A Brief Introduction To Organizational Behavior

ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOR
A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

Some decades back organizations were very simple, and the business were only local and were not done
on international level. So, therefore, managing the organizations was quite easy and much much simpler
than now. The people in the organizations used to be mostly males and of the same origin and background
which means that the personnel or the workforce then was not as diverse as now. The new millennium has
started and the competition these days has increased tremendously. Every firm and organization tries to
compete with others. But firms can have an advantage over its competitors by having better people and
personnel. So, as the competition increases emphasis on better and better personnel in an organization
increases. Therefore, training better people and workers has become the main concern and issue for the
managers. anagers and directors adopt established and new innovative techniques to lift the performance
of their workers. So, there is when the importance of organizational Behavior comes into play.
!rganizational Behavior is simply "a way of managing the people and workers#

$%&''E()ES *&$E+ B, T%E &(&)EE(T-
Today.s management faces many challenges and difficulties. Some of the challenges facing management
are downsizing, reengineering, knowledge and information e/plosion, global competition and total quality
management. &ll these factors that are creating difficulties for the management and administrations of the
companies can be called the new environment. So, every management has to cope with these difficulties.

T%E (E0 E(123!(E(T-
The new environment4 )lobalization, 2nformation technology, total quality and diversity and ethics- 5.

5. )'!B&'26&T2!(-
+ue to the advancements in transportation and development in the field of science the world has become a
smaller place and this is called globalization or global village where transporting goods and transmitting
information is done in a very shorter period of time than a century ago. So, these advancements have made
the world a smaller place and now companies can send and sell their services and products even to far
away lands and areas.

7. 2(*!3&T2!( TE$%(!'!),-
The other ma8or environmental development is that of the computers which poses a challenge to the
management of organizations today. 2n other words, to perform better organizations must employ new
technologies and inventions to remain competitive. &s the advancements are so much in this field,
organizations have to update their knowledge every few months later to a have knowledge of new software
and equipments which is a problem and more importantly the organizations have to employee people that
can use these new techniques and machines and training and employing these people is a very difficult
thing to do.

9.T!T&' :;&'2T,-
Besides other factors the quality of products is given a great deal of importance, due to many choices the
customers have, which means that the products and services of the organization has to be of good quality to
compete. &nd this is another headache for the managers. 3ecently, beside other marketing activities
companies should make their products and services so that it must have a better quality to be a success in
the market, which increases the responsibilities of any management and people involved in it.

<. +21E3S2T, &(+ ET%2$S-
+iversity means, that nowadays in an organization, people come from different parts of the world with
different places and cultures with different ages, backgrounds, religions, ethnicities and values and norms.
&nd managers should keep this in mind that the organization should be designed so that there should be no
discrimination on the basis of gender, ethnicity or religion. So, formulating and maintaining such rules,
policies and environment in an organization is difficult for its management.

0%&T $&( BE +!(E=
The answer to all the challenges faced by organizations is simple>

People can be used as a cope!"!"#e ad#an!a$e o#e% !&e o!&e%s'(

&s nowadays all the organizations have the techniques and technologies e/posed and available to them and
most the organizations have the same factors to face with the same financial resources and same
[email protected] Page No 1
technologies. So, the only way these organizations can perform better than others ?their competitors@ is by
having better personnel and e/pert workers. Efficient personnel can be strength of any organization in an
environment where competition is cut throat and very tough. !rganizations can have better workers to give
them an advantage or edge over their competitors. %ow to train develop and maintain good personnel is
very basic question for managements all over the world. &nd studies to understand and take the best out of
the workers, is provided by a very new field of science the study of !rganizational behavior ?!B@.
;(+E3)!2() & A&3&+2) S%2*T-
Aaradigm means a broad model, a framework, a way of thinking, or a scheme of understanding reality. The
impact of internationalization, information technology, total quality and diversity has lead to a "Aaradigm
shift# in organizations. 2n other words, as the environment has changed tremendously and these factors
have also affected the type and style of management in organizations, so, for todays and tomorrow.s
organizations and management, there are new rules with different boundaries requiring new and different
behavior inside the boundaries for organizations and management to be successful. &nd these changes and
transformations in the management and structures of the organizations are called the "Aaradigm Shift#
So, the factors like diversity, total quality, information technology, downsizing, internationalization and
globalization have brought a paradigm shift in the organizations all over the globe.
EB&A'ES-

5. &t first most organizations used type writers and conventional approaches but due to the advancements
in the field of computers, the organizations and firms felt a need to change their approach and replace type
writers with computers for word processing due to their many benefits and advantages.

7. Similarly, management systems had to be changed and a need was felt to leave the useless old systems
aside and move to new approach to management systems. These new management techniques makes use
of the technologies like computers an many other new equipments. So, this shift or transfer from one set to
another is called a "Aaradigm shift#.

A&3&+2) E**E$T-
0hen a "Aaradigm shift# takes place there is real controversy and disagreement in the organization, often
involving large restructuring and e/tensive redesigning of the whole organization or of the entire community
or under conditions of great uncertainty and doubt which is called the "Aaradigm Effect#.
2n the time of a paradigm shirt there is always a resistance to the changes by many people and they don.t
want to change the old rules and models with new ones and want to follow the old set of rules and
regulations. But other want the change to take place and this condition of disagreement and conflict is called
paradigm effect.

+E*2(2() !3)&(26&T2!(&' BE%&12!3 ?!B@
!rganizational behavior has emerged about a couple of decades ago. !B is a theoretical sub8ect and field of
science. !r in other words !B tends to be more theoretically oriented and at the micro level of analysis.
Specifically, !B draws from many theoretical frameworks of the behavioral sciences that are focused at
understanding and e/plaining individual and group behavior in organizations. So !B can be defined as4 "2t is
an attempt to replace all the management with behavioral science concepts and techniques#.
!r much more comprehensive definition can be4
"!rganizational Behavior is the science which tries to understand, predict and manage the human behavior
in an organization#

EBA&(&T2!(-
!rganizational Behavior represents the behavioral approach to management, not the whole management. 2t
works on the principles and knowledge of Asychology. !B has its basis from the 2ndustrial psychology. But it
is not the new version of translation of industrial Asychology. 2t has its own grounds of study. Simply, to put it
in a few words !rganizational behavior is the science which makes an easy and better management of the
human resources to perform better.

CONTE)PORAR* CHALLENGE+, DIVER+IT* AND ETHIC+

+21E3S2T,-
+iversity means variation and a clear difference. &nd in the study of organizational behavior it means
different people working in a group and organization. &s in today.s environment people come from different
countries and regions with different cultures, races, languages, values and norms so we say that today.s
firms and organizations have become diverse. &nother face of diversity means that people of different age
groups ?young and old@ and both genders ?male and female@ work in the same organization. This "+iversity#
makes the organizations a mi/ture of different people. So this has become a challenge and test for the
management to manage this diversity to make the organization an efficient one.
EB&A'E-C
The ;( or ;nited (ations !rganization and many international organizations and ()!s have a diverse
management as there are people with different cultures and nationalities working in the same organization
side by side.

3E&S!(S *!3 +21E3S2T,
Some of the reasons for diversity in organizations all over the world and particularly in &merica are
'egislations and laws, competitive pressures, desire and need for more diverse viewpoints, rapidly growing
international business, and changing work force demographics.

5. laws and legislations4
The most important reason for the diversity in organizations is laws and legislations. The political and
legal systems have compelled organizations the organizations to hire more broadly and provide equal
opportunity to all the employees regardless of their gender, race or color.
EB&A'E4
&ge +iscrimination &ct 5DEF- 2n ;S& this law first increased the age for retirement from GH to EI years
and then eliminated this upper age limit.

7. competitive pressures4
Today all the organizations compete with each other and to cope with this pressure organizations hire
more diverse work force to have an edge over their competitors and to make use of the talents and
capabilities of their diverse work force.
EB&A'E- C any companies these days hire more women and minorities to take advantage of their talents
and capabilities to perform their works and tasks in a better way.

9. desire for diverse viewpoints4
2n the process of management, one point of view can not be effective and as useful as many thoughts
and viewpoints. So if organizations have people with different cultures and backgrounds so they will have
difference in behavior and thinking and their ideas will differ from one another. &nd this is one strong reason
for the diversity of organizations.
EB&A'E- 2n management we need solution to a problem. 2f we have different ideas and thoughts then it is
much easier for the manager to choose the best solution.

<. rapidly growing international business4
2nternational companies have their operations in many countries and the number of international companies.
increases day by day. So the diversity in these companies and firms also increases as people form different
parts of the world come together to work in one group and organization. Therefore, rapid and fast growing
international business is another factor for the increase in diversity.

H. 0!3J *!3$E +E!)3&A%2$S4
+emographics means the knowledge and information about the characteristics like age, gender, income,
race, religion, education, lifestyle, language and ethnicity any population in an area. 0ork force
demographics means the characteristics ?mentioned above@ of the workers or employees. The following
characteristics of work force demographics will give us an idea about the diversity in organizations.

H.5 &)E-
The number of workers under the age of twenty five is decreasing. 0hile the number of workers in the group
thirty five to fifty four groups is increasing. The reason for this is the decrease in number of children in ;S
families. &nother reason is the &ge +iscrimination &ct 5DEF due to which the number of the older workers is
increasing. ?The graying &merica@
The changing age of the workers is forcing organizations to make ad8ustments. !ne is learning how to deal
with the older workers like how to deal with the needs and demands of old workers. $ompanies now must
listen to them because they can not discriminate on the basis of age. !n the other hand, organizations must
also make sure that they fulfill the requirements of their younger workers too.

H.7 )E(+E3-
Besides age composition, there are also changes occurring in gender composition. 0omen have been
entering the work force in great numbers in the recent years. 2n 5DEH, <IK of the work force in ;S& was
women and this percentage increased to <EK by the year 5DDI. So, as the number of women increase in
organizations it also increases the diversity of those organizations.

H.9 ET%(2$2T,-
Ethnicity deals with the division of mankind in groups according to traits, customs and background etc. in an
organization people come with different ethnicities. *or e/ample4 &sians, &frican &mericans, 3ed 2ndians etc

H.< E+;$&T2!(-
Education is another important aspect of demographics. The education level of the ;S force has been
increasing in the last few years. But it has also been found that the number of illiterates is also increasing.
So, the education level of the work force also plays an important role in the diversity.
E/ample4 & manufacturing company wanted to apply a new management to a firm but that management
technique failed. 2nspection was done and it was found that only 9HK of the work force was literate and the
rest were illiterate and two third of them didn.t have the basic knowledge of mathematics.
&(&)2() +21E3S2T,
There are a number of ways to manage diversity and its accompanying problems in an organization.
Therefore, the first step should be developing a multicultural organization.

;'T2$;'T;3&' !3)&(26&T2!(-
& multicultural organization is one that4

a. 2n which the contributions and interests of diverse cultural and social groups are stated in its mission and
are reflected by its services and products.

b. &cts to eliminate and finish all kinds of social and cultural discrimination within the organization.

c. The organization must include members of all groups and cultures in decision making.

d. $onsiders eradication and elimination of social oppressions as its responsibility.

2(+212+;&' &AA3!&$%ES T! &(&)2() +21E3ST,-
+iversity can be managed by the individuals in two ways

5. 'E&3(2()-
any managers are often unprepared to deal with diversity4 because of their ine/perience they do not know
how to respond. To better prepare themselves, managers must work hard to learn and e/perience as much
as they can about developing appropriate behavior. They can learn more by communicating oneConCone with
the young and old employees, women, minorities, and those with disablement in order to determine how
best to understand and interact with them. 2n this way managers can learn more about a diverse group.s
characteristics and how the workers want to be treated. anagers should also develop personal style that
works well with each worker of a diverse group. anagers can also ask their workers to tell him truthfully
that how they want him to treat them and so he can ad8ust his behavior towards each worker.

7. EA&T%,-
Empathy means to put yourself in other person.s place and see things from his point of view. Empathy is
closely related with learning. 2t is important in the study of diversity because members of diverse group think
and feel that only they can truly understand the challenges and problems they are facing.
*or e/ample, women complain about discrimination on the basis of gender and se/ual harassment in a male
dominated society. Empathy is an important way to deal with many problems because it helps the manager
to understand the point of view of the employee. 0hen dealing with the minorities and those with physical
disables a manager should take special care and know their feelings. The manager should care about the
employee but he should make sure that the employee should not feel that he is receiving a special
treatment. *or e/ample, when a member of a minority group or a disable person is promoted they may like
the increase in pay or salary and prestige. But at the same time they may feel that they are getting special
treatment because of their disability or minority.
2n short, learning and empathy are very important for managers to manage a diverse organization or
a group effectively and efficiently.

!3)&(26&T2!(&' &AA3!&$% T! &(&)2() +21E3S2T,-
!rganizational approaches to managing diversity include a variety of techniques. Some of the common
techniques are testing, training, mentoring and programs designed to help personnel effectively balance
their work and family life.

5. TEST2()4

ost of the tests have been culturally biased. 2t means that they are made for only a particular culture and
are not valid to all cultures. So, those who do not belong to that culture perform poor on these tests.
Therefore, in a really multicultural organization, the tests should be designed so that they have suitability for
all people regardless of their cultures. !ne way to make tests more valid for diverse employees in to use
8obCspecific tests rather than the general aptitude tests. *or e/ample, when an ()! needs word processing
personnel it can give a timed test for accuracy and speed measurement rather than a general test. &nd
select the best applicant without the considerations of age, gender, social class.

7. T3&2(2()4
Training can play important role in two ways. !ne is providing training to the diverse groups. The second is
providing training and education to the managers. & technique most widely used by some researchers on
management involves putting the trainees into ethnic groups. Then each group is asked to describe other
groups. The purpose of this e/ercise is to gain insight and knowledge about the way one group perceives
other group. Then at the end both workers and managers are trained how to better communicate and
understand other groups. &nother technique is diversity board games, which requires the participants to
answer questions related to gender, race, age issues, cultural differences, and disabilities.
!n the basis of the response the players are given numbers. This game is very useful as it makes the
players understand laws and rules without forcing them.

9. E(T!32()-
& mentor is a trusted counselor, coach, or advisor who provides assistance and advices. 2n recent years,
many organizations have begun assigning mentors to women and minorities. The purpose of mentor
program is to help members of a diverse group in their 8obs, socialize them in the cultural values of the
organization to improve their working and solve their problems. entors are useful as they4
Arovide instructions in specific skills and knowledge needed to perform the 8ob.
%elp the workers understand the written rules and regulations of the organization.
&nswer the problems and questions of the workers.
!ffer emotional support.
Serve as a role model.
$reate and environment in which mistakes can be made without losing self confidence.

<. 0!3JL *&2', A3!)3&S-
(owadays, in most countries most of the both parents have to work and this gives them less time to look
after their children and spent time on family matters. So, to solve these problems a number of methods and
techniques are given.

M*le/time, it allows workers greater choice in choosing their timings for the work.
Mcompressed work weeks, in this arrangement all the work of the week is compressed in to fewer working
days. %ence giving more time for the families to get together.
MNob sharing, it is splitting a fullCtime 8ob position between two people.
Mtelecommunicating, it is gaining popularity. 2n this arrangement the workers can do their office work at
homes.
MJindergartens within organizations, these help the mothers work better while their children are looked after
in the kindergarten.

ET%2$S &(+ ET%2$&' A3!B'ES

Ethics involves moral issues and deals with right and wrong behavior. Some of the important ethical issues
are se/ual harassment, pay and promotion issues and privacy problems.
a. SEB;&' %&3&SSE(T-
Se/ual harassment in the work place can be defined as unwelcome se/ual advances, requests for se/ual
favors or other physical conduct of a se/ual nature. 2n simple words it means un8ust actions on the basis of
se/ or gender. There are a number of ways in which se/ual harassment can be avoided by organizations.
Taking initiative to implement a meaningful program that eliminates discrimination and harassment.

%aving a committed top management, that takes effective action in a better way.
+eveloping programs that strives and tries to change behavior of people.
aking company policies that has rules regarding harassment and discrimination.

b. A&, &(+ A3!!T2!( +2S$322(&T2!(-
+iscrimination in pay and promotion is another legal and ethical issue. 2n ;S&, males have more earnings
than women and whites also have more earning than blacks and other minority groups. &lthough laws and
regulations are passed to eliminate discrimination on the basis of gender, race or ethnicity but still they are
not put into full action by the organizations.

c. EA'!,EE A321&$, 2SS;ES-
Arivacy means physical separateness from others. 2n the sense of ethical issues privacy means that the
employer should not enter in the private matters of the workers. $omputer technology, drug testing and
dictating the lifestyles of the workers are some privacy issues and problems. 2n organizations the workers
should be given full privacy and there should be laws and rules that about the privacy.

In-o%a!"on Tec&nolo$. and Global"/a!"on

2nformation technology ?2T@ and )lobalization are two of the most important challenges faced by an
organization in today.s environment and they are two of the most important factors for bringing a change in
the environment of the organizations today. They are discussed separately below.

2(*!3&T2!( TE$%(!'!),, "2T#
2nformation Technology means the impact of technology progress and its use in organizations. 2nformation
Technology is the ways in technology is used to transmit information from one place to another and the use
of technology in the lives of people. 2nformation technology has made a tremendous impact in the last two
decades and there have been many inventions in the last century and this sudden increase in the inventions
and information technology e/plosions have really had a great impact on the organizations in today.s world.
*or e/ample- 2t took radio 9F years to reach HI million users, T1 took 59 years while the 2nternet took 8ust H
years.
The reasons for the fast increase in the impact of 2nformation Technology can be categorized into the
following three4

5. 2nformation technology has not only an impact on all the sectors of an economy of country. But it can also
affect every function within an organization. *or e/ample and automobile today has more computerized
parts than the shuttle that went to moon in 5DGE. 2nformation Technology also has an affect on the design,
engineering, manufacturing and service of the automobile. &nd 2nformation Technology also affects the
sales of cars as half of the people are affected to buy a new car by the internet. So, it can be stated that
2nformation Technology has had a great impact on the production of car these days and so can be the case
in each and other industry.

7.The cost of the computers has fallen tremendously low. &nd the cost of the cost of the processor power
falls an average 9I K each year. 2t costs oneChundredth of one percent of the price of a computer in 5DEIs.
So, this sudden decrease in prices of computers has made it affordable for almost all the businesses and
organizations to take advantage of the numerous benefits that the computers give and that are why in
today.s world all the businesses use the technology of computer in their processes and companies.

9. $omputers and the latest 2nformation Technology have two sided benefits4 they can be an input into the
process of the organizations as well as a product. !n one hand, the use of technology and computers can
revolutionize production but on the other hand it can be produced in different shapes and forms as final
products for others to use too. So, this dual benefit of 2nformation Technology has made this boost and
increase in the demand and use of computers.

ECBusiness
2nternet is the hot cake these days. 2t has many far reaching benefits and like all the other aspects of life it
has a great impact on the business and dealings too. ost of the customers can buy things and take part in
auctions and biddings online. (ow it is easy for a person to get online and see the features of a product in
&merica and then order for it and he will receive it on his address at his home in &sia. So, internet has really
opened a new chapter in the business book.
Today one third of the world.s population has an access to the internet and it is predicted that the number
will increase to DIK in the ne/t five years and it means that most of the dealings and business deals will
take online4 not only with customers but also business to business ?B7B@ and most of the firms and
businesses deal with one another online and it will increase in the coming years. &nd a time will come in the
very near future that the business that will not be an internet business will not be a business at all. So, it can
be said that EC$ommerce or ECBusiness is another great impact of 2nformation Technology on the
businesses and the way they do their transactions.

2nternets
2nternet can be great, it has many uses and but it is never without problems. %ackers and viruses can be
really damaging and once they affect a system it all becomes useless. So, to overcome this problem
organizations and corporations have made their own networks which can connect all the departments
without any connection to the internet and these networks are called intranets. 2ntranets have the advantage
that they make the communication inside the organization quite easy and fast. &ll the terminals can use and
access the knowledge from the main computer.

)'!B&'26&T2!(
)lobalization is another ma8or challenge in the conte/t of management. +ue to advancements in technology
and transportation and communication this world has become a smaller place. (ow it is not difficult for an
&merican company to market its products in Europe and in &sia. So, in a sense the whole world has
become a big market place where all the companies and producers of products and services compete
against each other. This is forecasted that in the very near future all the companies will compete against
each other on a global basis.
So, globalization is one of the main challenges that has an impact on the organizations and will have more
impact on organizations in the near future.

2A&$T !* $;'T;3E
$ulture can be defined as the acquired knowledge that people use to interpret e/perience and generate
social behavior. Some others would define the term culture as "the comple/ of knowledge, beliefs, laws and
norms, foods, life style, language, taboos values and other elements to be the member of a society.$ulture
has one of the greatest impacts on the organizations and the behavior of people in that organization. &s the
organizations become more and more diverse with people from different backgrounds and cultures, and as
the international business increases day by day the impact of culture increases as well. 2t is ironic but very
true that when one organization starts business in any other culture it has to organize itself and its products
and services
according to the needs of that particular culture to be successful, because things that may be liked in one
culture will be all not seen to be very good in any other culture or society.

%!*STE+E.S $;'T;3&' +2E(S2!(S
%ofstede carried out a research to find the culture variables in different societies. %is research covered EI
countries and he divided the cultural dimensions into four categories.

5. Aower +istance
Aower distance is the e/tent to which lessCpowerful members of organizations accept the unequal
distribution of power, that is, the degree to which employees accept that their boss has more power than
they do. !r it is the e/tent to which lessCpowerful members of the organization feel that the power is not
distributed equally at all the levels of management. 2n some cultures and countries there is a lot of difference
in power between the boss and the subordinates ?e/ico@ while in other cultures there is less of a formality
in organizations and boss has less of an influence on the subordinates ?;S&@.

7. ;ncertainty &voidance
;ncertainty avoidance is the e/tent to which people feel threatened by ambiguous situations and the degree
to which they try to avoid these situations by doing such things as-
M Aroviding greater career stability.
MEstablishing more formal rules.
M3e8ecting deviant ideas and behavior.
M&ccepting the possibility of absolute truths and the attainment of e/pertise.

$ountries with high uncertainty avoidance there is a fi/ed and rigid organizational and changes are less
accepted ?Napan@. These cultures try to minimize risks and stick to the rules. 0hile on the other hand, the
cultures with low uncertainty avoidance ?;S&@ people take more risks and risk is encouraged and there is
more fle/ibility in the organizations.

9. 2ndividualismL $ollectivism
2ndividualism is the tendency to take care of one.s self and own immediate family while collectivism is
characterized by a high degree of tight social network in which people distinguish between their own group
and other groups. 2n a collective culture people have to take responsibility of their relatives too while in
individualism a person will strive for his own needs and immediate family needs. $ountries like &fghanistan
and Aakistan are characterized by collectivism while people in western countries have the characteristic of
individualism.

<. asculinityL *emininity
asculinity can be defined as giving importance to and valuing "oney, Aower and material things# while on
the other side of the coin lies femininity which is characterized by valuing ":uality of 'ife# over money, power
and material acquisitions. 2n countries with masculine qualities ?;S& and Napan@ the managers tend to be
very assertive and materialistic while in cultures with feminine nature the organizational managers tend to
stress on quality of life rather than the material gains and power ?Scandinavian countries like (orway@.
THE PERCEPTION PROCE++

AE3$EAT2!(-
The way a in which a person or an individual sees and understands the world. 2n other words, perception
is to recognize a unique interpretation of the situation, not the e/act recording of it. 3ecognition of the
difference between the perceptual and real world and real world is vital to the understanding of
organizational behavior. So, we should know that there is a difference between real and perceptual world.
Every person perceives the world in his own way and understanding. &nd sometimes when our perception is
different from the real world it creates problems and misunderstandings. *or e/ample, many managers think
and perceive that their subordinates always want promotions, when, in fact, many workers or subordinates
feel uncomfortable and forced with the promotions. So, the perceptual world of managers is often quite
different from that of subordinates and yet both may be quite different from the real world.
SE(S&T2!( 1E3SES AE3$EAT2!(
Sensation is the way human beings use their sensory organs to e/perience color, loudness, taste, scent and
smell and heat. There are five senses, vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. But perception is the
complicated process of interaction of selection, organization, and interpretation of stimuli. &lthough,
perception depends upon the senses for raw data, the cognitive process may filter, modify, or completely
change these data.

E/amples of the difference between sensation and perception are4
M The purchasing agent buys a part that she thinks is best, not the part the engineer says is best.
M The same worker may be viewed by one supervisor as a very good worker and by another supervisor as a
very poor worker.
M The same cooking oil may be viewed healthy by a doctor and not good by any other individual.

AE3$EAT;&' SE'E$T212T,-
(umerous stimuli constantly confront everyone. The noise of air conditioners, the sound of other
people talking and moving, and outside noises from cars and vehicles, planes, and many other sounds are
heard by us every minute but why and how people select a specific stimulus or a few stimuli at a given time=
The answers can be found in the principles of perceptual selectivity.

a@ E/ternal attention factors
b@ 2nternal set factors

a,01 E2TERNAL ATTENTION FACTOR+,
any e/ternal factors affect perceptual selectivity. These factors are4

5. 2(TE(S2T,-
The intensity principle states that the more intense the e/ternal stimulus, the more likely it is to be perceived.
& loud noise, strong odor, or bright light will be noticed more than a soft voice, weak odor or dim light.
&dvertisers use this principle to gain the attention of customers. E/amples include bright packaging and T1
commercials that are slightly louder to gain attention. So, supervisors may yell at their subordinates to get
their attention but sometimes it may turn the subordinate off instead of gaining their attention.

7. S26E-
2t says that the larger the ob8ect, the more likely it will be perceived. The maintenance engineering staff
may pay more attention to a big machine than a smaller one even the smaller may cost much more than the
bigger one. Therefore, a GCfoot HCinch, 7HI pound supervisor gets more attention than a HCfoot GCinch, 5GI
pound supervisor.

9. $!(T3&ST-
This principle states that a stimulus which stands out against the background gets more attention.
Therefore, safety signs have black lettering on a yellow background or white lettering on red back ground.
E/ample-C a worker with many years of e/perience hardly notices the deafening noise in a manufacturing
company. %owever, if one or more machines stop working the person suddenly notices the difference.

<. 3EA2T2!(-
2t means that a repeated ob8ect is more attention getting than a single one. Thus, it is better to give
directions more than once for a dull or difficult 8ob. This e/plains why supervisors have to repeat themselves
even for the simplest of tasks to make the workers understand.

H. !T2!(-
The motion principle states that a moving ob8ect gets more and more attention than a stationary one. *or
e/ample, the workers pay more attention to the moving ob8ects like a conveyer belt than a stationary
machine placed beside them.

G. (!1E'T, &(+ *&2'2&32T,-
(ovelty means something new and fresh and familiarity means something known and e/perienced. So, the
principle of novelty and familiarity states that new ob8ects in familiar settings and familiar ob8ects in new
settings get more attention. Nob rotation is an e/ample of it. 3ecent researches show that 8ob rotation not
only increased attention but also improved employees, learning skills.

B,01INTERNAL +ET FACTOR+,
Some factors that affect the selectivity of perception of are following4

5. 'E&3(2() &(+ AE3$EAT2!(-
'earning may play the most important role in developing perceptual set. 3ead the following.
TURN
OFF THE
THE ENGINE
2t will take you several seconds to realize there is something wrong. Because of familiarity with the sentence
from prior learning, the person is perceptually set to read "Turn off the engine# ignoring the second T%E in it.
This shows that learning affects selectivity of perception, because the people read and see what they e/pect
to see and hear. &nother e/ample can be
)0A0C0T0V0I0+0H
)0A0C0D0O0N0A0L0D
)0A0C0B0E0T0H
)0A0C0H0I0N0E0R0*

2f the last word was pronounced " acC%inery# instead of machinery, the reader was caught in a verbal
response set.

5. AE3$EAT;&' SET 2( 0!3JA'&$E-
2n organization life, some employees have learned to perceive the world around them in the same way. *or
e/ample, a recent study shows that the functional background ?e.g., accounting, finance, marketing, and
human resources@ of a sample of managers significantly affect the changes they perceive in their
organizations. effectiveness.
&nother common e/ample is the difference in perception that occurs between the union and management.
Some researchers say that perceptual differences are a ma8or e/planation of disputes in organizations and
firms. *or e/ample, union members may perceive that they are underpaid, whereas management may
perceive that they are overpaid for the amount they work. &nd so this difference in perception starts a
dispute.

7. !T21&T2!( &(+ AE3$EAT2!(-
otivation also plays an important role in perceptual selectivity. *or e/ample, a person who has a relatively
high need for power, affiliation, or achievement will be more attentive to the relevant situation. &n e/ample is
the worker who has a strong need for affiliation. 0hen such a worker walks into the lunchroom, the table
where several coworkers are sitting tends to get more attention and the empty table gets no attention.

9. AE3S!(&'2T, &(+ AE3$EAT2!(-
Aersonality of the perceiver also affects what is attended to in confronting situations. *or e/ample, the senior
managers often complain that the younger mangers have trouble making tough decisions in management
like the firing and hiring of personnel. The young managers, on the other hand, say that the old managers
resist the change in rules and paperwork which ends against them.
AE3$EAT;&' !3)&(26&T2!(
The perceptual process organizes the incoming information into a meaningful whole. 2n other words, the
perceivers. mind organizes the information in such a way that it can give meaning and is understandable.
*or e/ample, when a basket ball is shown to a student he does not see it as round ob8ect made of grain
te/ture leather but he perceives it as a ball which provides fun and e/citement as participants or spectators.

5.*2);3E )3!;(+-

The figure ground principle means simply that perceived ob8ects stand out separable from their background.
2t can be effectively demonstrated as one is reading the following items. &t first glance, the receiver is
receiving patches of irregularly shaped black and white shapes.
only when the white letters are perceptually organized against a black background the words *', and T2E
8ump out.
7. AE3$EAT;&' )3!;A2()-
2t states that there is a tendency to group several stimuli together into a recognizable pattern. 0hen people
are presented with stimuli they tend to group them into closure, pro/imity and similarity.

$losure- it means that people sometimes perceive a whole when it does not e/ist. *or e/ample, a manager
perceives complete agreement of his workers on a given pro8ect, when, in fact, there was opposition from
several workers.

a. Aro/imity- it means closeness and nearness. This principle states that stimuli and things close together
are perceived to be parts of a single whole. *or e/ample, a number of workers working on a single machine
are perceived as one.

b. Similarity- when ob8ects and things are similar they are perceived as in the same group.
*or e/ample, workers wearing same uniform tend to be perceived as one although they have their own
different personalities.

2A3ESS2!( &(&)EE(T-
2mpression management ?sometimes called "selfCpresentation#@ is the process by which people attempt to
manage or control the perceptions others form of them. There is often a tendency that people present
themselves so as to impress others in a desirable way.

EA'!,EE 2A3ESS2!( &(&)EE(T ST&3&TE)2ES-
There are two tactics which the employees use in impression management. 2f employees are trying to
minimize responsibility for some negative event or to stay out of trouble, they may employ a demotionC
preventative strategy. !n the other hand if they are seeking to ma/imize responsibility for a positive
outcome or to look better than they really are, then they can use promotionCenhancing strategy.

+emotionCpreventative strategy4
a' &ccounts4 these are employees attempts to e/cuse or 8ustify their actions. *or e/ample, he says he was
not feeling well.
b' &pologies4 when there is no logical way they may apologize to he boss for what went wrong and promises
that it won.t happen again.
c' +isassociation4 when employees are indirectly associated with something that went wrong they will say
that it was not their fault and its some one else.s mistake.

AromotionCenhancing strategy4
a' Entitlements4 in this case employees feel that they have not been credited for a positive outcome and they
try to note to key people that they are pleased that their suggestion and efforts worked out so well.
b' Enhancements4 here employees may have received credit but they point out that they really did more and
had a bigger than originally thought. *or e/ample, their idea did not only solve the problem but can also be
used in the future.
c' !bstacle disclosure4 in this case, employee identifies either personal ?health or family@ or organizational
?lack of resources@ they have overcome to accomplish an outcome. They are trying to create the impression
that as despite of these difficulties they faced they obtained positive outcome so they deserve a lot of credit.
d' &ssociation4 here, the employee makes sure to be seen with the right people at the right times. This
creates the perception that the employee is well connected and is associated with the right people.

)OTIVATING PERFOR)ANCE THROUGH 3OB DE+IGN AND GOAL
+ETTING

otivating the employees has always been a very crucial point for the managers and administrators.
3esearches show that the more relevant e/perience the 8ob holders have, the better 8ob they tend to do. 2n
other words, if a person has some e/perience and background in any task or 8ob heL she will do better in that
field. So, workers should be employed on the basis of their knowledge and past e/perience about any 8ob.
*or e/ample, a person who has a background in finance should always be given works related to finance
and accounting calculations and a person who has studied or has e/perience in management should always
be hired in the management department. 2n this way, they will have a much better performance and output.
But some researchers also assert that there is a body of knowledge supporting the idea that certain 8ob
designs and goal setting can enhance performance.

3OB DE+IGN,
Nob design has emerged as a very new technique and idea used to motivate workers in the field of
organizational behavior. 2n the recent years much work and progress is made in the 8ob designing and a lot
of theories have been presented for 8ob designing to better motivate the workers. 2nitially, the field of
organizational behavior paid attention only to 8ob enrichment approaches to 8ob design. But now the new
approaches like 8ob engineering, 8ob enrichment, 8ob enlargement, and 8ob rotation have broadened the
perspective of 8ob design. Some of these techniques or approaches are stated below.

3OB ENGINEERING,
*rederick 0. Taylor was a leading scientific manager and he suggested that 8ob design may be the most
important element in better management. %e studied how to increase the efficiency of humans in 8obs. So,
the scientific management approach was evolved into what is now called the 8ob engineering. This 8ob
engineering approach is concerned with product, process, and tool design4 plant layout4 standard operating
procedures4 work measurement and standards4 work methods4 and humanCmachine interactions. So,
keeping this approach in mind different systems were designed to make the workers more efficient and hard
working. *or e/ample, sophisticated computer applications involving artificial intelligence ?&2@, e/pert
systems and soft wares and computerCassisted design ?$&+@ were designed to increase the working power
and efficiency of workers. So, with the introduction of these systems the 8obs became much more
specialized ?the employee did one or a very few tasks@ and standardized ?the employee did the task the
same way every time@.
*or e/ample, a person working in a factory used to do the same 8ob each time and every day. Same was the
case with the offices and banks4 a person used to do only one 8ob and their works was brief and specialized.
This approach was very successful at first and the results were very productive and satisfactory. Though
these specialized and standardized 8obs were practiced till 5DGIs and employers had a better control over
the 8obs and it was cost saving but still some problems were arising out of this system and side effects like
boredom, quality of work, absenteeism and turnover were ignored.

3OB ENLARGE)ENT,
Nob enlargement is another approach to Nob +esign. 2t is horizontally loading the 8ob. !r it is the method in
which the number of tasks to be performed by a person is e/panded and hence made less specialized. Nob
enlargements make workers more hard working and they get knowledge of different tasks performed in an
organization.
*or e/ample, the work of a person working in finance department can be enlarged as he has to do some of
the tasks of management department.

3OB ROTATION,
&nother approach to task or 8ob design is Nob 3otation. 2t is the technique in which the worker is switched
2t means that the tasks to be performed by one person are changed after a certain period of time. Nob
rotation is done to avoid boredom and monotony in workers. The new tasks need more attention and hence
workers don.t get dull and bored.
*or e/ample4 a person working as a receptionist can be given the task of a cashier and then the 8ob of a
secretary. So, in this case the problem of boredom can be solved. But techniques like 8ob enlargement and
8ob rotation have the drawbacks of dissatisfaction and declining efficiency and productivity.
3OB ENRICH)ENT,
Nob enrichment is concerned with designing 8obs that include a greater variety of work content4 require a
higher level of knowledge and skill4 give workers more autonomy and responsibility in terms of planning,
directing, and controlling their own performance4 and provide the opportunity for personal growth and a
meaningful work e/perience. &s opposed to 8ob enlargement, which horizontally loads the work or 8ob, 8ob
enrichment vertically loads the 8ob4 there are not necessarily more tasks to perform, but more responsibility
and accountability.
E/ample4 if a person works in a factory line to make a part of product and another person to make another
part and at last the inspector to check the product. The 8ob can be enriched by giving the knowledge to the
person how to make all the parts of the product and 8oin them together and at last inspecting the product
himself. Nob enrichment technique is very viable and result giving method still it does not give solution to all
the problems of 8ob designing.

GOAL,
")oals are the end results towards which an organization or a team works#.
!3
)oals are the estimated result e/pected in the future. 2t should be stated here that goals and ob8ectives are
mostly the same thing.
E/ample4 building 7III rooms for the drought refugees in the camp near %erat in two months was a goal of
%abitat, ;(+A.
)oals must be4
M :uantifiable
M easurable
M %ave a target time
M 2nteract with other goals.
M Should be according the overall goals of the organization.
GOAL +ETTING,0
)oal setting is the much debated fields in organizations and in management that how should the goals be
set and design to get better performances out of the workers. Setting goals high give very fruitful and
satisfactory results and they are quite useful for enhancing the output of workers. But often setting goals is
not that easy and that is why most managers fail to set proper goals and the reason is failure and unwanted
results. Some practical guidelines to improve the performance through goal setting are4

5. Specific goals are better than vague or general goals such as "do your best# or "increase the
production#. 2n other words when the goals are specific, precise and concrete they give much better results
than the general, ambiguous and unclear goals.
E/ample- for e/ample the above vague and general goals can be specified and made clear like "do your
best to finish this work up till <-II !.clock# and "increase the production by two units every day#.

7. Difficult, challenging goals are better than relatively easy, mundane goals. But the goals should not be
too high or set so that their achievement and attaining become frustrating for the workers.
E/ample- if the workers produce two 5II units of any product in a day a relatively harder and challenging
goal can be producing 57I units but if the goal is set at 7II units a day it will be too much and very difficult
to achieve.

9. Owned and accepted goals which are set after the mutual agreement of managers and workers are
more preferred and result giving. 2n other words, when workers themselves set their goals, independently or
by participation, are more dedicated and responsible to achieve the goals rather than when others ser the
goals for them.
E/ample- if a worker sets his goal himself the results will be much better than when the employer sets the
goals for him to be achieved.

<. Objective and timely feedback about progress toward goals is preferable to no feedback. The
researchers on goal setting say that when workers are given accurate and on time feedback and response
on their going and progress they perform better than giving no feedback.

+TRETCH GOAL+,
)oal stretching is widely recognized as a technique used to enhance and improve the performance of
workers. But this technique fails when the managers set the goals very high and the required support is not
given to the workers and hence the workers have to work longer than their scheduled timings. *or e/ample,
top management may ask the workers to increase the production by 7HK but fails to provide the knowledge,
tools, and means to reach such an ambitious goal as a result the workers have to work more and even in the
evenings and weekends to meet the goals.
But if the management calculates and e/amines what needs to be done and how it has to occur it can be
really beneficial. *our rules that can help the organizations create stretch goals without e/hausting and
burning out their human resources.
M +o not set the goals that overly stress people
M 2f the goals require people to stretch, do not punish them if they fail.
M 2f they are being asked to do things that they have never done before, give them whatever tools and help
are available.
M )ive financial awards when the goals are achieved.

T%E &AA'2$&T2!( !* )!&' SETT2() T! !3)&(26&T2!(-C
The application of goal setting and appraisal by results of overall organizational systems generally follows
the series of systematic steps outlined in the figure below. &s shown, once the organization is developed to
the point of accommodating the performance system, individual ob8ectives are set. Then periodic appraisals
are conducted and feedback is given on progress and ad8ustments are made. &nd at last a final appraisal of
results is conducted.

T%E &AA'2$&T2!( !* )!&' SETT2() T! S,STE AE3*!3&($E

Set overa o!"ectives a#$ actio# %a#s

&eveo% the or'a#izatio#
Set i#$ivi$(a o!"ectives a#$ actio# %a#s

)o#$(ct %erio$ic a%%raisas a#$ %rovi$e fee$!ack o# %ro'ress* make
a$"(stme#ts

)o#$(ct fi#a a%%raisa of res(ts

CONFLICT+ AND NEGOTIATION+

$!(*'2$T-
$onflict means disagreement, clash, difference of opinion and variance.
$onflict can occur at the individual, interpersonal, group and organizational levels. $onflicts create
difficulties in management and the working of organizations and groups.
Some kinds of conflicts are discussed briefly below.

!rganizational
2ntergroup
2nterpersonal
2ntraCindividual

2(T3&C2(+212+;'&' $!(*'2$T-
2ntraCindividual conflict means the conflicts that occur within one individual. &s a person has different goals
and needs. So when some times he does not reach those goals due to some factors and difficulties there
arise a clash and conflict within the individual which is called intraCindividual conflict. 0ithin every one
individual there are usually
M & number of competing goals and needs
M & variety of ways that those roles and drives can be e/pressed
M any types of barriers that can occur between the drive and the goal, and
M Both positive and negative aspects attached to the desired goals.

$!(*'2$T +;E T! *3;ST3&T2!(-
*rustration occurs when a motivated drive is blocked before a person reaches a desired goal. The barrier
may be either overt ?outward or physical@ or covert ?inward or mentalCsocioCpsychological@. & smooth
progression of the needCdriveC incentive motivational cycle and fulfillment of one.s e/pectations do not
always occur in reality. There are some difficulties and barriers that do not let a person achieve his goals
and so they cause in frustration.
E2A)PLE,
&n e/ample of frustrating situation might be that of a person who comes against a stuck door which prevents
him from reaching a water fountain. The reaction of the person is called his defenseCmechanism. The
reactions in a frustrating situation can be categorized into four groups4 aggression, withdrawal, fi/ation, and
compromise.
The person will have one of the above four mechanisms like4
)!&' $!(*'2$T-
&nother common source of conflict for a person or individual is a goal conflict that has both positive and
negative features. 0hereas in frustration, motives are blocked before the goal is reached, in goal conflict
two or more motives block one another. Three separate types of goal conflict are identified as4

1. Approach-approachconflict, where the person is to motivated to approach two or more positive but
mutually e/clusive goals.

2. Approach-avoidanceconflict, where the individual is motivated to approach a goal and at the same time is
motivated to avoid it. The single goal contains both positive and negative characteristics for the person.

9. Avoidance-avoidance conflict, where an individual is motivated to avoid to avoid two or more negative but
mutually e/clusive goals.
E/ample- when a person has to avoid two goals when they are not relevant to each other.

3!'E $!(*'2$T &(+ &B2);2T,-
& person has many roles to play in a society and the personality of a person has many faces and roles. *or
e/ample a person at the same time has many roles like a father, a brother, a son, a husband, a worker and
a friend. Every of the roles of the person has e/pectations and sometimes there arises a conflict among the
e/pectations of these roles and the person faces real pressure and depression in decision making.
E/ample4 in a company a person was working as a labor and now as a supervisor to check and control the
working of working of the other workers and to report to the top management. The person observes that one
of his closest friends and coworker is not performing the 8ob. The supervisor has two roles to play, as the
supervisor to report and his longtime friend may be fired and the second role as a friend and he has to
protect his friend by not reporting. (ow the person faces role conflict.

2(TE3AE3S!(&' $!(*'2$T-
$onflict between different people is called interpersonal conflict. *or e/ample4 the conflict between two
coworkers.
3E&S!(S-
3easons for interpersonal conflict are the following.
5. Personal differences; everyone has different values and preferences and the environment in which
everyone is grown is different from the others and hence everyone has a different personality which is
different from the others. So, personal differences is the main cause of personal conflict because no one has
the same family, education, values and beliefs. &nd there is often a disagreement which takes a very
emotional and aggressive appearance.

7. Information deficiency;this source of conflict and disagreement is due to the communication breakdown in
the organization. 2t is possible that in an organization two people have a conflict because they use different
information and hence they do not agree on a certain matter. This kind of conflict is also emotionally charged
but once the information is corrected there is no conflict.

9. Role incompatibility; sometimes a conflict arises because of the different roles played by different
persons. Sometimes what a person wants is not compatible and according to the needs of other person and
hence there is a conflict aroused between the two persons. *or e/ample, the work of a sales and marketing
manager is to increase sales and that of a production is to reduce costs to a minimum level. To reduce costs
the production manager keeps the inventory low ?say ten units of the product@ to avoid warehouse rent. (ow
suppose that the sales manager promises a customer the twenty units of the product and there are no more
that ten units and hence there is a conflict or clash created between the two managers which is due to the
different roles of the managers which don.t match.

<. Environmental stress; there can also be a pressure or stress in the environment which can cause
disagreement and conflict among the individuals. *or e/ample, downsizing ?when the organizations reduce
the size of their personal@ occurs the workers and employees want to remain employed and not to be hired
and this also causes a disagreement and conflict among all the workers for the less remaining positions and
posts.

T%E N!%&32 02(+!0-
& very popular framework for describing the interpersonal conflict is called the "Nohari 0indow# which was
put forward by two scientists Noseph 'uft and %arry 2ngham. The window is given below.
T%E "N!%&32 02(+!0#
THE PER+ON 4NO5+ THE PER+ON DOE+ NOT
ABOUT OTHER 4NO5 ABOUT OTHER

THE PER+ON 4NO5+
ABOUT HI)+ELF
THE PER+ON DOE+
NOT 4NO5 ABOUT
HI)+ELF

The above four cells summarize the following four things.

5. OPEN E!"# - 2n this form of interaction the person knows about himself or herself and about the other.
There would generally be openness and compatibility and little reason for argument. This type of
interpersonal relationship would tend to lead to little, if any, interpersonal.

7. $I%%EN E!"# - 2n this situation the person knows about himself or herself but not about the other
person. The reason is that the person remains hidden and from the other because of the fear of how the
other might react. The person may keep his real and true feelings or attitudes secret, not opening up to the
other. There is potential interpersonal conflict in this situation.

9. &!IN% E!"# C 2n this situation the person knows about the other but not about himself. The person may
be unintentionally irritating to the other. The other person could tell the person but is afraid of hurting his
feelings. So, like the hidden self there is potential conflict.

<. 'N%I(O)ERE% E!"# C 2n this situation both the individuals do not know about either their selves or
the others. So, it can.t get worse than this. The communication in this situation is very bad and it can give
rise to many misunderstandings and interpersonal conflicts.

ST3&TE)2ES *!3 2(TE3AE3S!(&' $!(*'2$T 3ES!';T2!(-
There are some sets of guidelines for the resolution of interpersonal conflicts. Asychologists have put
forward some very effective ways to deal with the interpersonal conflict. Two types of guidelines are given
below.
A1 !ne such list that can be effectively used to resolve interpersonal conflicts are4
5. odel the attitudes and behaviors you want your employees to follow.
7. 2dentify the source of conflict, structural or interpersonal.
9. *ocus on the task, not personalities.
<. &ddress conflict in a timely way.
H. 'earn from conflict.

B1 Too often when a conflict occurs between supervisorCsubordinate pairs, employeesCcustomers,
coworkers, or even friends or marriage partners, there tends to be either a fight ?personal attacks@ or a flight
?embarrassed silence or leaving@ response. (either is an effective way of handling interpersonal conflict.
ore appropriate for resolving conflict and preserving positive relationships would be to follow this process.
5. &llow time to cool off.
7. &nalyze the situation.
9. State the problem to the other person.

Some other strategies for resolving conflicts are like the winCwin approach but it is better to understand the
other two also.

'!SEC '!SE-C
2n this loseClose approach to conflict both the parties lose. This approach can take several forms. !ne very
common approach is to compromise or take the middle ground in a dispute. & second form can be to pay off

+
O,EN SE-.

/
HI&&EN SE-.

0
B-IN& SE-.

1
2&IS)OVERE& SE-.
one of the parties in the conflict. These payments can take the form of bribes. & third approach can be to
use an outside party or arbitrator to settle the dispute. & fourth approach can be to resolve the conflicts
through the e/isting rules and law. 2t can sometime resolve the conflicts but the results are not always as
desirable as winClose and especially winCwin approach.

7. 02(C'!SE-C

& winClose strategy is a very common way of resolving conflicts in the &merican and many other societies. 2n
this situation one party marshals its forces to win and the other party loses. Some characteristics of this
approach are4
a.There is a clear "weCthey# distinction between the parties.
b.The parties direct there struggles and forces towards each other in a victoryCdefeat atmosphere.
c.The parties see the issue from their own point of view.
d,The emphasis is on the solution rather than on the values, goals and ob8ectives.
e.$onflicts are personalized and 8udgmental.
f. There is no planned sequence of activities.
g.The parties take a shortCrun view of the issues.

9. 02(C02(-C
2t is the most desirable way of resolving conflicts. 2n this situation, the energies and struggles are directed to
solve the problem rather than beating the other party. The outcomes of this approach are so that both the
parties are happy and results have benefits for both the parties. &lthough this is the difficult most strategy to
solve the problems but this should be goal of the managers to resolve interpersonal conflicts.
2(TE3)3!;A BE%&12!3 &(+ $!(*'2$T
This type of conflict can be between two groups.

3E&S!(S-C
Some ma8or reasons for the intergroup conflict are4

1. (ompetition for reso*rces# - ost organizations have very limited resources and so is the case with the
group within organizations as there are limited budget funds, space, supplies, personnel, and support
services.

7. +as, interdependence# - 2f two groups in an organization depend on one another there tends to be more
conflict between the groups than if the groups are independent of one another.

9. -*risdictional ambi.*ity# - 0hen there is an ambiguity because of the roles and responsibilities of the two
or more groups there always arises a conflict. So, this type of conflict arises when the groups try to take
control of activities that do not relate to them.

<. tat*s str*..les# C This conflict arises when one group tries to improve its status and have an edge over
the other group and the other group perceives it as a threat to its position or status. !r when a group feels
that
they are not equally treated with other groups in an organization it gives rise to this type conflict.
E/ample- C 2n many organizations the human and resources department personnel think that they are not
given as much importance as the marketing, finance, and operations department.

T%E ST3&TE)2ES T! $!AE 2(TE3)3!;AC$!(*'2$T-C

5.&1!2+&($E-C this method attempts to avoid and ignore the conflict.
7. +E*;2S!(-C an attempt is made to deactivate the conflict and cool off emotions and hostilities of the
groups involved.
9. $!(T&2(ET(-C in this strategy the conflict is allowed to surface but it is carefully contained by spelling
out that which issues should be discussed and which not to be.
<. $!(*3!(T&T2!(-C in this method the problems are brought in to open discussion and both the parties
try to reach a mutual solution.

!3)&(26&T2!(&' $!(*'2$T

ST3;$T;3&' $!(*'2$T-
There are four types of structural conflicts.

5.%ierarchical conflict-C
There may be conflict among different levels of organization. The directors may be in conflict with the middle
management.
7. *unctional conflict-C
There may be conflict between different functional groups and departments in an organization. *or
e/ample4 a conflict between the marketing and production departments.
9. 'ineCstaff conflict-
There may be conflict between line and staff it often results from situations in which staff personnel do not
posses authority over line personnel
<. *ormalCinformal conflict-
There may be conflict between formal and informal organization. *or e/ample the informal organization.s
norms for performance may be incompatible with the formal organization.s norm for performance.
$!(*'2$T (E)!$2&T2!(S

5. '!0 32SJ (E)!T2&T2!( TE$%(2:;ES

a'Fla!!e%.,
Subtle flattery usually works best, but the standards may differ by age, se/, and cultural factors.
b' Add%ess"n$ !&e Eas. Po"n!s -"%s!,
This helps build trust and momentum for the tougher issues.
c' +"lence,
This can be effective but one must be careful not to provoke anger and frustrate in opponents.
d' O& Poo% )e,
This may lead to sympathy but could also bring out the killer instinct in opponents.
e' In-la!ed Open"n$ Pos"!"on,
This may illicit a counter offer that shows the opponents position or may shift the point of compromise.

7. %2)% 32SJ (E)!T2&T2!( TE$%(2:;ES-

a' Une6pec!ed Tepe% Losses,
2rrupting an anger can break an impasse in get one.s point across but in can also be viewed as immature or
manipulative and lead opponents to harden their positions.
b' H"$&0Ball"n$,
This is used to gain trust by appearing to give into the opponent.s position but when over turn by a high
authority concisions or gains based on the trust.
c' Boul7a%"s 8Ta9e "! o% Lea#e "!1,
This is a highly aggressive strategy that may also produce anger and frustration in opponents.
d' 5a"!"n$ Un!"l !&e Los! )oen!,
&fter using stall tactics and knowing the deadline is near, a reasonable but favorable offer is made. 'eaving
the opponent with little choice but to accept.
+TRE++, CAU+E+: EFFECT+: AND COPING +TRATEGIE+

E&(2() !* ST3ESS
Aeople usually take the meaning of "stress# in a negative sense. 2t is thought to be caused by something
really bad and unwanted. But it is not always due to some problem or trouble that we feel stress. Stress can
also be caused by good things, so, stress can be categorized into two types according to the causes,
distress and eustress.

&@ +2ST3ESS
0hen we face pressure and strain due to something bad happened it is called distress. *or e/ample, a
loved one is seriously ill, the boss gives formal warning for a poor performance, or a student has to do his
best to pass the e/aminations.

B@ E;ST3ESS
But there is also a positive, pleasant side of stress called by good things ?for e/ample, an employee is
offered a 8ob promotion, or a good looking attractive acquaintance asks for a date@. This type of stress is
called eustress. "Eu# a )reek word meaning good.

o/ stress can be defined as an adaptive response to the e0ternal sit*ation that res*lts in physical/
psycholo.ical or behavioral deviations for the participants.
2t is important to note here that stress is not-

5. +!%ess "s no! an6"e!., an/iety operates only in emotional and psychological area but stress has
psychological and emotional as well as physiological effects. Thus, stress also accompanies an/iety but the
two should not be equated.

7. +!%ess "s no! s"pl. ne%#ous !ens"on, Though stress may cause nervous tension like an/iety but the
two are not the same. (ervous tension can be a way in which people e/hibit and e/press stress.
9. +!%ess "s no! necessa%"l. soe!&"n$ daa$"n$: bad: o% !o be a#o"ded, Eustress is not damaging or
bad and is something that people should want rather than avoid it. The real matter is how people handle the
stress ?whether good or bad@. Stress is inevitable but distress can be controlled and prevented effectively.

ST&)ES !* ST3ESS
Stress can be divided into three different stages namely alarm, resistance, and e/haustion.

&@. &'&3
2n the alarm stage an outside stressor mobilizes the stress system of the individual. There are a number of
psychological and chemical reactions in the body, such as increased pituitary and adrenaline secretions4
noticeable increase in respiration, heart rate and blood pressure and a heightening of the senses.

B@. 3ES2S&T&($E
2f the stress continues beyond the alarm stage it enters a second phase called resistance. +uring this stage,
the body calls upon the corresponding organs to deal with the stressor. 0hen there is a lot of resistance
from the body to one stressor, the body becomes vulnerable and weak to other diseases. So, this is the
reason why a person also suffers other diseases when having stress.

$@. EB%&;ST2!(
*inally, if the problem persists over a long period of time, the reserves of the body e/hausts and the body
becomes weak. &nd it may return back to the first stage of alarm and a new cycle starts. 2t can really be very
hard on a person and even death occurs.

T%E $&;SES !* ST3ESS
Stressors that cause stress and affect the employees can be inside as well as outside the organization.
Some of the below are4
E6!%a0O%$an"/a!"onal +!%esso%s;O%$an"/a!"onal +!%esso%s;G%oup +!%esso%s;Ind"#"dual +!%esso%s<3ob +!%ess'

$ategories of stressors affecting occupational stress

5. EBT3&!3)&(26&T2!(&' ST3ESS!3S
2t has become very clear that the outside factors have a very important impact on the employees as
stressors.

0e know that most organizations today are open systems and therefore, it is clear that some e/ternal
factors also affect the working of the workers and 8ob stress is not limited 8ust to things inside an
organization during working hours. E/traCorganizational stressors include things such as
societalLtechnological change, the family, relocation, economic and financial conditions, race and class and
residential or community conditions.

a. technological stressors-
2n the last years, science and technology has made great advancements and progresses. Though the
medical science has made a lot of advancements but the problems of science has also been many and a
man has little peace of mind in this today.s world and people have less wellness. These are some of the
e/ternal stressors caused by the changes in lifestyle and progresses made in the field of science.

b. family-
*amily has a great impact as a 8ob stressor on a person. 0hether it.s the illness of a family member or the
strained relations with the spouse or children, they all affect the working of a person and have many bad
consequences.

c. sudden life changes-
'ife changes may be slow ?getting older@ or sudden ?the death of a person@. Sudden changes in life have a
dramatic effect on the health and working of a person. *or e/ample, divorces have a very stressful effect on
the 8ob performance of a person. Similarly, all the other sudden changes make the working of a person bad.
The more sudden the changes in the life the more stressful will be the effect.

d. sociological variables-
Social variables such as race, class and se/ ?gender@ can also become stressors. inority group ?such as
blacks and other minorities face stress in ;S&@ face many stresses in the same way woman have had and
still have many 8ob stresses due to their gender in the man dominated societies.

7. !3)&(26&T2!(&' ST3ESS!3S
There are also some stressors inside the organizations which make life difficult for the workers. Besides the
individual and group stressors there are some macroClevel organizational stressors that make life difficult for
the workers. Some of them can the following4
9. )3!;A ST3ESS!3S
0e have studied the effect of groups on the individuals and also teams and groups. The group can also be
the source of stress. These group stressors can be categorized into three areas-

a. 'ack of group cohesiveness- cohesiveness and togetherness is very important for group performances
and when there is not enough unity and coordination in the group then the result can be very stressC
producing.

b. 'ack of social support- employees are greatly affected by the support of one or more of their coworkers.
By sharing there problems and 8oys with others they are much better off. So, if a worker does not get support
from the others they feel very lonely and stressful.

c. 2ntraindividual, interpersonal and intergroup conflict- conflict is very closely related to stress. So, any kind
of conflict and disagreement can cause real strain and stress.

<. 2(+212+;&' ST3ESS!3S
&ll the other types of stressors ?for e/ample, e/traorganizational, organizational and group conflicts@ end up
in the in the form of individual stressors. *or e/ample, role conflict, ambiguity, and individual disposition
?nature@, personal control, selfCefficacy, learned helplessness and psychological hardiness may all affect the
level of stress someone e/periences.

T%E E**E$TS !* ST3ESS
Stress is not always harmful and dangerous, sometimes low levels of stress can even be helpful to enhance
8ob performance. *or e/ample, a change in the 8ob or even a change in the supervisor may make the worker
perform better and search for the new information. 2t also noted that mild stress can be very helpful to
activate the workers and hence make them do better and perform more than the normal. Though a little bit
of stress can be useful but it can strongly be concluded that4

&. The performance of many tasks is in fact strongly affected by stress.
B. Aerformance usually drops off sharply when stress rises to high levels.

A3!B'ES +;E T! ST3ESS
Stress can give rise to the following problems.
A%,S2$&' A3!B'ES +;E T! ST3ESS
& high level of stress is accompanied by high blood pressure and high levels of cholesterols and may even
result in heart diseases, ulcers and arthritis. 2t is to be noted here that all the heart diseases are not due to
the stress and many other factors also cause heart diseases.

AS,$%!'!)2$&' A3!B'ES +;E T! ST3ESS
The psychological problems that stress cause are as important as the physical problems. %igh levels of
stress can be accompanied by anger, an/iety, depression, nervousness, irritability, tension, and boredom.
!ne study shows that stress has the strongest impact on aggressive actions, such as sabotage,
interpersonal aggression, hostility, and complaints. &nd the result from the stress is relevant to poor 8ob
performance, lowered selfCesteem, dislike of supervision, inability to concentrate and make decisions, and
8ob dissatisfaction.

BE%&12!3&' A3!B'ES +;E T! ST3ESS
Beside the physical and psychological problems, stress can also give birth to many behavioral disorders like
overeating or under eating, sleeplessness, increased smoking and drinking, and drugs. Stress has also to
do with absenteeism and turnovers.

$!A2() ST3&TE)2ES *!3 ST3ESS
Tough stress is sometimes impossible to avoid but it is never impossible to manage and fight against stress.
Stress can be managed at the individual as well as the organizational level.

2(+212+;&' $!A2() ST3&TE)2ES
Today people are taking responsibility and they want to help themselves. So, people can make changes in
their lives and attitudes to cope with the stress and its problems. Some techniques that people can use to
manage stress are4

EBE3$2SE-

Today many people know the importance of e/ercise. Aeople of all ages are walking, 8ogging, swimming,
riding bicycles, or playing many different games and sports.
E/ercise can help people manage stress better and take there minds off the problem for sometime.

5. 3E'&B&T2!(-
3ela/ing some time and leaving all the work aside is very good for health and it helps approach the problem
after a break with a fresh and better approach. 2t can be done easily by watching something light on
Television or reading some light book and there are also some techniques for rela/ation like meditation and
other mental and physical e/ercises like yoga.

7. BE%&12!3&' SE'* $!(T3!'-
0hen a person controls his own behavior and attitude it also helps in managing stress better. %aving a
brave and positive approach towards every problem is very good and it really helps in managing stress to a
great e/tent.

9. $!)(2T21E T%E3&A,-
Asychologists have designed many techniques to lessen the pressure of the stress that people feel and it
really has proved to be very successful and fruitful. But there is still a lot to be done in this field.

<. (ET0!3J2()-
Nob stress can be managed by having friends in the working area and coworkers who are e/perienced and
can give good advice and guide the person through the problems

ORGANIZATIONAL COPING +TRATEGIE+
!rganizations and their management can really prove to be very effective in the coping and managing
stress. They can design 8obs and structure of the organization so that the employees feel very much at
home and easy hence, reducing the chances of stress and its effects. Some general strategies for the
organizations to cope with stress are-

5. $3E&TE & S;AA!3T21E !3)&(26&T2!(&' $'2&TE-
1ery formal and infle/ible management can really cause some stress for the workers and if organizations
can make an environment and climate that is supportive then it is really very helpful for the workers and
reduces stress and pressure of the tasks.
7. E(32$% T%E +ES2)( !* T&SJ-
The management of an organization can enrich the tasks and 8obs to be performed by the individuals. 2f the
8obs are design properly and the workers have an understanding of their authorities, responsibilities and
roles then it reduces the amount of stress.

9. 3E+;$E $!(*'2$T &(+ $'&32*, !3)&(26&T2!(&' 3!'ES-
0hen there is a good understanding of what is a person needed to do in an organization so there is no role
conflict and ambiguity. So, when everyone knows what he has to do and what are his responsibilities and
authorities there are less chances of stress.

<. A'&( &(+ +E1E'!A $&3EE3 A&T%S &(+ A3!12+E $!;(SE'2()-
)ood planning is always the basic thing to be done in an organization, it is always very effective to resolve
ambiguities and reduce the stress. 0hen a person in an organization knows about the direction of his tasks
and knows about his career and working duration there is no stress felt and the working productivity of the
workers also increases. 2t is always great to have someone that can give useful advice to the workers and
solve their problems. So, what an organization can do is have counselors and mentors to clarify the
situations for the workers to reduce the pressure and control stress.

GUIDELINE+ FOR DO5N+IZED ORGANIZATION+ TO COPE 5ITH +TRE++
any organizations today are lying off their workers and reducing their sizes to be efficient in the
environment. +ownsizing can create some problems for the workers that can be drastic and be very
stressful for them. Some guidelines for the downsized organizations to manage stress can be the following.

5. Be proactive-
The managers can be trained how to outplace people and how to help those who still remain in the
organization.
7. &cknowledge the survivors-
0orkshops and seminars can be held for those who remain in the organization. These workshops and
seminars are meant to sharpen the skills of the workers and make them compatible to face changes.

9. $ommunicate after downsizing-
Employees can be given the permission to communicate with the top mangers after the downsizing and
have

their questions and ambiguities answered. 0hen their problems are solved then they face less or no 8ob
stress.

<. $larify new roles-
&fter every restructuring occurs the roles that employees have to play change in the organization.
Sometimes when the roles are not clarified it creates stress. 2t is always preferable to clarify all new roles so
that there is no ambiguity and stress created.

LEADER+HIP

+efinition
'eadership has been a topic of discussion for many years now but no one has given the e/act definition
about functions of a leader. 2n recent years many theorists have been making a differentiation between the
managers and leaders. *or e/ample, one says "To survive in the twenty first century we are going to need a
new generation of leaders CCCleaders, not managers. The distinction made here is an important one. 'eaders
conquer the conte/tCCC volatile, turbulent, ambiguous surroundings that sometimes seem to conspire against
us and will surely suffocate us if we let themCCCwhile managers surrender to them.#

'E&+E3S 1E3S;S &(&)E3S
There are significant differences between managers and leaders but it is true that a person can be a leader
without being a manager. Some differences can be the following ones4
Some characteristics of managers versus leaders in the 2st century can be

'eaders have been defined in many ways but a very good definition of a leader states that- ")ood leaders
seem to be aligning people toward common goals and empowering them to take an action needed to reach
them#.

'E&+E3S%2A T%E!32ES
There are many theories given by the people about leaders and there characteristic some of these theories
are the following4

5. T%a"! !&eo%. o- leade%s= according to this theory leaders can not be made and there is no way to learn
the characteristics of a good leader and these characteristics are innate and natural. So, "leade%s a%e bo%n
no! ade#

7. G%oup and E6c&an$e !&eo%.= this simply means that leaders provide more benefitsLrewards than
burdenLcost for their followers. There must be a positive e/change between the leaders and the followers for
the group to be formed.

9. Pa!&0Goal leade%s&"p !&eo%.= this theory outlines four ma8or types of leaders like
3a#a'er )haracteristics -ea$er )haracteristics

1. Administers
2. A copy
3. Maintains
4. Focses on system and
strctre
5. !e"ies on contro"
6. #$ort%range &ie'
7. As(s $o' and '$en
8. )ye on t$e *ottom "ine
9. +mitates
10. Accepts t$e stats ,o
11. -"assic good so"dier
12. .oes t$e t$ings rig$t

1. +nno/ators
2. An origina"
3. .e/e"ops
4. Focses on peop"e
5. +nspires trst
6. 0ong%range perspecti/e
7. As(s '$at and '$y
8. )ye on t$e $ori1on
9. 2riginates
10. -$a""enges t$e stats
,o
11. 2'n person
12. .oes t$e rig$t t$ing
M%irective leadership. Subordinates know what e/actly is e/pected from them, and the leader gives specific
directions. There is no participation by the subordinate.
M *pportive leadership. The leader is friendly and approachable and shows genuine concern for
subordinates.
M Participative leadership. The leader asks for and uses suggestions from the subordinates but still makes
the decisions.
1 Achievement-oriented leadership. The leader sets challenging goals for the subordinates and shows the
confidence that they will attain these goals and perform well.

<. T%ans-o%a!"onal !&eo%.= Transformational leader theory is based on leaders changing the values,
beliefs, and needs of their own followers. &ccording to researchers, some characteristics of transformational
leaders are4
M They themselves as a change agent.
M They are courageous.
M They believe in people.
M They are valueCdriven.
M They are life long learners.
M They have the ability to deal with comple/ity, ambiguity, and uncertainty.
M They are visionaries.

H. C&a%"sa!"c leade%s= these leaders are )od sent and have some e/traordinary characteristics. They
have very strong personalities and subordinates are influenced by their attitudes and behaviors. They are
characterized by selfCconfidence and confidence in subordinates, high e/pectations from subordinates,
ideological vision, and the use of personal e/ample. The followers of charismatic leaders are e/tremely loyal
to their leader and emulate the leader.s values and behavior.

'E&+E3S%2A SJ2''S
There are some leadership skills that are very important for every leader to have and some skills are needed
to become a good leader, they the following.
2hat ,ills %o !eaders Need3
Some specific skills needed for an effective manager include the following4

5. cultural fle/ibility- 'eaders must have an awareness of the culture or cultural differences in an
organization. So, that he gives all his subordinates and followers the rights they deserve.
7. communication skills- Effective leaders must be able to communicate O in written, oral and nonverbal way.

9. %3+ skills- Since human resources are so much a part of leadership effectiveness, leaders must have
human resource development ?%3+@ skills of developing a learning climate, designing and conducting
training programs, transmitting information and e/perience, assessing results, providing career counseling,
and creating organizational change.

<. creativity- Aroblem solving, innovation and creativity provide the competitive advantage in today.s global
marketplace. 'eaders must not only be creative in their works but also provide a climate that encourages
creativity.

H. selfCmanagement and learning- This skill refers to the need for continuous learning of new knowledge and
skills. 2n this time of dramatic change and global competitiveness, leaders must be able to learn and change
themselves according to the situations.

TEN )O+T EFFECTIVE +4ILL+,
& study was carried on <II highly effective managers about the most important skills for leaders and the
most votes were given for the following ten characteristics.

M verbal communication ?including listening@
M managing time and stress
M managing individual decisions
M recognizing, defining, and solving problems
M motivating and influencing others
M delegating
M setting goals and articulating a vision
M selfCawareness
M team building
M managing conflict

So, according to this study the four categories of effective leadership skills are4

M participative and human relations ?e.g., communication and team building@
M competitiveness and control ?e.g., power and influence@
M innovativeness and entrepreneurship ?e.g., creative problem solving@
M maintaining order and rationality ?e.g., managing time and rational decisionCmaking@

'E&+E3S%2A ST,'ES
+ifferent leaders have different ways and approaches and some famous ones are4

5. 12S2!(. !utstanding leaders articulate an ideological vision that is congruent with deeply held values of
followers, a vision that describes a better future to which the followers have a moral right.
7. A&SS2!( &(+ SE'*CS&$32*2$E. 'eaders have a great passion for the moral correction of their vision.
They make e/traordinary selfCsacrifices in the interest of their vision and the mission.
9. $!(*2+E($E, +ETE32(&T2!(, &(+ AE3S2ST&($E. !utstanding leaders display a high degree of
faith in themselves and in the attainment of the vision. They are determined and persistent in moving
towards their goals despite of the hardships they face.
<. 2&)ECB;2'+2(). !utstanding leaders are selfCconscious about their own image. They recognize that
they must be perceived by followers as competent, credible and trustworthy.
H. 3!'E !+E'2(). & 'eader models his own personality and values as a standard of behavior for his
followers so that they can follow him.
G. EBTE3(&' 3EA3ESE(T&T2!(. 'eaders act as the spokesperson for their organizations and
symbolically represent the organization to others and outsiders.
E. EBAE$T&T2!(S &(+ $!(*2+E($E 2( *!''!0E3S. )reat leaders have a lot of confidence in their
followers and e/pect them to do well.
F. SE'E$21E !T21E &3!;S&'. )reat leaders arouse those motives of their followers that are relevant to
the mission and vision.
D. *3&E &'2)(E(T. !utstanding leaders mold and shape the values and behaviors of their followers so
that they are congruent with the mission and vision.

5I. 2(SA23&T2!(&' $!;(2$&T2!(. ost of the great leaders are so that they inspire the others
through their communication using vivid stories, slogans, symbols, and ceremonies.

DECI+ION )A4ING

+E*2(2T2!(
+ecision making is the "choosing among the alternatives#. So, it means that when we have more than one
choice we have to decide among the choices and this process of choosing one alternative is called decision
making.
+ecision making is the most important function of a manager. & manager is involved in the process of
decision making every thing he does. *or e/ample, while doing the function of planning, at every step the
manager has to make decisions and choose from the alternatives and choices. 0hile staffing, the manager
here also has to make decisions of how to choose staff and which one to choose. Same is the case with the
organizing, while organizing a manger has to decide that what should be placed where and who should be
working at which position=
So, the above e/ample shows that decision making is the most important of all the duties of a manager and
without it none of the managerial functions is complete and effective.

STEAS 2( +E$2S2!( &J2()
&ccording to %erbert &. Simon, a (oble Arize winning decision theorist, the process of decision making is a
three step process-

5. "n!ell"$ence ac!"#"!.. The word "intelligence# is borrowed from the military. 0hich means to get
information on the environment= So, here this first phase consists of the searching the environment for the
conditions needing decisions making.
7. des"$n ac!"#"!.. +uring this second phase, the actions of inventing, developing, and analyzing possible
courses of action take place.

9. c&o"ce ac!"#"!.. The third and final phase is the actual choice, which means selecting a particular course
of action from among those available alternatives.

A&3T2$2A&T21E +E$2S2!( &J2() TE$%(2:;ES
Aarticipation means the contribution and involvement of people in any task. &t first it was considered that
decision making is only the 8ob of the manger and the owner of the business and no one else can interfere in
this process. &nd all that workers have to do is to obey the orders. But like everything else, the patterns and
techniques of decision making have also changed and there is an awakened feeling that unity is strength
and "two is better than one# certainly in the case of decision making. (o matter how much a person gets
e/perienced and knowledgeable but there is always a restriction to thinking and a single mind can not
analyze all sides of a problem. So, in today.s modern organization a participative technique is used while
making decisions. & problem is paced in front of the workers and then everyone gives hisLher suggestion of
how should it be solved. 2t was found that the more the individuals know about the problem the more are the
chances of solving the problem. So, mangers should define the problem in the easiest possible words so
that everyone can recognize and then give a possible solution.

$3E&T212T, &(+ )3!;A +E$2S2!( &J2() $3E&T212T,-
$reativity is the ability to think in a different way and give new and useful ideas. !f course, creativity is a
)od gifted talent and some people are born with it. &nd they are very creative while solving a problem.
2n today.s competitive and global environment organizations need to be creative and innovative to be more
efficient than their competitors. So, management of all the organizations should promote creativity and
innovations. They should encourage their workers to take part and participate in the process of decision
making.
2t is not easy to point out the causes of creativity but the two aspect of the creativity found by
*eldman are4

5. D"#e%$en! !&"n9"n$
This refers to the ability of a person to generate novel but still appropriate, responses to the questions and
problems. This is the opposite of the convergent thinking which is based mainly upon knowledge and
rational
logic. *or e/ample, if the newspaper is the problem, a convergent thinker would say that ",ou need it># but a
convergent thinker would say that "ake a kite out of it>

7. Co$n"!"#e cople6"!.
This refers to a person.s use of and preferences for elaborate, intricate, and comple/ stimuli and thinking
patterns. $reative people have such cognitive comple/ity and display a wide range of interests, are
independent and are interested in philosophical or abstract problems.

)3!;A +E$2S2!( &J2()
2ndividual decision making has given way to group decision making and organizations and studies show that
decisions taken by groups are much more complete and comprehensive and they give much better solutions
for the problems. There are many ways of decision making in groups like4

a@. +he ma4ority 5ins scheme.
2n this method the decision is made with the idea having the support of most of the participant and hence the
decision is made regardless of the fact that the decision may not be right and beneficial.

b@. +he tr*th 5ins scheme.
2n this scheme, more information is gathered on the problem and it is discussed and seen that what is the
truth and what to be done which should be appropriate. 2n this method, it is not seen that what the ma8ority
says and the decision is made purely on the basis of logic and rationality.

c@. +he t5o-thirds ma4ority scheme.
This scheme is frequently used by 8uries, and defendants are convicted when two third of the 8ury vote
against them.

d@. +he first-shift r*le.
2n this method first of all, the participants are divided according to what they want. &nd if one of the
members of either of the groups changes his mind the decision is made according to that. *or e/ample, if
the workers of a car manufacturing company are divided into two groups whether to produce convertible
cars or not, the decision may be taken when a person first opposing the manufacturing of the convertible
now agrees.
T%E +E'A%2 TE$%(2:;E

2n this technique the following steps take place4

5. & group ?of mostly e/perts but sometimes none/perts@ is formed but there is no face to face contact
between the members. Thus, there is no e/pense sustained in bringing the group together.

7. Each member is asked to make predictions or input into the problem.

9. Each member then receives the feedback on what the other members of the group have inputted.

<. This process goes on until the result remains the same and the feedback becomes the same.

T%E (!2(&' )3!;A TE$%(2:;E
This method consists of the following steps.

5. Silent generation of the ideas through writing.
7. *eedback from the members who record the ideas on a paper or a board.
9. +iscussion of each recorded idea for clarification and evaluation.
<. &t the last, individual voting for the priority of the ideas and choosing the best and the one which has the
most votes.


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ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOR

A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

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