Review

The zebrash as a model system for glucocorticoid receptor research

M.J.M. Schaaf , A. Chatzopoulou, H.P. Spaink

Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, The Netherlands
a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 4 November 2008
Received in revised form 24 December 2008
Accepted 25 December 2008
Available online 7 January 2009
Keywords:
Steroid
Corticosteroid
Cortisol
Dexamethasone
Beta-isoform
Animal model
Glucocorticoids regulate a plethora of physiological processes, and are widely used clinically as anti-
inammatory drugs. Their effects are mediated by the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), a ligand-activated
transcription factor. Currently, zebrash embryos are being developed into a model system for GR research,
since they are easy to manipulate genetically and their phenotype can easily be visualized because of their
transparent bodies. In addition, the zebrash GR gene shows a relatively high level of similarity with its
human equivalent. First, both the zebrash and the human genome contain only a single gene encoding the
GR. In all other sh species studied thus far, two GR genes have been found. Second, the zebrash contains a
C-terminal GR splice variant with high similarity to the human GR, which has been shown to be a
dominant-negative inhibitor of the canonical GR and may be involved in glucocorticoid resistance. Thus,
zebrash embryos are potentially a useful model system for glucocorticoid receptor research, but currently
only a limited number of tools is available. In this review, we discuss which tools are available and which
need to be developed, in order to exploit the full potential of the zebrash as a model system for GR research.
2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.1. Glucocorticoids and the glucocorticoid receptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.2. The zebrash as a model organism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2. The zebrash glucocorticoid receptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.1. A single GR gene in zebrash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.2. The zebrash GR -isoform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3. The zebrash as a model system for GR research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4. Tools for GR research in zebrash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.1. Molecular genetic tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2. Phenotype-based assays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5. Conclusions and perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
1. Introduction
In the present review we will discuss how research on the
glucocorticoid receptor (GR) may benet from using the zebrash
(Danio rerio) as an animal model system. The zebrash could be a
valuable tool, both in fundamental studies on the molecular mechan-
isms of GR action and in applied research like screening of
glucocorticoid drugs. We will present the advantages of this model
system for GR research. However, since the zebrash has mostly been
used as an animal model in the eld of developmental biology, several
specic tools required for research on the GR in zebrash are lacking.
We will give an overview of which tools are already available and
which tools need to be developed in order to exploit the full potential
of the zebrash as a model system for GR research.
1.1. Glucocorticoids and the glucocorticoid receptor
Glucocorticoids are steroid hormones that are secreted by the
adrenal gland after stress and in a circadian rhythm. In humans and
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 153 (2009) 7582
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sh, the main endogenous glucocorticoid is cortisol, whereas
corticosterone is the main glucocorticoid in rodents. These hormones
regulate a wide range of processes, like the immune response (Barnes,
2006), neural activity and behavior (de Kloet et al., 2005), metabolism
(Wang, 2005) and bone formation (Migliaccio et al., 2007). They are
well known for their anti-inammatory effects, and are widely used
clinically to treat immune-related diseases like asthma and rheuma-
toid arthritis. Synthetic analogs of glucocorticoids are among the most
prescribed drugs in the world.
The effects of glucocorticoids are mediated by an intracellular
receptor, the glucocorticoid receptor (GR). This receptor is a member
of the family of steroid receptors, which in turn belong to the
superfamily of nuclear receptors (Zhang et al., 2004). Like all nuclear
receptors, the GR acts as a ligand-activated transcription factor, and it
is well conserved among vertebrate animal species (Bridgham et al.,
2006). It consists of a large N-terminal domain, involved in
transcriptional activation, a small DNA binding domain which
contains two zinc-ngers and a C-terminal ligand-binding domain
(Giguere et al., 1986). In the absence of hormone, the GR resides in the
cytoplasm where it forms a complex with heat shock proteins and
immunophilins (Pratt and Toft, 2003). Upon ligand binding, the
receptor dissociates fromthe complex and translocates to the nucleus.
There the activated GR can bind to glucocorticoid response elements
(GREs) in the promoter region of target genes and interact with
transcriptional cofactors (Beato and Klug, 2000). In this way, gene
transcription of the downstream gene is activated and this process is
called transactivation. Alternatively, the GR can inhibit gene expres-
sion induced by other transcription factors like nuclear factor(NF)-B
and activator protein(AP)-1 (De Bosscher et al., 2008). This process is
called transrepression and forms the basis of the anti-inammatory
action of glucocorticoids, since these transcription factors are involved
in the transcription of many pro-inammatory genes. The exact
mechanism of transrepression has not been elucidated yet, but
physical interaction between GR and the other transcription factor
and recruitment of specic transcriptional cofactors appears to be
involved.
1.2. The zebrash as a model organism
The zebrash has many advantages over other vertebrate animal
model systems (Trede et al., 2004; Lieschke and Currie, 2007; Hsu
et al., 2007; Levraud et al., 2008). It is small, easily maintained and
breeds well under laboratory conditions. Each female can produce
hundreds of eggs per day, that are fertilized externally. Upon
fertilization, the embryos develop rapidly and most organ systems
have been formed 5 days later. The ex utero development makes
the zebrash embryos easily accessible for transient genetic
manipulation by microinjection of DNA, mRNA or morpholinos,
which are antisense DNA oligonucleotides that can alter protein
synthesis in the developing embryo by blocking a specic
translation start site or a splice donor or acceptor site. The embryos
are transparent, which allows for microscopic imaging at the
subcellular level, especially when performed in combination with
uorescent labeling of specic cells or proteins. Furthermore, an
increasing number of transgenic and mutant zebrash lines are
available, as well as several zebrash cell lines derived from
embryos and adult tissues, that can be used as a complementary
tool allowing more rened biochemical characterizations (Driever
and Rangini, 1993; Chen et al., 2002). The zebrash genome, as
available in the zv7 assembly on the Ensembl website (http://www.
ensembl.org/index.html), is virtually complete. Seventy percent of
the genome has been sequenced with N99.999% accuracy. For the
rest of the genome, a so-called whole genome shotgun approach
has been used, which has a coverage of 5.5 times. The sequence
database has been compared to the data obtained from a double
haploid zebrash line.
2. The zebrash glucocorticoid receptor
2.1. A single GR gene in zebrash
Most teleostean sh species contain two glucocorticoid receptor
genes, as a result of a genome duplication that occurred during sh
evolution between 350 and 400 million years ago, soon after the sh
and tetrapod lineages diverged (Volff, 2005). The resulting receptor
proteins are called GR1 and GR2 (Stolte et al., 2006). These isoforms
have been established for rainbow trout (Bury et al., 2003), Burton's
mouthbrooder (Greenwood et al., 2003), green spotted puffer fugu
(Stolte et al., 2006), common carp (Stolte et al., 2008a), and sea bass
(Terova et al., 2005; Vizzini et al., 2007). In some sh species like the
Japanese ounder and brown trout (Stolte et al., 2006), only one GR
gene has been found thus far, but it is yet unclear if they contain a
second GR gene, since most of these sh species are poorly studied.
The organization of these sh GR1 and GR2 genes is highly similar
to the organization of the human GR gene (Stolte et al., 2006). They
consist of 9 exons, of which the rst is entirely noncoding and the
ninth contains the 3'UTR. Alternative splicing has been demonstrated
to occur in the GR1 gene between exon 3 and 4, resulting in a 9 amino
acid insert between the two zinc ngers of the DNA binding domain
that decrease the DNA binding afnity of the receptor (this longer GR1
isoform is called GR1a, whereas the shorter form is GR1b). At the
protein level, sh GRs display a high level of similarity to the human
GR as well. In the ligand-binding domain, between 85% and 95% of the
amino acids of sh GRs are similar to those in the human GR and in the
DNA binding domain this number exceeds 98% for most sh GRs
studied (Fig. 1A).
GR1 and GR2 both appear to induce transcription on GRE-
containing promoters, but the concentrations at which transactiva-
tion is induced differs greatly. The EC50 for cortisol in in vitro
reporter assays was approximately 65 times higher for rainbow
trout GR1 compared to GR2 (Bury et al., 2003), and similar results
have been found for the Burton's mouthbrooder and common carp
GR1 and GR2 (Greenwood et al., 2003; Stolte et al., 2008c). It is
therefore hypothesized that GR2 is active at low basal cortisol
levels, whereas GR1 is the stress receptor that becomes active at
higher circulating cortisol concentrations. Differential regulation of
the expression of GR1 and GR2 has been observed after stress and
immune challenges, again implying different roles for the two GRs
(Stolte et al., 2008b,c).
Surprisingly, the zebrash genome only contains one GR gene
(Stolte et al., 2006; Schaaf et al., 2008; Alsop and Vijayan, 2008). This
lack of a second GR gene has been reported in several studies, and
three lines of evidence support this nding (Schaaf et al., 2008). First,
BLAST searches in the most recently released version of the zebrash
genome (the zv7 assembly on the Ensembl website) using other sh
GRs as queries returned all other zebrash steroid receptors, and
many other nuclear receptors, but not a second GR gene. Second,
searches in GenBank for transcripts derived from a zebrash GR gene
revealed fourteen putative zebrash GR cDNA and EST sequences, but
further analysis demonstrated that all these sequences were tran-
scripts fromthe single GR gene that had been identied already. Third,
analysis of the syntenic regions of the sh GR genes shows that the
genomic region surrounding the zebrash GR gene is well conserved
and is highly similar to the region surrounding the GR2 gene of fugu,
green spotted puffer medaka and stickleback. The region surrounding
the GR1 gene in these shes has undergone major rearrangement,
which has resulted in the loss of the GR1 gene in zebrash. This is in
line with our nding that the zebrash GR clusters within the GR2
clade of sh GRs in a phylogenetic tree (Fig. 2). The loss of the GR1
gene has happened relatively late in the evolution of the zebrash,
since the common carp (which is a member of the family of cyprinids,
like the zebrash) has been shown to contain two GR genes (Stolte
et al., 2008a).
76 M.J.M. Schaaf et al. / Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 153 (2009) 7582
2.2. The zebrash GR -isoform
Another remarkable characteristic of the zebrash GR gene is the
possibility of alternative splicing, which results in a GR isoform that is
identical to the canonical GR in the N-terminal domain, the DNA
binding domain and most of the ligand binding domain, but contains a
different amino acid sequence at its C-terminus (Fig. 1B) (Schaaf et al.,
2008). This isoform is called the zebrash GR, since it highly
resembles the human GR -isoform. The human GR (hGR) is a
result of alternative splicing in exon 9 (Hollenberg et al., 1985; Oakley
et al., 1996). This isoform is identical to the canonical GR (hGR)
between amino acid 1 and 727, after which it diverges. The human GR
-isoform contains an additional 15 C-terminal amino acids, which
show no homology to the 50 additional amino acids in hGR's C-
terminus.
The human GR -isoform does not bind glucocorticoid agonists
and is predominantly localized in the nucleus. It has been shown in in
vitro reporter assays that hGR does not induce transcription on GRE-
containing promoters, but acts as a dominant-negative inhibitor of
hGR's transactivational properties (Bamberger et al., 1995; Oakley
et al., 1996, 1997, 1999). In line with this dominant-negative activity, a
correlation has been found between resistance to glucocorticoid
treatment in patients suffering from several immune-related diseases
and increased expression levels of hGR (Leung et al., 1997; Hamid
et al., 1999; Shahidi et al., 1999; Honda et al., 2000; Goleva et al., 2006).
In addition, the occurrence of diseases like ulcerative colitis (Honda
et al., 2000), leukemia (Shahidi et al., 1999) and severe asthma
(Bergeron et al., 2006) has been demonstrated to correlate with an
increased expression of this GR isoform in various immune cells.
However, some issues still remain unresolved. Several researchers
could not reproduce the dominant-negative activity of hGR in vitro
(Hecht et al., 1997; de Lange et al., 1999). In addition, the high hGR
expression levels at which the dominant-negative activity in vitro is
observed are in sharp contrast with its low expression levels in vivo
(Oakley et al., 1996), which makes the relevance of the in vitro results
questionable. A recent study suggests that hGR may regulate gene
transcription independent of hGR, and that this activity can be
altered by the synthetic GRantagonist RU486 which has been shown
to bind hGR (Lewis-Tufn et al., 2007). It has also been suggested that
hGR acts as a constitutive transrepressor of genes that are
transrepressed in a ligand-dependent way by hGR (Kelly et al.,
2008).
Until recently, a GR -isoformhad only been found in humans, and
its absence has been demonstrated in rodents (Otto et al., 1997).
Therefore, an animal model that may help resolving some of the issues
mentioned here has been lacking, until the recent discovery of a GR -
isoform in zebrash. The zebrash GR -isoform is similar to its
human equivalent in structure, function and expression level (Schaaf
et al., 2008). The zebrash GR - and -isoformare identical between
amino acids 1 and 696. An additional 40 specic amino acids form the
Fig. 1. Comparison between the human and zebrash GRs. A. Similarity between the human and zebrash GR -isoforms. The -isoform represents the classical, canonical GR. It
contains a large N-terminal domain, a DNA-binding domain (DBD) and a ligand-binding domain (LBD).Percentages indicate the fraction of amino acids similar between human and
zebrash per domain. The overall level of similarity is 59.3%. B. The human and zebrash GR genes. Both genes contain 9 exons, of which exon 1 is non-coding. A remarkable
difference is the location of the sequence encoding -isoform-specic amino acids. In the human gene, this sequence is located in exon 9, whereas in the zebrash gene it is found in
exon 8. In zebrash, the use of the most 5 splice donor site in this exon results in a shorter version of exon 8 and an open reading frame that includes exon 9, resulting in mRNA
encoding zGR (GenBank Acc No. EF436284). The use of the most 3 site results in an extended version of exon 8, introducing a stop codon in exon 8, which results in zGR mRNA
(EF436285). The zebrash GR and GR protein are identical between amino acids 1 and 696. An additional 40 specic amino acids form the C-terminus of zGR.
77 M.J.M. Schaaf et al. / Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 153 (2009) 7582
C-terminus of zGR, and these amino acids show no homology to the
57 specic amino acids in the C-terminus of zGR. Sequence
alignment of the human and zebrash GRs show that the divergence
point between the - and -isoform is identical in humans and
zebrash. In reporter assays, zGR has been shown to act as a
dominant-negative inhibitor of zGR's transactivational activity,
similar to the effect of hGR on hGR-induced transcription. The
expression levels of zGR at the mRNA level in adult zebrash and in
embryos are signicantly lower (between 10- and 100-fold) than the
zGR mRNA levels, which resembles the lower expression level of
hGR mRNA relative to the hGR mRNA level that is found in several
human tissues and cells (Oakley et al., 1996; Dahia et al., 1997; Mu
et al., 1998; Honda et al., 2000).
3. The zebrash as a model system for GR research
The zebrash could be a valuable tool for at least two types of GR
research. First, the zebrash can be used to advance our knowledge on
the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of GR activation in
vivo. Using techniques for transient or stable genetic manipulation in
combination with imaging-based phenotypic readouts, the zebrash
can be used for analysis of how specic molecular mechanisms alter
the phenotype of a living vertebrate organism. Most of these
phenotype-based assays are based on the imaging of uorescent
cells in zebrash embryos, that could be used on a relatively large
number of individuals.
Second, its potential could be used in studies towards the discovery
of novel drugs and drug targets (Zon and Peterson, 2005; Mathew
et al., 2007). Because of its small size and suitability for imaging
studies, the zebrash could be an ideal tool for the screening of novel
glucocorticoid drugs. These screening assays could be implemented as
an extra step between high-throughput drug screening assays (often
performed in cell cultures) and subsequent studies in mammalian
animal models like rodents. This way, compounds which appear to be
ineffective in in vivo studies are ltered out at an early stage, limiting
the number of compounds to be tested in mammalian models. In
addition, using forward genetic screens using glucocorticoid respon-
siveness as a readout, novel drug targets may be discovered that may
be exploited as a target for drugs that could increase the effectiveness
of glucocorticoid treatment.
4. Tools for GR research in zebrash
Since only a few studies on the GR in zebrash have been
performed, a limited number of tools is currently available to study GR
function in zebrash. In Table 1 these tools are listed and they will be
briey discussed below.
4.1. Molecular genetic tools
Several mutant zebrash lines possibly interesting for GR research
are available. A mutant zebrash line is available that carries a
mutation in the retinal homeobox gene 3 (rx3), resulting in a loss of
corticotrope cells in the pituitary and severely reduced cortisol levels
(Loosli et al., 2003; Dickmeis et al., 2007). In addition, other cortisol-
decient mutants are available that lack the entire pituitary, like the
broblast growth factor 3 mutant (lia/fgf3, (Herzog et al., 2004)) and
the achaete scute-complex like 1a mutant (pia/ascl1a, (Pogoda et al.,
2006)). Another mutant, eyes absent 1 (aal/eya1, (Kozlowski et al.,
2005)), only contains the lactotrope cells of the pituitary.
In addition, a few relevant morpholino studies have been
performed. Transient knockdown of steroid biosynthesis using a
morpholino reducing the cyp11a1 gene expression (the enzyme which
converts cholesterol into pregnenolone, the rst step in the steroid
biosynthesis pathway) results in severe developmental defects, but
which class of steroids is responsible for this effect is yet unclear (Hsu
et al., 2006). In another study a morpholino approach is used to knock
down GR function by blocking the splice acceptor site at the 5end of
Fig. 2. Phylogenetic tree of the teleost sh and tetrapod GRs. Protein sequences were generated by translating cDNA sequences or predicted mRNA sequences. Sequences were only
used if complete coding sequence was available (see also (Schaaf et al., 2008)). ClustalWsoftware (version 1.83, available at http://clustalw.ddbj.nig.ac.jp/top-e.html) was used with
default parameters. The zebrash GR clusters within the GR2 clade of teleostean GRs.
78 M.J.M. Schaaf et al. / Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 153 (2009) 7582
exon 6, resulting in a GR transcript that lacks this exon (Mathew et al.,
2007). The altered splicing results in a mRNA that encodes a GR
protein that lacks the LBD (in more detail: it is identical to the wild
type zebrash GR until amino acid 552 and contains an additional 3
amino acids). Injection of this morpholino did not result in any
obvious early developmental defects, suggesting that GR is not
essential for early embryonic development (Mathew et al., 2007).
This does not mean that alterations in GR function do not affect
embryonic development, since glucocorticoid treatment during the
rst days of development has been reported to result in craniofacial
abnormalities, altered somitogenesis, blood pooling and pericardial
and yolk sac edema (Hillegass et al., 2007, 2008).
Expression levels of zGR and zGR mRNA can be determined by
qRTPCR (Mathew et al., 2007; Dickmeis et al., 2007; Schaaf et al.,
2008; Alsop and Vijayan, 2008) and the expression pattern has been
studied by in situ hybridization (Schaaf et al., 2008). For detection at
the protein level, western blotting has been performed using an anti-
hGR antibody (p-20, available from Santa Cruz (Dickmeis et al., 2007)),
which is directed against the receptor C-terminus, and is therefore
specic for the GR -isoform. In our laboratory, we have used this
antibody to performimmunohistochemistry on embryos 24 hours post
fertilization (Fig. 3).
Alterations in the expression of specic GR target genes can be
used as a readout of GR activity. In zebrash embryos, using qRTPCR
the upregulation of the well-known GR target genes FK506 binding
protein 5 (FKBP5), glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper (GILZ) and
sox9b after glucocorticoid treatment has been shown (Mathew et al.,
2007), and the induction of the matrix metalloproteinase-2, -9, and
-13 has been demonstrated (Hillegass et al., 2007; Hillegass et al.,
2008). In our laboratory, we have assembled a small panel of six GR
target genes, of which three (FKBP5, IB, and phosphoenolpyruvate
carboxykinase (PEPCK)) are upregulated and three (Interleukin(IL)-8,
IL-1 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)) are downregulated upon
dexamethasone treatment in 1 day old embryos, so we have in vivo
readouts for both transactivation and transrepression (Fig. 4).
Fig. 3. Whole mount immunohistochemistry on 24 hpf embryo. An antibody was used
against the C-terminus of human GR (p-20, Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc.). No spatial
restriction was observed in the immunostaining, which is in line with previously
described in situ hybridization data (Schaaf et al., 2008).
Fig. 4. Analysis of glucocorticoid-induced alterations in gene expression in zebrash
embryos. At 28 h post fertilization, embryos were incubated in 100 M dexamethasone
for 6 h. Total RNA was isolated and qRTPCR was performed using specic primer sets
for the indicated genes. Three genes were upregulated by dexamethasone treatment
(A), and three genes were downregulated (B). In the experiment in panel B embryos
were incubated in PMA and ionomycin during the dexamethasone treatment to induce
the expression of the indicated genes.
Table 1
Tools currently available for GR research in zebrash.
A. Molecular genetic tools
Manipulation of GR activity
Cortisol-decient mutants rx3 Loosli et al., 2003;
Dickmeis et al., 2007
lia/fgf3 Herzog et al., 2004
pia/ascl1a Pogoda et al., 2006
aal/eya1 Kozlowski et al., 2005
Morpholinos cyp11a1 Hsu et al., 2006
GR Mathew et al., 2007
Detection of GR mRNA and protein level
qRTPCR GR Dickmeis et al., 2007;
Mathew et al., 2007;
Alsop and Vijayan, 2008
GR and GR Schaaf et al., 2008
In situ hybridization GR and GR Schaaf et al., 2008
Western blots GR Dickmeis et al., 2007
Immunohistochemistry GR Present paper (Fig. 3)
Detection GR target gene mRNA level
qRTPCR FKBP5, GILZ, sox9b Mathew et al., 2007
MMP-2, -9, -13 Hillegass et al., 2007, 2008
FKBP5, IB, PEPCK Present paper (Fig. 4)
IL-8, IL-1, TNF Present paper (Fig. 4)
B. Phenotype-based assays
Assays for immunosuppressive effects of GR
Inammation models Leukocyte migration assay
mpo:GFP Renshaw et al., 2006;
Mathias et al., 2006;
Mathew et al., 2007
Enhancer trap line Meijer et al., 2008
lysC:GFP Hall et al., 2007
Chronic inammation model
hai1 mutant Mathias et al., 2007
T-cells in thymus lck:GFP Langenau et al., 2004
rag2:GFP Langenau et al., 2004
Infection model Fluorescently labeled bacteria
M. marinum Davis et al., 2002
S. typhimurium Van der Sar, 2003
Assays for other effects of GR
Bone formation Visualization of skeletal
structures
Calcein/alizarin red Du et al., 2001;
Fleming et al., 2005
Cortisol levels Immuno-assay Dickmeis et al., 2007;
Alsop and Vijayan, 2008
79 M.J.M. Schaaf et al. / Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 153 (2009) 7582
4.2. Phenotype-based assays
In assays screening for the action of glucocorticoids, their
immunosuppressive action could be evaluated in vivo. It should be
noted that zebrash embryos only contain an innate immune system,
and that the adaptive immune system does not arise until four weeks
after fertilization (Trede et al., 2004). First, the action of glucocorti-
coids in zebrash inammation models can be screened. A transgenic
sh line can be utilized containing the green uorescent protein (GFP)
gene driven by the myeloperoxidase (MPO) promoter, expressing GFP
in the neutrophil granulocytes (Renshaw et al., 2006; Mathias et al.,
2006). These cells migrate to the site of injury after a wound has been
made, and this experimental paradigm is considered as a model for
acute inammation (Renshaw et al., 2006). Treatment of embryos
with the synthetic glucocorticoid beclomethasone results in a
signicant decrease in the number of neutrophils migrating to the
trauma site upon amputation of a part of the tail (Mathewet al., 2007).
A transgenic line (generated by enhancer trapping) which expresses
yellow uorescent protein (YFP) in a subset of neutrophils (Meijer
et al., 2008), and a line expressing GFP in a subset of macrophages
(with the GFP expression driven by the lysozyme C promoter (Hall et
al., 2007)), have been used in similar assays of immune cell migration.
In addition, several other transgenic lines are available in which a
subpopulation of immune cells express GFP (Ward et al., 2003; Hsu
et al., 2004). Recently a transgenic zebrash line that can be used as a
model for chronic inammation has been generated, caused by a
mutation of the hepatocyte growth factor activator inhibitor 1 (hai1)
gene, that shows accumulation of (GFP-labeled) neutrophils in the n
(Mathias et al., 2007). The effect of glucocorticoids on the behavior of
the labeled immune cells has not been tested in any of these latter
lines yet.
Second, the presence of T-cells in the thymus can be monitored. A
transgenic zebrash line can be used that expresses GFP under control
of the T-cell specic tyrosine kinase (lck) promoter, resulting in GFP-
labeled T cells. Treatment of embryos from this line with the
glucocorticoid receptor agonist dexamethasone results in the ablation
of GFP-labeled T-cells in the thymus of these embryos (Langenau et al.,
2004). Another line in which GFP expression is controlled by the
recombinant activating gene 2 (rag2) promoter (resulting in GFP
labeled immature T and B cells) showed similar results (Langenau
et al., 2004).
Third, several zebrash infection models exist in which the
status of the infection can be monitored. An increase in the
proliferation of the infectious agent could be used as a measure for
the immunosuppressive activity of a GR agonist. Infecting zebrash
embryos with uorescently labeled bacteria enables the analysis
of the infection in real time and in situ. This approach has been
successfully used for Mycobacterium marinum and Salmonella
typhimurium infections (Davis et al., 2002; van der Sar et al., 2003).
In addition to their use in screening assays for the anti-
inammatory activity of glucocorticoids, zebrash embryos can also
be used for screening of other effects of glucocorticoid treatment, like
decreased bone formation which is a common side effect of
glucocorticoid treatment. Recently, a zebrash model system for
glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis has been developed, based on
the visualization of skeletal structures of zebrash larvae using
calcium-binding dyes like calcein or alizarin red (Du et al., 2001;
Fleming et al., 2005). As a proof of principle, treatment of 5-day-old
zebrash larvae with prednisolone, a glucocorticoid that is widely
used clinically, signicantly reduced bone formation in this assay
(Barrett et al., 2006). Using these assays in embryos restricts the
screening to the osteoblast activity, since the rst osteoclasts appear in
twenty-day old individuals (Witten et al., 2001).
Another common side effect of glucocorticoid treatment is a
decrease in circulating cortisol levels, and this effect can be studied in
zebrash as well. Total cortisol levels can be measured in homo-
genates frompools of zebrash embryos of any age using an immuno-
assay (Dickmeis et al., 2007; Alsop and Vijayan, 2008). Increased
cortisol levels in response to a stressor can be detected from 97 hours
post fertilization (Alsop and Vijayan, 2008), and a circadian rhythmin
cortisol level has been observed at 6 days post fertilization (Dickmeis
et al., 2007). This indicates that the hypothalamus-pituitary-interrenal
gland (HPI) axis is functional in zebrash larvae, and it can be ex-
pected that glucocorticoid treatment results in a decrease in circu-
lating cortisol levels.
5. Conclusions and perspective
Inconclusion, the zebrashsystemcouldbe a valuable model system
for research on the GR, in which it can be used for investigating the
molecular mechanism of glucocorticoid receptor action and in drug
discovery studies. Two characteristics make it a very favorable system
for this type of research. First, the zebrash GR displays a high level of
similaritytothe humanGR. The genomeof bothspecies contains a single
(well conserved) GR gene from which two receptor isoforms, GR and
GRcan be produced through alternative splicing. Second, the zebrash
embryo system has many practical advantages, among which the
relatively easy stable or transient genetic manipulation of vertebrate
organisms in combination with opportunities to screen the phenotype
of a large number of individuals using imaging-based technology.
Although some molecular genetic tools and screening assays are
available already, new tools need to be developed in order to fully
exploit the opportunities of this model. The generation of a GR
knockout zebrash line, for example by TILLING (targeting induced
local lesions in genomes (Wienholds et al., 2003)), would be a top
priority in this respect. Mice with a disruption in the GR gene die
soon after birth because of respiratory failure (Cole et al., 1995), but
a deciency in GR signaling may not be lethal in sh. Transgenic
sh lines overexpressing the GR -isoform would be a useful tool to
study the effects of this isoform in vivo, especially if the expression
would be inducible (e.g. by using the heat shock protein (hsp) 70
promoter (Shoji and Sato-Maeda, 2008)), or spatially restricted
(e.g. by using the Gal4/UAS system (Asakawa and Kawakami,
2008). Transgenic reporter sh lines can be made using the
bacterial articial chromosomes (BAC) modication strategy, in
which a large genomic region can be cloned and the GFP coding
sequence can be inserted at the translation start site of a specic
gene. After inserting these sequences into the zebrash genome,
GFP is expressed driven by all the promoter/enhancer elements
regulating the expression of the original protein (Jessen et al., 1998;
Yang et al., 2006). By using GR responsive genes like FKBP5 or IL-8
in this approach, reporter sh lines for the activity of GR can be
generated and used as readouts in screening assays. A more general
view on glucocorticoid-induced alterations on gene expression will
be offered by using custom-made zebrash-specic microarrays
(Meijer et al., 2005; Krens et al., 2008) and serial analysis of gene
expression (SAGE) experiments using megasequencing. Finally,
specic antibodies against the zebrash GR - and -isoform will
be required for studying (alterations in) the localization and ex-
pression level of these proteins.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by grants from Cyttron in the BSIK
program (Besluit Subsidies Investeringen Kennisinfrastructuur) and
by a grant in the SmartMix program. The authors would like to thank
Ronny Snepvangers for technical assistance.
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