma n n , ma d e a ve r y s t upi d mo v e . He
s e nt a n o t e t o t h e Ge r ma n a mb a s s a d o r
i n Me x i c o i n wh i c h h e p r o p o s e d t h a t if
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e n t e r e d t h e w a r
a g a i n s t Ge r ma n y , Me x i c o s h o u l d i m-
me d i a t e l y ma k e wa r o n t h e Un i t e d
St at es . Me x i c o ' s s poi l s of vi c t or y wo u l d
b e t e r r i t or y i n Te x a s , Ne w Me x i c o , a n d
Ar i z o n a wh i c h h a d b e e n l os t t o Me x i c o
as a r e s ul t of t h e Me x i c a n Wa r i n 1848.
T h e Z i mme r ma n n n o t e wa s i n t e r c e p t e d
b y t h e Br i t i s h a n d p r i n t e d i n Ame r i c a n
n e ws p a p e r s .
T e n d a y s af t er t hi s n o t e wa s pub-
l i s hed, Ge r ma n y a n n o u n c e d a pol i c y of
c o mp l e t e l y u n r e s t r i c t e d s u b ma r i n e wa r -
40
BIG BERTHA"
f ar e. Th e i r U- Bo a t s wo u l d s i nk a n y s hi p
o n s i ght r e ga r dl e s s of t h e flag s he flew, if
t h e U- Bo a t c o mma n d e r h a d r e a s o n t o
bel i eve t h a t s he wa s c a r r y i n g g o o d s t o
t h e Al l i es . Th i s wa s t h e wo r s t mi s t a k e
t h e Ge r ma n s c o u l d pos s i bl y h a v e ma d e .
Bu t b y t hi s t i me , t h e y we r e s o de e pl y
i nvol ve d t h a t i t wa s a c a s e of " wh o l e
h o g " or n o n e a t al l . Be s i de s , t he y we r e
s u p r e me l y conf i dent of vi c t or y.
T h e s e t wo e ve nt s , t h e Z i mme r ma n n
n o t e a n d t h e a n n o u n c e me n t of unr e -
s t r i ct ed s u b ma r i n e wa r f a r e c o mi n g
a s t h e y di d onl y t e n d a y s a p a r t we r e
t h e l as t s t r a w. Ame r i c a ma d e u p h e r
mi n d . O n Ap r i l 6, 1 9 1 7 , Co n g r e s s de-
c l a r e d wa r o n Ge r ma n y .
Wa r f ever r a n h i g h al l o ve r t h e
c o u n t r y , b u t t h e Un i t e d St a t e s wa s s a dl y
u n p r e p a r e d t o fight. O u r A r my wa s
s ma l l a n d ol d- f a s hi one d. O u r Ai r F o r c e
wa s pr a c t i c a l l y non- e xi s t e nt . Ou r Na v y
h a d b e e n a l l o we d t o g o t o s eed. Ame r -
i ca' s first t a s k wa s t o b u i l d u p a n ef-
ficient fighting f or c e .
" P r e p a r e d n e s s " b e c a me a n a t i o n a l
c r u s a d e , a n d " T h e Ya n k s Ar e C o mi n g "
wa s h e a r d al l o ve r t h e 4 8 s t at es . Al mo s t
What was
"Big Bertha"?
a mi l l i on a n d a hal f me n we r e s e l e c t e d i n
t h e first dr a f t . Do z e n s of t r a i n i n g c a mp s
we r e r a p i d l y s et u p . Ge n e r a l J o h n J .
( " Bl a c k J a c k " ) Pe r s h i n g , a s e a s o n e d
v e t e r a n ; wa s p l a c e d i n s u p r e me c o m-
ma n d .
Wi t h t h e Ru s s i a n f r ont c ol l a ps e d, t h e
F r e n c h a n d Br i t i s h h a d t h e i r b a c k s t o
t h e wal l . T h e y f e r ve nt l y p r a y e d t h a t t h e
Ame r i c a n s wo u l d ge t t o F r a n c e i n t i me .
A n d t h e y di d. A l i t t l e mo r e t h a n a
y e a r l at er , e a r l y i n t h e s u mme r of 1918,
a U. S. A r my of 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 me n , wel l -
e q u i p p e d a n d we l l - t r a i ne d, l a n d e d i n
F r a n c e a n d mo v e d i n t o t h e f r ont l i nes.
Wi t h t he i r c o mi n g , t h e Ge r ma n s we r e
d o o me d .
THE YANKS GO INTO ACTION
I n t h e s p r i n g of 1918, Ame r i c a n t r o o p s ,
a di vi s i on a t a t i me ,
b e g a n a r r i v i n g i n
F r a n c e t o g o i n t o
t r a i n i n g c a mp s t he r e . Bu t i t wo u l d b e
P F ^
o-ver there,

J
George M. Cohan's
"Over There" became
the theme song of
America's fighting men.
The Yanks are coming. April, 1918: The first Amer-
ican troops disembark in French harbors. More than
100,000 men followed in the first month alone. Wher-
ever they showed up, they were greeted by the
French population with wild cheers and flowers.
41
a n o t h e r t wo o r t h r e e mo n t h s b e f o r e
t h e A. E . F . ( Ame r i c a n Ex p e d i t i o n a r y
F o r c e ) g o t t o t h e f r ont i n l a r g e n u m-
be r s . T h e F r e n c h a n d Br i t i s h Ar mi e s
we r e wa r - we a r y a n d d i s c o u r a g e d b y de-
f eat . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e Ge r ma n s
we r e b e i n g r e i nf or c e d b y t r o o p s r e-
l e a s e d f r o m t h e Ru s s i a n f r ont . No w,
t h e Ge r ma n l e a de r s t h o u g h t , wa s t h e
t i me f or a n al l - out a t t a c k .
T h e Ge r ma n Ge n e r a l Lu d e n d o r f f be-
g a n hi s a t t a c k o n Ma r c h 2 1 wi t h a dr a -
ma t i c s h o w of s t r e ngt h. F o r t h e first
t i me , t h e Ge r ma n s u n ve i l e d a g i a n t c a n-
n o n wh i c h t h e y af f ect i onat el y c a l l e d
" Bi g Be r t h a . " Set u p b e h i n d t h e Hi n d e n -
b u r g Li n e , i t c o u l d l o b a shel l i n t o Pa r i s ,
7 5 mi l e s a wa y . A t t h e t o p of i t s t r aj ec-
t or y, t h e shel l t r a ve l e d 2 1 mi l es i n t o t h e
ai r . T h e wo r l d wa s flabbergasted at t hi s
s t u n n i n g di s pl a y of Ge r ma n s ci ence.
T h e p e o p l e of Pa r i s we r e b a d l y f r i ght -
e ne d. Bu t f or al l h e r t h u n d e r , Bi g
Be r t h a di d ve r y l i t t l e r e a l d a ma g e .
Wi t h t h e i ni t i al r o a r of t h e bi g g u n ,
t h e Ge r ma n of f ensi ve s t r uc k. At t h e
first fi erce i mp a c t , i t r ol l e d b a c k t h e
Br i t i s h a n d F r e n c h def ens es . Bu t af t er
r e t r e a t i n g f oot b y f oot f or 5 0 mi l es , t h e
Br i t i s h l i ne st i f f ened a n d he l d. T h e Ge r -
^j t l y ma n a d v a n c e wa s mo me n t a r i l y h a l t e d .
T h e n i n Ma y , Lu d e n d o r f f mo v e d f or -
wa r d a ga i n. T h i s t i me , a t t h e l i t t l e vi l -
l a ge of Ch a t e a u - Th i e r r y o n t h e Ri v e r
Ma r n e , t h e Ge r ma n s r a n i n t o s e ve r a l
A. E . F . Di vi s i ons t h a t Pe r s h i n g h a d
r u s h e d t o t h e f r ont . Li k e d e mo n s , t h e
Ya n k s a t t a c k e d a n d s t o p p e d t h e m c ol d.
No t f ar f r om Ch a t e a u - Th i e r r y wa s
t h e Ge r ma n s t r o n g h o l d of Be l l e a u
Wo o d , a r o u g h , f or e s t e d a r e a . A ba t -
t a l i on of U. S. Ma r i n e s wa s o r d e r e d t o
c a p t u r e i t . Ad v a n c i n g i nt o t h e f ace of
o v e r p o we r i n g ma c h i n e g u n fire, as wel l
as c l o u d s of p o i s o n gas , t h e b r a v e Ma -
r i ne s t o o k t h e Wo o d . Bu t t he y p a i d a
t e r r i bl e p r i c e f or vi c t or y: mo r e t h a n
h a l f t h e i r n u m b e r w e r e k i l l e d o r
wo u n d e d .
T h e G e r ma n a d v a n c e wa s a t l as t
s t o p p e d , o n l y 4 0 mi l e s f r o m Pa r i s . A n d
t h e Ya n k s h a d d o n e i t ! Ge r ma n de f e a t
wa s o n l y a ma t t e r of t i me .
THE ALLIES ATTACK
T h e Ge r ma n Ar mi e s ma d e o n e final
d e s p e r a t e o f f e n s i v e
What was "the , . .
T
,
A

l l l
u i dr i ve
m
J ul y- Af t e r
Lost Bat t al i on ?
J
a h a r d fight, Ame r -
i c a n a n d F r e n c h di vi s i ons , fighting
s h o u l d e r t o s h o u l d e r , t u r n e d t h e m b a c k
a t wh a t i s k n o wn as t h e Se c o n d Ba t t l e
42

of t h e Ma r n e . At l o n g l as t , t h e Ge r ma n
wa r ma c h i n e t h a t h a d t r a mp l e d s o ar -
r o g a n t l y a c r os s t h e Be l g i a n b o r d e r f o u r
ye a r s be f or e wa s o n t h e def ens i ve.
T h e s t a ge wa s set f or t h e Al l i e d p u s h
t h a t wo u l d e n d t h e wa r .
I t wo u l d b e a t wo - p r o n g p i n c e r at -
t a c k, wi t h a mi l l i on Ya n k s u n d e r Ge n -
e r a l Pe r s h i n g p u s h i n g n o r t h t h r o u g h t h e
Ar g o n n e Fo r e s t , e a s t of Ve r d u n ; a n d a n
e qua l l y l a r ge a r my of Br i t i s h a n d
F r e n c h , u n d e r Ge n e r a l Ha i g , b r e a k i n g
t h r o u g h i n t h e Vi my - Ar r a s s ect or .
Ot h e r s ma l l e r Al l i e d uni t s , o n e of t h e m
l ed b y Be l gi a n Ki n g Al b e r t , wo u l d
s t r i ke t h e Hi n d e n b u r g Li n e a t p o i n t s i n
b e t we e n . F r e n c h Ge n e r a l F o c h wa s t h e
over - al l c o mma n d e r .
T h e bi g p u s h i n t o t h e Ar g o n n e
s t a r t e d o n S e p t e mb e r 26. T h e f or es t wa s
The going was tough for
the attacking American
troops on the Meuse-
Argonne front.
o n e of t h e mo s t a n c i e n t wo o d e d a r e a s
i n F r a n c e . Ch a r l e ma g n e h a d h u n t e d
s t ags a n d b e a r s i n i t s d e e p r eces s es mo r e
t h a n a t h o u s a n d ye a r s be f or e . I n 1917,
i t wa s st i l l a t a n g l e d ma s s of t hi c k wo o d s
c o v e r i n g a b r o k e n , hi l l y t e r r a i n. Bu t t h e
Ge r ma n s h a d n e a r l y e ve r y s q u a r e f oot
of i t f or t i f i ed.
T h e Ya n k s f o u n d i t t o u g h goi ng.
T h o u s a n d s of b r a v e me n di e d f or e ve r y
mi l e t h e A. E . F . a d v a n c e d , a n d t h e field
hos pi t a l s we r e filled t o over f l owi ng. Bu t
Pe r s h i n g ' s me n d o g g e d l y p r e s s e d on. I t
wa s i n t h e h e a r t of t h e g l o o my Ar g o n n e
F o r e s t t h a t o n e of t h e g r e a t a d v e n t u r e s
i n Ame r i c a n mi l i t a r y hi s t or y t o o k pl a c e .
T h e 1st Ba t t a l i o n of t h e 7 7 t h Di vi -
s i on ( " Ne w Yo r k ' s O w n " ) h a d b e e n
a s s i gne d t o g o f o r wa r d t o t a k e a c e r t a i n
r i dge . As t h e y mo v e d t h r o u g h t h e we t ,
43
s i l ent wo o d s , t h e y c o u l d h e a r firing o n
b o t h si des. Su d d e n l y , wi t h o u t wa r n i n g ,
t h e y we r e s u r r o u n d e d b y Ge r ma n s .
Qu i c k l y , t h e me n d u g a s ha l l ow c i r c ul a r
t r e n c h a n d d r o p p e d i ns i de. T h e y b e g a n
t o r e t u r n t h e fire f r o m G e r ma n ri fl es a n d
ma c h i n e g u n s t h a t wa s p o u r i n g i n o n
t h e m f r o m e ve r y wh e r e .
Ma j o r Ch a r l e s W. Wh i t t l e s e y , t h e
c o mma n d i n g offi cer, s e nt me s s a g e s f or
h e l p b y c a r r i e r p i g e o n . Bu t i t d i d n ' t
c o me . T h e Ya n k s we r e r u n n i n g o u t of
a mmu n i t i o n . Un d e r a flag of t r uc e , t h e
Ge r ma n s s e nt a me s s a g e u r g i n g t h e me n
t o s u r r e n d e r f or h u ma n i t y ' s s a ke . T h e
Ya n k s r e f us e d. Ai r p l a n e s t r i e d t o d r o p
f o o d a n d a mmu n i t i o n , b u t t h e p a c k -
ages , f al l i ng o u t s i d e t h e a r me d ci r cl e,
we r e s ei zed b y t h e Ge r ma n s .
A mi d t h e p o u n d i n g of h e a v y ar t i l -
l er y, mo r t a r shel l s, ma c h i n e guns , gr e-
n a d e s , a n d ri fl e fire, t h e Lo s t Ba t t a l i o n
ma n a g e d s o me h o w t o h a n g on. O n t h e
fifth d a y , t h e y we r e r e s c u e d . Se ve n h u n -
d r e d me n we n t i n wi t h Ma j o r Whi t t l e -
s ey; l ess t h a n 2 0 0 c a me o u t . T h e Lo s t
Ba t t a l i o n b e c a me a n Ame r i c a n l e ge nd.
I t wa s i n t h e Ar g o n n e , t oo, t h a t Al v i n
Yo r k , a f a r m b o y f r o m t h e hi l l s of Te n -
nes s ee, b e c a me o n e of t h e gr e a t e s t he-
r o e s of t h e wa r . L e a d i n g a p a t r o l
t h r o u g h t h e t h i c k wo o d s , Yo r k a c c i de n-
t al l y g o t i ns i de t h e e n e my l i nes. Wh e n
a ma c h i n e g u n o p e n e d u p o n t h e p a t r o l ,
Yo r k q u i c k l y p u t i t o u t of a c t i o n wi t h
hi s rifle. ( H e h a d b e e n t h e t ur ke y- s hoot -
i ng c h a mp i o n b a c k h o me . ) Ge r ma n s
c a me o u t of t h e wo o d s f r o m al l si des
44
The first contact between the
German Army and American
troops occurred in June, 1918.
The advancing Germans had
forced the French to retreat and
give up Belleau Wood. The Ger-
mans stormed through the waist-
high wheat (illustration at left) in
hot pursuit of the French when
they were stopped cold. The line
of American Marines that had
been quickly brought into action
held. This was on June 3. On
June 6, the 4th American Ma-
rine Brigade started the counter-
offensive (illustration at right).
wi t h t he i r h a n d s u p . By t h e t i me h e got
b a c k t o hi s o wn l i nes , Al v i n Yo r k wa s
ma r c h i n g a ve r i t a b l e a r my of p r i s o n e r s
i n f r ont of hi s g u n 128 me n a n d f o u r
offi cers!
>"* ?--
Surrendering German soldiers are led away by their
Allied captors.
THE ARMISTICE
By No v e mb e r 1, 1 9 1 8 , Pe r s h i n g ' s me n
h a d f o u g h t t he i r wa y
What h a p p e n e d
t h h t h e A f
_
to the Kaiser?
&
g o n n e t o t h e o t h e r
si de. No w, t h e y we r e a d v a n c i n g b y l e a p s
a n d b o u n d s . T o t h e n o r t h , Ha i g ' s Br i t -
i s h a n d F r e n c h h a d s h a t t e r e d t he i r p a r t
of t h e Hi n d e n b u r g Li n e . T h e onc e -
p r o u d Ge r ma n A r my wa s r a p i d l y col -
l a ps i ng, a n d t he i r f ai r l y o r d e r l y r e t r e a t
A funeral service on the battlefield for one of the
many American casualties.
t u r n i n g i n t o a r o u t . O n S e p t e mb e r 2 9 ,
1918, Lu d e n d o r f f d e c l a r e d t h a t f u r t h e r
r e s i s t a nc e wa s i mpos s i bl e ; h e a dvi s e d
t h e Ge r ma n Go v e r n me n t t o a s k f or
a n a r mi s t i c e . T h e n e w G e r ma n Ch a n -
cel l or , Pr i n c e Ma x v o n Ba d e n , fol-
l o we d hi s a dvi c e a n d b e g a n a r mi s t i c e
ne got i a t i ons .
Ba c k i n Ge r ma n y , t h e p e o p l e o n t h e
h o me f r ont we r e j us t as u n d o n e a s t h e
s ol di er s o n t h e b a t t l e f r ont . T h e r e wa s
l i t t l e o r n o f ood e x c e p t p o t a t o e s a n d
t ur ni ps . Ge r ma n y h a d b e e n fighting hal f
a wo r l d vi r t ua l l y a l one , a n d t h e d r e a d -
f ul c a s u a l t y l i st s pr a c t i c a l l y e ve r y
f a mi l y h a d l os t a f a t he r , s on, o r h u s b a n d
h a d ma d e t h e p e o p l e s i ck t o d e a t h
of wa r . E v e n de f e a t wa s b e t t e r t h a n t h e
l i fe t h e y h a d b e e n l i vi ng f or ove r a ye a r .
O n No v e mb e r 10t h, t h e Ka i s e r a n d
hi s f a mi l y fled t o exi l e i n Ho l l a n d . A n d
t h e n e x t da y, a t 11 A. M. , No v e mb e r 11,
1918, t h e l as t s hot of t h e wa r wa s fired.
A d e a d qui e t s et t l ed ove r t h e We s t e r n
F r o n t . I n a f ew we e ks , b i r d s b e g a n t o
s i ng a g a i n i n t h e s h a t t e r e d t r ees .
I r oni c a l l y, i n Ru s s i a , Al l i e d s ol di er s ,
i n c l u d i n g Ame r i c a n s , f o u g h t o n f or
ni ne mo n t h s af t er t h e Ar mi s t i c e wa s
s i gned.
By No v e mb e r 4, al l of Ge r ma n y ' s al -
l i es, Au s t r i a - Hu n g a r y , Bu l g a r i a , a n d
T u r k e y h a d s u r r e n d e r e d . E m p e r o r
F r a n c i s J o s e p h h a d d i e d i n 1 9 1 6 t o b e
f ol l owe d t o t h e t h r o n e of t h e Au s t r o -
Hu n g a r i a n Mo n a r c h y b y Ch a r l e s I V.
By t h e s u mme r of 1918, t h e Ha p s b u r g
Mo n a r c h y wa s wel l o n i t s wa y t o di sso-
l ut i on. Up r i s i n g s we r e c o mmo n i n al l
t h e t e r r i t or i e s , a n d me n we r e de s e r t i ng
t h e a r my o n a l a r g e s cal e. Pr ovi s i ona l
Cz e c h , Pol i s h, a n d Yu g o s l a v Go v e r n -
me n t s we r e f o r me d a n d l egi ons of t he i r
s ol di er s we r e fighting o n t h e s i de of t h e
Al l i es . T h e a r mi s t i c e wh i c h wa s ne go-
t i a t e d o n No v e mb e r 3, 1918, ma r k e d
t h e e n d of t h e Mo n a r c h y a n d t h e E m-
pi r e. T h e Hu n g a r i a n , Cz e c h , Pol i s h,
a n d Yu g o s l a v i a n p r o vi n c e s p r o c l a i me d
t he i r i n d e p e n d e n c e , a n d o n No v e m-
b e r 13, t h e Re p u b l i c of Au s t r i a wa s
e s t a bl i s he d.
T h e L e a g u e o f N a t i o
What were "the
Fourteen Points"?
Pr e s i d e n t Wi l s o n c a l l e d t h e wa r " a wa r
t o ma k e t h e wo r l d
s a f e f o r d e m o c -
r a c y . " T h e p e o p l e
of t h e wo r l d t o o k h e a r t . P e r h a p s , t hi s
b l o o d y h o l o c a u s t h a d i n d e e d b e e n " t h e
wa r t o e n d al l wa r s . " I n J a n u a r y of
1918, h e a n n o u n c e d Ame r i c a ' s p l a n s
f or p e r ma n e n t pe a c e , wh i c h b e c a me fa-
mo u s as " t h e F o u r t e e n Po i n t s . " T h e y
o u t l i n e d :
1. Ab o l i t i o n of s ecr et t r eat i es .
2. F r e e d o m of t h e seas.
3. Re mo v a l of t r a d e b a r r i e r s be-
t we e n n a t i o n s .
46
4. Re d u c t i o n of a r ms .
5. Ad j u s t me n t of c ol oni a l c l a i ms .
6. Re s t o r a t i o n of Ru s s i a n t e r r i t or y.
7. Re s t o r a t i o n of Be l g i a n t e r r i t or y.
8. Re t u r n of Al s a c e - Lo r r a i n e t o
F r a n c e .
9. Re a d j u s t me n t of I t a l i a n f r on-
t i er s.
10. F r e e d o m f or t h e p e o p l e of Au s -
t r i a - Hu n g a r y .
11. F r e e d o m f or t h e Ba l k a n s .
12. F r e e d o m f or t h e p e o p l e c on-
q u e r e d b y Tu r k e y .
13. Es t a b l i s h me n t of a n i n d e p e n d e n t
P o l a n d .
14. Cr e a t i o n of a L e a g u e of Na t i o n s .
Wi l s o n d r e a me d of a wa r - f r e e wo r l d .
He di d n o t wi s h t o p u n i s h Ge r ma n y f or
s t a r t i ng t h e wa r . Bu t P r i me Mi n i s t e r
Ll o y d Ge o r g e of E n g l a n d a n d P r e mi e r
Ge o r g e s Cl e me n c e a u of F r a n c e , h a d
di f f er ent i deas . Th e i r c o u n t r i e s h a d
b e e n b a d l y h u r t b y Ge r ma n a ggr e s s i on,
a n d t h e y wa n t e d r e ve nge .
A t t h e P e a c e Co n f e r e n c e a t Ve r -
sai l l es o n J u n e 2 8 , 1919, j us t five
ye a r s t o t h e d a y af t er Ga v r i l o Pr i n c i p
fired hi s f a t a l s h o t t h e l e a de r s of En g -
l a n d a n d F r a n c e , o ve r Wi l s o n ' s pr ot e s t s ,
i mp o s e d h a r s h a n d h u mi l i a t i n g puni s h-
me n t o n Ge r ma n y i n t h e wa y of l os s of
t e r r i t or y a n d r e p a r a t i o n s .
I r oni c a l l y, t h e Un i t e d St a t e s wa s t h e
onl y ma j o r n a t i o n t h a t r e f us e d t o j oi n
t h e Le a g u e . T h e Ame r i c a n p e o p l e we r e
t i r e d of wa r , a n d f ed u p wi t h Eu r o p e ' s
p r o b l e ms . T h e y wa n t e d t o ge t b a c k t o
" g o o d ol d Ame r i c a n n o r ma l c y . "
T h e L e a g u e of Na t i o n s f a l t e r e d a l o n g
f r o m i t s b e g i n n i n g , a n d j us t be f or e t h e
o u t b r e a k - o f Wo r l d Wa r I I , i t di ed. Bu t
o u t of Wo o d r o w Wi l s o n ' s g r e a t d r e a m
g r e w t h e i de a of o u r p r e s e n t Un i t e d Na -
t i ons , d e p e n d e d o n b y p e o p l e t h e wo r l d
ove r t o k e e p t h e p e a c e .
W h a t D i d t h e W a r C o s t i n L i v e s a n d M o n e y ?
T h e wo r s t l os s t h a t n a t i o n s suffer i n
wa r i s i n l oss of l i ves.
I t is e s t i ma t e d t h a t t h e d e a t h t ol l
a mo n g s ol di er s i n Wo r l d Wa r I r os e t o
1 2 , 9 9 1 , 0 0 0 .
T o t hi s f r i ght f ul figure mu s t b e a d d e d
a n e s t i ma t e d 1 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ci vi l i an d e a d
f r om f a mi ne , di s eas e, a n d p r i va t i o n
c a u s e d b y t h e wa r .
I n a d d i t i o n , mo r e t h a n 2 1 , 2 1 9 , 0 0 0
s ol di er s we r e wo u n d e d , ma n y of t he s e
me n i n c a p a c i t a t e d f or l i fe.
I n dol l a r s a n d cent s , t h e cos t of t h e
wa r h a s b e e n r e l i a bl y fixed a t $3 3 7 , -
9 8 0 , 5 7 9 , 6 5 7 . ( Th i s figure i nc l ude s mi l i -
t a r y s uppl i es , s h i p p i n g l osses, p r o p e r t y
d a ma g e , a n d l os s es i n p r o d u c t i o n . ) We
a r e st i l l p a y i n g t h e bi l l .
Wh a t a t e r r i bl e pr i c e t h e wh o l e wo r l d
h a s h a d t o p a y f or t h e a mb i t i o n s of a
h a n d f u l of me n g r e e d y f or p o we r a n d
pr es t i ge.
47
HI GHL I GHTS OF T H E FI GHTI NG OF WORL D WA R I
1914
Aug. 4 German Army invades Bel-
gium.
Aug. 7 Russian Army invades East
Prussia.
Aug. 20 Germans occupy Brussels.
First German air raid on Paris.
Aug. 22 Germans invade France.
Aug. 23 Japanese forces attack Ger-
man colony at Kai-chau.
Aug. 26-31 Russians defeated at Bat-
tle of Tannenberg.
Aug. 28 British cruisers raid Ger-
man naval base at Heligoland; are
driven off.
Sept. 1 French Army defeated at
Soissons; begins retreat through
France.
Sept. 3 French Government moves
from Paris to Bordeaux.
Sept. 6 Battle of the Marne begins.
Sept. 6-15 Russians defeated at Bat-
tle of Masurian Lakes.
Sept. 10 French repel Germans at
Marne.
Sept. 12 Beginning of trench war-
fare.
Oct. 5 Germans advance on Warsaw.
Oct. 25 Attack on Warsaw fails.
Nov. 7 Kai-chau surrenders to Jap-
anese. (At about this same time,
Japanese forces occupied the Ger-
man Pacific Islands: Marshalls,
Mariannas, Carolines, Palaw.)
Nov. 17 Germans repulsed at Ypres.
Dec. 14-24 British attack on Nieu-
port; Verdun line bogs down.
Dec. 24-25 British Air Force raids
German positions in Belgium.
1915
Jan. 8 Germans make slight gains
against Allied lines at Soissons.
Jan. 31 Germans renew attack on
Warsaw.
Feb. 12 Germans invade Russia.
Feb. 19 Allied naval squadrons bom-
bard Dardenelles; are repulsed.
Feb. 26 Heavy fighting at Cham-
pagne; the battle is a stand-off.
Mar. 20 Zeppelin raids on Paris.
Apr. 22 Second Battle of Ypres;
Germans introduce poisonous gas.
Apr. 25 British and ANZAC troops
land at Gallipoli.
May 1 Turks attack British beach-
heads at Gallipoli.
May 7 Lusitania sunk by German U-
boat.
May 9-June 18 Second Battle of
Champagne; no gain for either side.
May 23 Austrians attack Italian
forces.
May 25 Winston Churchill resigns
as First Lord of British Admiralty.
May 26-31 Zep raids on London.
June 21-July 1 Heavy fighting at
Gallipoli.
July 1 Heavy fighting in Argonne
sector.
July 15 Conquest of German South
Africa completed.
Aug. 5 Germans take Warsaw.
Aug. 12-Sept. 8 Severe Zeppelin
raids on London.
Sept. 23 Big Allied offensive opens
on Western Front.
Oct. 2 Worst Zeppelin raids to date
on London.
Oct. 13 English nurse Edith Cavell
shot as spy by Germans.
Dec. 7 Seige of Kut-al-Imara by
Turks.
Dec. 8 British begin retreat from
Gallipoli.
1916
Jan. 19 Gallipoli evacuated by Brit-
ish and ANZAC forces.
Jan. 29-31 Zeppelin raids on Paris
and London.
Feb. 2 Heavy fighting between Aus-
trians and Russians.
Feb. 21 German attack on Verdun.
begins.
Mar. 25 British destroyers and
planes raid Zeppelin hangers at
Schleswig.
March 30 British hospital ship sunk
by Turks in Black Sea.
Apr. 10 Germans gain at Verdun.
Apr. 29 British surrender at Kut.
May 15 Heavy fighting at Vimy
Ridge.
May 31-June 1 Battle of Jutland.
June 5 Austrians advance in Italy.
June 16 Germans advance to within
four miles of Verdun.
July 1 Battle of Somme begins; first
use of British tanks.
Sept. 12 French advance on the
Somme.
Oct. 7 German submarine U-53
reaches Newport, R.I.
Oct. 8 U-53 torpedoes five ships off
Nantucket.
Oct. 22 Russians defeated in Galicia.
Nov. 18 Battle of Somme ends.
Nov. 21 Emperor Franz Joseph of
Austria-Hungary dies.
Nov. 28 First German airplane raid
on London.
Dec. 10 German commercial subma-
rine, Deutschland, completes second
voyage to United States.
Dec. 15 French drive Germans back,
win victory at Verdun.
1917
Jan. 8 German High Command de-
cides on unrestricted submarine
warfare.
Jan. 19 Von Zimmerman note to
Mexican Ambassador urging a
Mexican alliance with Germany
against the U.S.
Jan. 31 Germany notifies U.S. that
unrestricted U-boat warfare will be-
gin Feb. 1.
Feb. 3 U.S. severs relations with
Germany.
March 8 Russian Revolution begins.
March 11 Baghdad occupied by
British forces.
March 15 Czarist Government over-
thrown in Russia.
April 3 Germans retreat to Hinden-
berg Line after massive British and
French attacks.
April 6 U.S. declares war on Ger-
many.
Apr. 9 Battle of Arras begins; Brit-
ish take Vimy Ridge.
Apr. 16-20 Second Battle of Aisne;
British and French suffer heavy
losses.
June First U.S. troops land in
France; General Pershing com-
manding.
June 7 British launch mass surprise
attack on Messines Ridge.
June 31-Nov. 10 Third Battle of
Ypres; British troops gain about
five miles at a cost of 400,000 men.
July Lawrence of Arabia emerges as
legendary hero of the war in the
desert.
Aug. 20-Dec. 15 Second Battle of
Verdun.
Oct. 24 Italian line shattered by
German-Austrian forces at Capo-
retto; Italians retreat in confusion.
Nov. 8 Bolsheviks overthrow revolu-
tionary Russian Government under
Kerensky.
Nov. 20-Dec. 3 Battle of Cambrai;
British attack with 380 tanks; un-
able to follow their advantage.
Dec. 5 British withdraw from Cam-
brai.
Dec. 8 British conquer German East
Africa.
Dec. 9 General Allenby takes Jeru-
salem.
1918
Jan. 6 Armistice between Germany
and Russia.
Jan. 7 German sailors mutiny at
Kiel.
Jan. 10 Russian Black Sea fleet
mutinies.
Mar. 3 Peace treaty of Brest-Litovsk
between Russia and Central Powers.
Mar. 21 German spring offensive be-
gins on Western Front; British forces
driven back at Ypres and Amiens.
Apr. 5 British and Japanese Marines
land at Vladivostok.
Apr. 11 Germans take Armentieres.
Apr. 22 British Navy raids Zeebrugge
and Ostend.
May 7 Peace treaty between Ger-
many and Rumania.
May 29 Germans take Soissons.
June 1 German offensive reaches
Chateau-Thierry.
June 4 U.S. divisions help drive Ger-
mans back across the Marne.
June 11 Allied counteroffensive stops
German advance.
July 10 French at Marne.
July 19 American cruiser, San Diego,
sunk off Fire Island, N. Y.
July 21 Americans and French take
Chateau-Thierry.
Aug. 7 German sailors mutiny at
Wilhelmshaven.
Aug. 30 Germans retreat in Flan-
ders.
Sept. 1 British advance in Mace-
donia.
Sept. 3 Germans retreat to the
Somme.
Sept. 22 Allenby advances in Pales-
tine.
Sept. 26 Americans and French
launch Argonne attack.
Sept. 27 American Army provides
vital strength that breaks the Hin-
denberg Line.
Sept. 29 Bulgaria surrenders.
Oct. 6 Americans take St. Etienne
and La Chateau.
First peace note sent by German
Government to President Wilson.
Oct. 9 Allies retake Cambrai.
Oct. 12 Germans send second peace
note to U.S. President.
Oct. 14 President Wilson replies;
says peace terms must be left to
military leaders, Germans must
change their Government.
Oct. 17 Allies retake Ostend, Bruges,
and Lille.
Oct. 30 Turkey surrenders.
Nov. 4 Austria surrenders.
Nov. 7 Americans take Sedan; break
backbone of German resistence.
Nov. 10 Emperor Wilhelm flees to
Holland.
Nov. 11 Germany signs armistice;
firing ceases at 11 A.M.
Nov. 21 German Navy surrenders to
British.
Nov. 25 Last remnants of German
forces in East Africa surrender.
Dec. 6 American occupation troops
enter Germany.
1919
Jan. 10 Austria signs peace treaty
at Paris.
June 28 Germans sign Treaty of
Versailles.
H O W A N D WH Y WO N D E R B OOKS
Produced and approved by noted authorities, these books
answer the questions most often asked about science, na-
ture and history. They are presented in a clear, readable
style, and contain many colorful and instructive illus-
trations. Readers will want to explore each of these
fascinating subjects and collect these volumes as an
authentic, ready-reference, basic library.
5001
5002
5003
5004
5005
5006
5007
5008
5009
5010
5011
5012
5013
5014
5015
5016
5017
5018
5019
5020
5021
5022
5023
5024
5025
5026
5027
DINOSAURS
WEATHER
ELECTRICITY
ROCKS AND MINERALS
ROCKETS AND MISSILES
STARS
INSECTS
REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS
BIRDS
OUR EARTH
BEGINNING SCIENCE
MACHINES
THE HUMAN BODY
SEA SHELLS
ATOMIC ENERGY
THE MICROSCOPE
THE CIVIL WAR
MATHEMATICS
FLIGHT
BALLET
CHEMISTRY
HORSES
EXPLORATIONS AND
DISCOVERIES
PRIMITIVE MAN
NORTH AMERICA
PLANETS AND
INTERPLANETARY TRAVEL
WILD ANIMALS
5028
5029
5030
5031
5032
5033
5034
5035
5036
5037
5038
5039
5040
5041
5042
5043
5044
5045
5046
5047
5048
5049
5050
5051
5052
5053
5054
SOUND
LOST CITIES
ANTS AND BEES
WILD FLOWERS
DOGS
PREHISTORIC MAMMALS
SCIENCE EXPERIMENTS
WORLD WAR II
FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE
BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS
FISH
ROBOTS AND
ELECTRONIC BRAINS
LIGHT AND COLOR
WINNING OF THE WEST
THE AMERICAN
REVOLUTION
CAVES TO SKYSCRAPERS
SHIPS
TIME
MAGNETS AND MAGNETISM
GUNS
THE MOON
FAMOUS SCIENTISTS
OLD TESTAMENT
BUILDING
RAILROADS
TREES
OCEANOGRAPHY

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