Chapter-9

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Laws of Reflection - The reflection at a plane surface always takes place in accordance with the
following two laws:
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and normal to surface at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.
2. The angle of incidence, i is equal to the angle of reflection r, i.e.,
i. i = r

Formation of Image by the Plane Mirror - The formation of image of a point object O by a plane mirror
is represented in figure. The image formed I has the following characteristics:
1. The size of image is equal to the size of object.
2. The object distance = Image distance i.e., OM = MI.
3. The image is virtual and erect.
4. When a mirror is rotated through a certain angle, the reflected ray is rotated through twice this
angle.

Reflection of Light from Spherical Mirror - A spherical mirror is a part cut from a hollow sphere. They
are generally constructed from glass. The reflection at spherical mirror also takes place in accordance
with the laws of reflection.
Sign Convention - Following sign conventions are the new Cartesian sign convention:
1. All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror & direction of the incident light is taken
as positive. In other words, the distances measured toward the right of the origin are positive.
2. The distance measured against the direction of the incident light are taken as negative. In other
words, the distances measured towards the left of origin are taken as negative.
3. The distance measured in the upward direction, perpendicular to the principal axis of the mirror,
are taken as positive & the distances measured in the downward direction are taken as
negative.
Note. The focal length of a concave mirror is negative and that of a convex mirror is positive.
Focal Length of a Spherical Mirror - The distance between the focus and the pole of the mirror is called
focal length of the mirror and is represented by f.
The focal length of a mirror (concave or convex) is equal to half of the radius of curvature of the mirror,
i.e., f = R / 2.
The straight line joining the pole and the centre of curvature of spherical mirror extended on both sides
is called principal axis of the mirror.
Mirror Formula is

Where u= distance of the object from the pole of mirror
v= distance of the image from the pole of mirror
f= focal length of the mirror
Magnification - It is defined as the ratio of the size of the image to that of the object

Magnification, m is positive, implies that the image is real and inverted Magnification, m is negative,
implies that the image is virtual and erect.
Refraction - When a ray of light falls on the boundary separating the two media, there is a change in
direction of ray. This phenomenon is called refraction.
Laws of Refraction
1. The incident ray normal at the point of incidence and refracted ray all lie in one plane.
2. For the same pair of media and the same colour of light, the ratio of the sine of the angle of
incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction sin is constant i.e.,

= a

b
Where a

b is a constant known as Refractive Index of the medium b with respect to the medium a; i is
the angle incidence in medium a and r is the angle of refraction in medium b.
Principle of Reversibility of Light - As light follows a reversible path,

= b

= 1
= 1/
Refractive index of a medium can also be determined from the following:
= Velocity of light in air / Velocity of light in the medium
= 1/sin c
Where c is the critical angle.
The Critical angle is the angle of incidence in a denser medium corresponding to which the refracted ray
just grazes the surface of separation.
Apparent Depth of a Liquid - If the object be placed at the bottom of a transparent medium, say water,
and viewed from above, it will appear higher than it actually is.
The refractive index in this case is given by the relation:
Refractive index of the medium, = Real depth /Apparent depth
Refraction through a Single Surface - If 1, 2 are refractive indices of first and second media, R the
radius of curvature of spherical surface, formula is

where u and v are the distances of the object and the image from the centre of the refracting surface of
radius of curvature R respectively.
Refraction through a Thin Lens - If R
1
and R
2
are radii of curvature of first and second refracting surfaces
of a thin lens of focal length f, then thin lens formula is

Magnification Produced by a Lens -

Power of a Lens - The power of a lens P is its ability to deviate the ray towards axis and is given by
1.

For any number of thin lenses in contact -

Total Internal Reflection - Total Internal Reflection (TIR) is the phenomenon of complete reflection of
light back into the same medium for angles of incidence greater than the critical angle of that medium.
Application of total internal reflection:
1. Mirage
2. Optical fibers
3. Prism
4. Diamond
Refraction Through Prism - When a ray of monochromatic light is refracted by a prism, the deviation
produced by the prism is given by
= i + e A
Where i = angle of incidence, e = angle of emergence, A = angle of the prism
The angle of deviation
m
is minimum, when ray passes symmetrically through the prism.
Dispersion - The splitting of white light into constituent colours is called the dispersion. A prism causes
deviation as well as dispersion.
Optical Instruments - Optical instruments are the devices which help human eye in observing highly
magnified images of tiny objects, for detailed examination and in observing very far objects whether
terrestrial or astronomical.
Human Eye - It is the most familiar and complicated optical instrument provided by nature to living
beings. In this device, light enters through a curved front surface, called cornea, passes through the
pupil central hole in the iris. The light is focused by the eye lens on the retina. The retina senses light
intensity and colour and transmits the electrical signals via optical nerves to the brain. Brain finally
processes the information.
Power of accommodation - The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length is called power of
accommodation.
Least distance of distinct vision - The minimum distance at which objects can be seen most distinctly
without any strain is called the least distance of distinct vision. It is also called near point of the eye. For
a young adult with normal vision, the near point is about 25cm it is denoted by D.
Persistence of vision:-The impression or sensation of an image on the retina remains or persists for

of a second even after the removal of the object. This phenomenon is called persistence of vision.
Defect of vision and their correction:
1. Myopia or near sightedness - It is a vision defect in which a person can see nearby objects
clearly but cannot see distant objects clearly beyond a certain point. A myopic eye is corrected
by using a concave lens of focal length equal to the distance of the far point F from the eye.
2. Hypermetropia of far sightedness - It is a vision defect in which a person can see the distant
objects clearly but cannot see the nearby objects clearly. A hypermetropic eye is corrected by
using a convex lens of suitable focal length.
3. Presbyopia - With increasing age, the cilliary muscles holding the eye lens loses its flexibility and
hence accommodation of the eye lens decreases. Thus this defect is similar to the
hypermetropia. This defect differs from hypermetropia in the cause by which it is produced. This
defect is also corrected by using a convex lens of suitable focal length.
4. Astigmatism - It is the defect of vision in which a person cannot see simultaneously both the
horizontal and vertical views of an object with the same clarity. This defect can occur along with
myopia of hypermetropia. It can be corrected by using a cylindrical lens of desired radius of
curvature with an appropriately directed axis.
Microscope - A simple microscope is a short focal length convex lens. The magnifying power of a simple
microscope is

The magnifying power, M of a compound microscope is

Telescope
The magnifying power, M of refracting telescope is

For the final image is formed at the least distance of distant vision, the magnifying power is given as

The resolving power of a telescope = 1.22/d
where, = wavelength of light
d = diameter of the objective of the telescope
= angle subtended by the point object a the objective

Problems
1. A small candle 2.5 cm in size is placed at 27 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of
curvature 36 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in order to obtain
a sharp image? Describe the nature and size of the image. If the candle is moved closer to the
mirror, how would the screen have to be moved?
2. A tank is filled with water to a height of 12.5cm. The apparent depth of the needle lying at the
bottom of the tank is measured by a microscope to be 9.4cm. What is the refractive index of
water? If water is replaced by a liquid of n=1.63 up to the same height, by what distance would
the microscope have to be moved to focus on the needle again.
3. A microscope is focused on a dot at the bottom at a beaker some oil is paused in to the beaker
to a height of y cm and it is found necessary to raise the microscope through a vertical distance
of x cm to bring the dot again in to focus. Express refractive index of oil in terms of x & y.
4. A Double-convex lens is to be manufactured from a glass of refractive index 1.5, with both faces
of the same radius of curvature. What is the radius of the curvature required if the focal length
is to be 20cm?
5. A converging lens of focal length 50cm is placed coaxially in contact with another lens of
unknown focal length. If the combination behaves like a diverging lens of focal length 50cm find
the power and nature of the second lens.
6. A ray of light passes through an equilateral glass prism, such that the angle of incidence is equal
to the angle of emergence. If the angle of emergence is

times the angle of the prism. Calculate

the refractive index of the glass prism.
7. A small telescope has an objective lens of focal length 144cm and an eyepiece of focal length
6cm. what is the magnifying power of the telescope? What is the separation between the
objective and the eyepiece?
8. A myopic person has been using spectacles of power -1.0D for distant vision. During old age he
also needs to use separate reading glass of power 2D. Explain what may have happened.