3.

0 Introduction
This chapter introduces electronics. We will learn Ohms Law. This chapter is foundational, laying the ground work
for the remainder of the book. As mentioned in the syllabus, we expect students to understand electrical circuits at
the level of high school physics. For most students, this chapter is a review of the electronics needed to complete
this course.
Learning Objectives:
Understand current, voltage, power, energy.
Review Ohms Law.
Apply some simple rules for solving circuits with batteries and resistors.

Most students reading this will have had some prior training in electronics. However, this brief section will provide
an overview of the electronics needed to understand electric circuits in this class. Current, I, is defined as the
movement of electrons. In particular, 1 ampere (A) of current is 6.24110
18
electrons per second, or one coulomb
per second. Current is measured at one point as the number of electrons travelling per second. Current has an
amplitude and a direction. Because electrons are negatively charged, if the electrons are moving to the left, we
define current as flowing to the right. Voltage, V, is an electrical term representing the potential difference between
two points. The units of voltage are volts (V), and it is always measured as a difference. Voltage is the
electromotive force or potential to produce current. We will see two types of conducting media: a wire and
a resistor. Wires, made from copper, will allow current to freely flow, but forcing current to flow through a
resistor will require energy. The electrical property of a resistor is resistance in ohms (). Ideally, a wire is simply a
resistor with a resistance of 0 . The basic relation between voltage, current, and resistance for a resistor is known
as Ohms Law, which can be written three ways:
V = I * R Voltage = Current * Resistance
I = V / R Current = Voltage / Resistance
R = V / I Resistance = Voltage / Current
The left side of Figure 3.1 shows a circuit element representation of a resistor, of resistance R. Whenever we
define voltage, we must clearly specify the two points across which the potential is defined. Typically we label
voltages with + and , defining the voltage V as the potential to produce current from the + down to the . When
defining current we draw an arrow signifying the direction of the current. If the voltage V is positive, then the
current I will be positive meaning the current is down in this figure. However, because electrons have negative
charge, the electrons are actually flowing up. According to the passive sign convention, we define positive current
as the direction of the flow of positive charge (or the opposite direction of the flow of negative charge). The middle
of Figure 3.1 shows a circuit with a 1 k resistor placed across a 3.7V battery. 1k exactly the same as 1000 ,
just like 1 km is the same as 1000 m. According to Ohms Law, 3.7 mA of current will flow down across the
resistor. 1 mA exactly the same as 0.001 A, just like 1 mm is the same as 0.001 m. In this circuit, current flows
clockwise from the + terminal of the battery, down across the resistor, and then back to the terminal of the
battery.


Figure 3.1. The voltage and current definitions; a circuit with a battery; and a drawing of a resistor.
There are two analogous physical scenarios that might help you understand the concept of voltage, current, and
resistance. The first analogy is flowing water through a pipe. We place a large reservoir of water in a tower,
connect the water through a pipe, and attach a faucet at the bottom of the pipe, see Figure 3.2. In this case
pressure is analogous to voltage, water flow is analogous to current, and fluid resistance of the faucet is analogous
to electrical resistance. Notice that water pressure is defined as the potential to cause water to flow, and it is
measured between two places. Pressure has a polarity and water flow has a direction. If the faucet is turned all the
way off, its resistance is infinite, and no water flows. If the faucet is turned all the way on, its resistance is not zero,
but some finite amount. As we turn the faucet we are varying the fluid resistance. The fluid resistance will
determine the amount of flow:
Flow = Pressure/Resistance

Figure 3.2. Three analogous physical systems demonstrating Ohms Law.
A second analogy is heat flow across a solid. If we generate a temperature gradient across a solid, heat will flow
from the hot side to the cold side (right side of Figure 3.2). This solid could be a glass window on a house or the
wall of your coffee cup. In this case temperature gradient is analogous to voltage, heat flow is analogous to current,
and thermal resistance of the solid is analogous to electrical resistance. Notice that potential is defined as the
temperature difference between two places. Heat flow also has a direction. If the coffee cup is made from metal, its
thermal resistance is low, lots of heat will flow, and the coffee cools off quickly. If the coffee cup is made of
Styrofoam, its resistance is high, little heat will flow, and the coffee remains hot for a long time. The temperature
difference divided by the thermal resistance will determine the amount of flow:
Flow = (T1-T2)/Resistance
The R-value of insulation put in the walls and ceiling of a house is usually given in units per square area, e.g.,
m
2
C/W. The amount of heat flow across a wall is:
Flow = Area * (T1-T2)/R-value
Another important parameter occurring when current flows through a resistor is power. The power (P in watts)
dissipated in a resistor can be calculated from voltage (V in volts), current (I in amps), and resistance (R in ohms).
Interestingly, although voltage has a polarity (+ and ) and current has a direction, power has neither a polarity nor
a direction.
P = V * I Power = Voltage * Current
P = V
2
/ R Power = Voltage
2
/ Resistance
P = I
2
* R Power = Current
2
* Resistance
The energy (E in joules) stored in a battery can be calculated from voltage (V in volts), current (I in amps), and
time (t in seconds). In a manner similar to power, energy has neither a polarity nor a direction.
E = V * I * t Energy = Voltage * Current * time
E = P * t Energy = Power * time




3.1 Electric circuits
A switch is an element used to modify the behavior of the circuit (Figure 3.3). If the switch is pressed, its
resistance is 0, and current can flow across the switch. If the switch is not pressed, its resistance is infinite, and no
current will flow. In reality, the ON-resistance of a switch is less than 0.1, but this is so close to zero, we can
assume the ideal value of 0 in most cases. Similarly, the OFF-resistance is actually greater than 100M, but this is
so close to infinity that we can again assume the ideal value of infinity. The classic electrical circuit involves a
battery, a light bulb (modeled in this circuit as a 100 resistor), and a switch.

Figure 3.3. When the switch is open, no current can flow, and the bulb does not emit light. When the switch is
closed, 90 mA of current will flow, and the bulb emits light.
There are a few basic rules that allow us to solve for voltages and currents within a circuit comprised with batteries,
switches, and resistors.
Current always flows in a loop. In Figure 3.3 when the switch is pressed, current flows out of the + side of
battery, across the switch, through the light and back to the side of the battery. When there is no loop, no current
can flow. In Figure 3.3 when the switch is off, the loop is broken, and no current will flow.
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL). The sum of the voltages around the loop is zero. For a battery, we label the + and
sides exactly the way the battery is labeled. For a resistor, we label the current arrow and the voltage + like the
left side of Figure 3.1. The important step is the direction of the current arrow must match the polarity of the
corresponding voltage. It is common practice to draw arrows in the direction the currents actually flow, so the
voltages will be positive. However, sometimes we dont know which way the current will flow, so we can just guess.
If we happen to guess wrong, both the current and voltage will calculate to be negative and the correct behavior
will still be obtained. We can think of the switch as a resistor of either 0 or infinity resistance, so it too can be
labeled with a current arrow and a voltage polarity. Figure 3.4 shows the light circuit redrawn to show voltages and
currents. As we are going around a circle and pass from + to , we add that voltage. However, if we pass across
an element from to + we subtract that voltage.

Figure 3.4. The voltages around a loop will sum to zero (KVL).
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL). The sum of the currents into a node equal the sum of the currents leaving a node
as shown in Figure 3.5. To solve circuits using KCL and KVL, the current arrow across a resistor goes from the +
voltage to the voltage. Conversely, the current arrow across a battery goes from the voltage to the + voltage.
This is the same thing as saying current comes out of the batterys + terminal and into the batterys terminal. At
Node A, there is one incoming current and one outgoing current. This is a simple but important fact that I1 = I2. At
Node B, there is one incoming current and two outgoing currents. Therefore, I3= I4+I5. There are two currents into
NodeC and two currents out of NodeC; thus, I6+I7 = I8+I9.

Figure 3.5. The sum of the currents into a node will equal the sum of the currents leaving (KCL).
Observation: If at all possible, draw the circuit so current flows down across the resistors and switches. As a
secondary rule have currents go left to right across resistors and switches.


Series resistance. If resistor R1 is in series with resistor R2, this combination behaves like one resistor with a
value equal to R1+R2. See Figure 3.6. This means if replace the two series resistors in a circuit with one resistor
at R= R1+R2, the behavior will be the same. The V equals V1+V2. By KCL, the currents through the two resistors
are the same. These two facts can be used to derive the voltage divider rule
V2 = I*R2 = (V/R)*R2 = V*R2/(R1+R2)

Figure 3.6. The series combination of two resistors, R1 R2, is equivalent to one resistor at R1+R2.
Parallel resistance. If resistor R1 is in parallel with resistor R2, this combination behaves like one resistor with a
value equal to

See Figure 3.7. This means we can replace the two parallel resistors in a circuit with one resistor
at R=R1*R2/(R1+R2). The voltages across R1 and R2 will be the same because of KVL. Due to KCL, I=I1+I2.
These facts can be used to derive the current divider rule
I1 = V/R1= (I*R)/R1 = I*(R1*R2/(R1+R2))/R1 = I*R2/(R1+R2)
I2 = V/R2= (I*R)/R2 = I*(R1*R2/(R1+R2))/R2 = I*R1/(R1+R2)
I = I1+I2

Figure 3.7. The parallel combination of two resistors, R1 R2, is equivalent to one resistor at R1*R2/(R1+R2).