Philosophy Is The Science of The Life-: World.

Philosophy is the science of the lifeworld.
What is Philosophy?
Everyone asks questions. Civilization evolved and changed because
people started thinking and asking questions years ago. Although these
questions are in various forms and issues, these are questions of philosophy.
Why do I DESIRE
KNOWLEDGE?
Why do I SEARCH for
TRUTH?
Why do we
DEFINE and REDEFINE life?
Philosophy questions the why of all things, and the why of life. It is a way
of life. We assume answers for questions we try to answer. It may be the
most practical tool for our quest for knowledge, day-to-day-life and
redefinition of our way of life. It is a search for meanings where we want to
find definitions for TRUTH, KNOWLEDGE, WISDOM AND LIFE itself.
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Introduction to Philosophy and Logic 2010
Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo
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Introduction
Definitions of Philosophy
DEFINITIONS OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy is LOVE
OF WISDOM
Kaya pala I
DESIRE
KNOWLEDGE.
Kaya pala I LOVE TO
LEARN MORE about
Nursing.
A. Etymology
Philosophy comes from two Greek words:
1. Philean / Philos / Philia or LOVE
2. Sophia / Sophos or WISDOM
The etymological definition is:
Philosophy is the
B. Ideal Definition
Philosophy is the study of causes and principles of things by the light
of the human reason alone.
We use our reason in everything we do to make our decisions and
actions meaningful. Philosophy is an EVERYDAY challenge and lifestyle.
Philosophy studies the causes and principles of things by the aid of
Definitions of Philosophy
human reason.
Introduction
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What can philosophy do for me?

Can I know all
things around
me?
What are the causes of things?
Does God dwell
among us?
Philosophy studies things

Philosophy studies things which are living or non-living, physical and
metaphysical, real and non-real and as long as it is a being.
Philosophy is the study of causes and principles of things by the light
of the human reason alone.
Philosophy studies things by the aid of human reason or the faculty that
makes man a rational being.
C. Real Meaning
Philosophy is a search for meaning. It is an inquiry, a query,
Kinds of Causes
examination or investigation about the following:
Introduction
1. information
2. knowledge
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ideas and Logic 2010
Introduction3.to Philosophy
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4. truth
5. life itself
Philosophy is a way of life. Man uses his reason to philosophize,
make decisions and actions. It is an everyday challenge and lifestyle.
KINDS OF CAUSES
Everything has its reason. Everything has its causes. Hence, the four
kinds of causes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Material Cause
Formal Cause
Efficient Cause
Final Cause
Material Cause
A material cause is that out of which the thing is made of or the
material composition of a thing.
Ano kaya ang

material na
komposisyon ng tao?
A material cause tells us about the material components

which a
Introduction
Kinds of by
Causes
thing is made of. It speaks of the matter of a thing.
I am a Nurse. I may be an
efficient cause of the recovery
of a patient. I act to help
people recover from sickness.
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Efficient Cause
The efficient cause tells us about the producer of a thing, agent or
doer of an action. If something is made up of wood, paint, nails and metal
like a table, there must be something, someone or anything that may have
created or produced the thing (or table) like a carpenter. Example: A
carpenter is one who makes chairs and tables.
Formal Cause
A formal cause is that by which the thing is" or,
1.
2.
3.
4.
external appearance of a thing.

condition of the thing.
structure and essential nature of the thing.
principle by which the thing IS.
Final Cause
The final cause is the specific purpose for which the thing is intended
or made-of.
God created man to serve his creation

and preserve human life.
If a table is made-up of its material compositions (wood, nails and etc.), and it is
designed and made by a carpenter, it has to be intended for a specific reason.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
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EXERCISES
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I. Identify the material cause(s) of the following:
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1. Man (Tao) ____________________________________________

2. Taxi ________________________________________________
3. Tree _________________________________________________
4. Water ________________________________________________
5. Book ________________________________________________
6. Painting ______________________________________________
7. Ball _________________________________________________
8. Dog _________________________________________________
9. House _______________________________________________
10. Computer ____________________________________________
II. Identify the possible efficient cause(s) of the following:
1. Fever ___________________________________________________
2. Baby ___________________________________________________
3. Man ____________________________________________________
4. Cabinet _________________________________________________
5. Wooden Table ____________________________________________
6. Painting _________________________________________________
7. AIDS __________________________________________________
8. Trauma _________________________________________________
9. Buildings ________________________________________________
10. Nurse ___________________________________________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
The principle of life is the soul. Everything that has life has a soul.
Therefore,
every living thing has a soul.
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MIND EXERCISES
III. Do you agree that animals and trees have souls? Explain.
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MIND EXERCISES
IV. What could be the final causes of the following:
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1. Stethoscope ___________________________________________
2. Thermometer __________________________________________
3. Man _________________________________________________
4. Emergency Room ______________________________________
5. Hospital ______________________________________________
6. Stretcher _____________________________________________
7. Medicine _____________________________________________
8. Umbrella _____________________________________________
9. Syringe ______________________________________________
10. Electricity ____________________________________________
V. Identification
____________________1. It questions the why of things?
____________________2. It is a bodily composition.
____________________3. It tells about the agent of a thing.
____________________4. The principle by which the thing Is.
____________________5. It is the purpose for which the thing is produced
or created.
____________________6. It is Love in Philosophy.
____________________7. It is Wisdom in Philosophy.
____________________8. It is an everyday challenge to life.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
V. Enumerate the things Philosophy investigates or examines.
1. ___________________________________________________________
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2. ___________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________
VI. Discuss Philosophy is a search for the meaning and purpose of life.
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Introduction
Real Meaning of Philosophy
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EVERYDAY WE PHILOSOPHIZE WHEN WE:
1. exchange thoughts and ideas.
2. value good judgment and reason.
3. exercise mental gymnastics.
4. reflect about ideas and events.
5. yearn for truth and right.
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dialogueand
about
our
observation.
Logic
2010
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7. acquaint our-selves with possible learning.

8. yield to more enlightenment.
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NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
EXERCISES
VII. Look for the meaning of the following words and use each word in
different sentences.
1. Principle-___________________________________________________
2. Reason-____________________________________________________
3. Cause-_____________________________________________________
4. Human Reason_______________________________________________
5. Thing- _____________________________________________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES. Explain the following:
VIII. Philosophy is a search for TRUTH. It answers the Why of things.
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IX. Philosophy is a practical tool for acquiring knowledge.
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X. Love of Wisdom as the Desire for Knowledge.
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Introduction
Philosophizing and Reasoning
Below are some basic examples of man philosophizing and reasoning:
A Nurse Thinking and Analyzing.
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When we think or even doubt anything, we philosophize and use our

reason.
A Nurse Analyzing and Observing

When we rationalize we ask questions to arrive at a conclusion or
truth.
Man Playing Chess
We use our critical thinking skill when we play Chess.
Man Observing
Art appreciation is also a way to exercise critical analysis and
evaluation.
Introduction
Philosophizing and Reasoning
People in a dialogue
When we exchange ideas we exercise our mental abilities and confer
these
ideas.
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Self-Organization
When we organize ourselves we make use of our good judgment in
organizing things, specifically our own being.
disorganized
organized
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
Give some of the examples of situations where man philosophizes and
makes use of his reason. State a reason why.
EXAMPLE:
1. Reading Comprehension
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It is because
man and
tries
to analyze
Introduction
to Philosophy
Logic
2010
and synthesize
theToledo
content of the reading
Liwanag, Rhodel
Page 14
material.
START HERE
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3. _______________________________________________________________________________________
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4. _______________________________________________________________________________________
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Introduction
to
Philosophy and Philosophy of Man
INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY AND PHILOSOPHY OF MAN
Philosophy is derived from two Greek words Philein (Sophos)
which is to Love and Sophia (Sophos) which is wisdom. Philosophy
is advancing our human understanding about truth and goodness.
Early philosophers or thinkers sought to answer questions about the
world and about life. Philosophers sought to answer questions about the
life-world. Everything about the questions we ask is about our claim and
possession of knowledge.
Philosophy revolves around the following concerns:
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1. Knowledge
Introduction to Philosophy
and Logic 2010
acquiredLiwanag,
truth (and
falsity).
Rhodel
Toledo
Page 15
2. Truth correspondence of an idea to reality.

3. Questions and meaning of life definition, re-definition
and continuous inquiry about life and our experiences of
life.
4. Ideas mental representations of objects and realities.
5. Insight actualized knowledge and a deeper look at a
meaning and truth.
6. Wisdom a virtue acquired through continuous learning
and acquisition of knowledge and truth.
7. Reasoning rational nature of man.
8. Reality actual and real being.
9. Goodness a value inherent from God.
10. Moral Worth the ideal goodness/value man strives to
preserve.
TWO TYPES OF PHILOSOPHY
1. Religious Philosophy is philosophy that seeks the value of truth and
inspiring truth.
2. Theoretic Philosophy is one that seeks the ideal among realities. It
cannot make realities but it demands the actual truth of things.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
DEEPENING MOMENT AND MIND EXERCISES
I. Choose the best possible answer and encircle the letter of your choice.
Choose the word that does not belong to the group:
1.
a. knowledge
b. truth
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c. falsity
Page 16
d. wisdom
e. meaning
2.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
reality
goodness
morality
evil
insight
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
sophon
sophos
sophia
philos
philein
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
epictemology
cosmology
ethics
aesthetics
rational psychology
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
metaphisics
logic
phenomenology
ethics
crosmology
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
knowledge
truth
wisdom
cosmology
meaning
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
phenomenology
goodness
morality
goodness
reality
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
a. sophos
b. sophia
c. wisdom
d. pholos
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e. philein
and Logic 2010
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9.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
phonomenology
cosmology
aesthetics
ethics
rational psychology
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
metaphysics
logis
phenomenology
ethics
theodicy
10.
II.
Agree or Disagree. Expound on the following:
1. Philosophy will help us face lifes problem.

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2. Answers to our basic questions concerning our problems in life
can be found.
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Introduction
to Philosophy and Logic 2010
Page 18
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III.
Match Set A with Set B.

Set A
1. acquired truth (and falsity).
2. correspondence of an idea to reality.
3. definition, re-definition and continuous inquiry about life
and our experiences of life.
4. mental representations of objects and realities.
5. actualized knowledge and a deeper look at a meaning and
truth.
6. a virtue acquired through continuous learning and
acquisition of knowledge and truth.
7. rational nature of man.
8. actual and real being.
9. a value inherent from God.
10. the ideal goodness/value man strives to preserve.
Set B
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_______
_______
_______
_______
_______
_______
_______
_______
IV.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
Knowledge
Truth
Questions and meaning of life
Ideas
Insight
Wisdom
Reasoning
Reality
Goodness
Moral Worth
Reflection
Do you consider your self a pilosopo or a philosopher?
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Introduction
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Introduction to
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PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy studies the causes and principles of things. It searches
for the meanings and differences of existent beings. Thus, in
philosophy of man we study the nature and causes of man as an
existent being in the world and his relationship with himself and
the society.
PHILOSOPHY OF MAN
Philosophy of Man is an INQUIRY into man as a person, a human
being and as an existent being in the world. It inquires MANS relationship
with HIMSELF, the CULTURE, the OTHERS (SOCIETY) and GOD.
ANALYTIC STUDY OF MAN
The analytic study of man refers to the method of inquiring about man
that
divides
man or the ideas about him into simplest form of parts and holds
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them together
as one.
Introduction
to Philosophy
and Logic 2010
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EMPIRICAL STUDY OF MAN

Pertains to the study of man obtained from particular justified
experiences.
METAPHYSICAL STUDY OF MAN
The metaphysical study of man pertains to the basic study and
fundamental reality of man as a metaphysical (existent) being.
PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF MAN
From the Greek term which is shown. It studies the reality of man
(his environment, the society and himself) as it appears to us (and to himself)
that underlies
Introduction
to causal responsibilities.
SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF MAN

The scientific study of man refers to the procedures in collecting
scientific information about man by collecting data through observation,
experiments, testing and formulating provisionary suggestions.
THEOLOGICAL STUDY OF MAN
It pertains to the study of man and his relationship with his creator. It
studies man as a spiritual being.
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Introduction
to
WHAT CAN WE KNOW?

Do you really know the person you say you know? How do you know
that some things are due next week? How do you know that there is a
difference between the truth and the lie?
Be patient toward all that is unsolved in your heart and try to love the
questions themselves like locked rooms and like book that are written in a
very foreign tongue. Do not now seek the answers, which cannot be given
you because you would not be able to live them. And the point is, to live
everything. Live the questions now. Perhaps you will live then gradually,
without noticing it, live along some distant day into the answer.
RAINER MARIA RILKE
Letters To A Young Poet
THE BRANCHES OF PHILOSOHY

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Logic is a branch of Philosophy. The other branches of Philosophy

are Cosmology ( study of heavenly bodies), Metaphysics (study of being),
Aesthetics (study of beauty), Rational Psychology (study of the rational
behavior of the soul), Epistemology (study of the validity of human
knowledge), Ethics (study of the morality of human conduct), Theodicy
(study of God by the light of human reason), Phenomenology (study of that
which appears), Social-Philosophy (study of the social aspect of man or Man
as a social-being).
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
1. Aesthetics is the study of art and beauty.
Is everything you see is beautiful? Why YES and why NO?
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How do you define beauty?
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Is beauty a work of art?
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How about people we do not see as pleasant to our senses (or ugly)?
Are these people beautiful or not?
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2. Cosmology is the study of cosmos or heavenly realities such as planets
and the forces related to them.
What do you think is the reason why planets do not collide?
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Are we part of the cosmos (or heavenly reality)?
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As a person, do you believe that God and the universe have a
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If you are to choose, how will you arrange the world? Why?
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3. Ethics is the study of the morality of human conduct.
What do you think is the reason why we need norms of morality?
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Do you agree that morality is goodness inherent from God? Why?
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How does morality helps people?
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Do you agree that life is a battle between good and evil? How do you
deal with it?
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4. Epistemology is the study of the validity of human knowledge/ Or the
knowledge of truth.
If a person lies, does he attain the truth?
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If my idea does not agree with the actual-truth, do I gain knowledge?
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As a human-being, how do I attain truth and knowledge?
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If I lie, do I conceal the truth to others or to my self?
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5. Logic is the science and art of correct reasoning.
Do I speak badly of others and my friends just to reason with them?
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Do I use my reason properly to gain friends?
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Is my judgment raised from good arguments?
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Do I have to reason properly at all times? Why?
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6. Metaphysics is the study of that which IS (or the study of being).
Do you consider yourself a being?
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Is everything that exists considered being?
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As a human, do you believe that there is a BEING (GOD) greater than
a being (man and other realities)?
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Metaphysics studies beings which are beyond the physical?
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7. Social Philosophy is the study of mans relation to his environment and
society.
Do you consider yourself a social-being?
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Do you have a smooth relationship with your family and friends?
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As a social-creature, do you relate with your creator as well?
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If you are to choose, will you be alone with yourself or be with

others?
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Introduction to
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INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENT PHILOSOPHIES
When I enter most intimately into what I call myself, I always stumble on
some particular perception or other, of heat or cold, light or shade, love or
hatred, pain or pleasure. I can never catch myself at any time without a
perception, and can never observe any thing but the perception. When my
perception are removed for any time, as by sound sleep, so long am I
insensible of myself, and may truly be said not to exist. And were all my
perceptions removed by death, and could I neither think, nor feel, nor see, nor
love, nor hate after the dissolution of my body, I should be entirely
annihilated, nor do I conceive what is farther requisite to make me a perfect
nonentity. If anyone upon serious and unprejudiced reflection, thinks he had a
different notion of himself, I must confess that I can reason no longer with
him.
DAVID HUME (1711-1776)
THE PROBLEM OF MATTER

The Milesians
1. Thales
The Primary Element of everything is water.
2. Anaximander
The Basic Element of the world is the boundless.
3. Anaximenes
The Primary Element of the world is Air.
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THE PROBLEM OF IDENTITY AND CHANGE

1. Xenophanes
is inadequate.
Everything
is in constant
motion
Introduction Perception
to
Philosophy
and Philosophy
of Man
such as that when the eye perceives something, sometimes it is not
what it seems to be that the mind leads a different impression and

judgment.
2. Heraclitus
Everything is flowing and ever changing. For Heraclitus, we
cannot step into the same river twice because everything is changing.
3. Parmenides
Being is changeless. To think of what is not is tantamount
to not to thinking, therefore, to not existing.
4. Zeno
There is no permanency in things. A virtuous man will not
live in isolation man is not an island. He is a social being. That
everything man has must be shared.
5. Anaxagoras
The Nous is the force with beauty and harmony that arises
from chaos to cosmos. There is the non-material force creating and
controlling cosmic forces. Everything that is in harmony and order,
according to Anaxagoras, is maintained by a non-material force called
Nous.
6. Democritus
Everything is basically atom. Atom alone exist. Everything
is made up of atoms. For Democritus every single identity and reality
is composed of tiny particles called atom.
7. Pythagoras
The Primary Substance is the Number One. In C.580-497
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he formulated
IntroductionB.C.,
to Philosophy
and Logic 2010 the
reknown
Theorem.
Liwanag, Pythagorean
Rhodel Toledo
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31
Pythagoras, all things are inter-related because souls are in harmony
Introduction
togreat number of things.
with the
THE PROBLEM OF MAN

The Three Great Greek Philosophers
1. Socrates
Virtue is knowledge. Virtue produces knowledge and virtue
produces happiness. Knowledge comes to any-one who is willing to
33learn and practice virtue.
Self-knowledge and morality are the most basic insights that
Socrates implied.
2. Plato
Knowledge is not sense-perception. Ideas are innate in man.
To regain the perfect state of man he must re-collect (think of his past
in the-world-of-ideas).
3. Aristotle
Knowledge is sense perception. Ideas pass from our senses.
Experience of the world gives rise to ideas and knowledge.
Experience from particular events, things and situations give rise to
ideas.
THE RELIGIOUS PROBLEM

1. Plotinus
Virtues are qualities inherent from God.
2. St. Augustine
The criterion of truth is the conscience, the little voice of God
in every man. Evil cannot exist without violation of a moral good.
________________________________________________
Everything
is merely
and Logic
2010
the work
of God.
The
individual becomes
Liwanag,
Rhodel
Toledo
Page 32
Introduction to
aware of itself through self-consciousness.

Boethius
Man is an individual substance of a rational nature. Man is
man because he is a substance with the ability to reason.
SCHOLASTICISM
1. John Scotus of Erigena.
The Universal is prior to the particular thing.
universalia ante rem
2. St. Anselm of Canterbury.
The Ontological Argument
I believe in order that I may understand.
Credo ut Intelligam
God is universal.
Our idea of God is perfect.
3. Peter Abelard. For Abelard, it is reason first before one may believe.
Something is believed because our reason dictates is to be believed.
I understand in order that I may believe.
Intelligo ut Credam
4. St. Thomas Aquinas. God is truth per se. God exists and unites essence
and existence.
God is proven by:
a. Motion
b. Design
c. Contingent beings
d. Causation
Introduction to
e. Necessary beings
________________________________________________
5. JohntoDun
Scotusand Logic 2010
Introduction
Philosophy
Page 33
God and man have primacy over intellect. Gods choice is the
basis of every moral standard and the basis of all creation.
A thing is good because God willed it. A thing is good
because its origin is good. God is Pure Goodness.
6. William of Occam
Universality is an Abstraction. A simplest explanation is the
best abstraction. Instead of calling man an individual, we refer to him
as a human being.
7. Nicolas of Cusa
The true science of knowledge consists of the inner world of
ideas. Ideas exist in the mind. Knowledge is based from the ideas of
things.
RENNAISANCE PHILOSOPHY
The Social and Political Philosophy
1. Niccolo Machiavelli (1494-1512)
He wrote the book The Prince, describing the activities of
Caesar Borgia and his father Pope Alexander IV, and attested to the
corrupt practices in Renaissance Italy.
For Machiavelli, the ruler of a society must possess the
qualities of a fox to outwit his opponents, and the characteristics of a
lion to intimidate his enemies.
2. Thomas More
His famous work was the UTOPIA. It emphasizes the need
for peace. War is regarded justifiable for the following reasons:
Introduction to
a. Defense of ones country and homeland.

b. Liberate ones people from invading aggressors.
________________________________________________
c. Free
the people
and Logic
2010 from tyranny.
Page 34
3. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

He believes that civilization will progress through science.
Science unites man with his fellows and with God. Science will
enable man to discover the natural laws, follow them, and control
nature itself.
Knowledge is power. True knowledge is a great asset and a
practical utility of scientific knowledge.
4. Thomas Campanella (1568-1639)
Campanellas Social Philosophy states that neither poverty
nor financial wealth-two main evils existed. According to him,
poverty makes men become thieves. Wealth makes men deceptive,
insolent and boastful.
5. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
His great political treatise was the leviathan. He agrees with
Plato that men are made up of body and soul (matter and form). That
men are physical and in great command of the will so that the stronger
will prevail. Might is Right for the sake of self-preservation.
6. Nicolas Copernicus
The world is established and cannot be moved.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Page 35

I.
Choose and encircle the letter that does not belong to the group.
1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Plato
Thales
Anaximenes
Anaximander
None of the above
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Xenophanes
Heraclitus
Socrates
Parmenides
None of the above
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Parmenides
Heraclitus
Plato
Xenophanes
None of the above
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Zeno
Anaxagoras
Democritus
Pythagoras
None of the above
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Socrates
Plato
Aristotle
Plotinus
None of the above
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Plotinus
St. Augustine
Boethius
St. Anselm
None of the above
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
a. John Scotus
b. ST. Anselm
c. Peter Abelard
________________________________________________
d. St.
Aquinas Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo
andThomas
Logic 2010
Page 36
e. None of the above

8.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Scotus
William of Occam
Nicolas of Cusa
Machiavelli
None of the above
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Thomas More
Francis bacon
Thomas Campanella
Thomas Hobbes
None of the above
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Copernicus
Hobbes
Zeno
Francis Bacon
None of the above
9.
10.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Page 37
II.
Expound on these ideas (Agree/Disagree):
1. Ideas exist in the Mind.

________________________________________________________
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2. Credo ut intelligam - Peter Abelard
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
III.
Identify the Philosophy of the following:

1. St. Thomas Aquinas
________________________________________________
Page 38
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. John Scotus of Erigena
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3. St. Anselm
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
4. Boethius
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
5. Thales
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
6. Anaximenes
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
7. Heraclitus
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
8. Plato
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
9. Socartes _____________________________________________
________________________________________________________
10. Francis Bacon _________________________________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________

IV.
Reflection
________________________________________________
Page 39
Do you agree that science is the key to civilization and to God?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
V.
TRUE OR FALSE. Write TRUE if the statement is CORRECT,

FALSE if the statement is INCORRECT.
________________________________________________
Page 40
1. For Xenophanes Perception is inadequate. Everything is in constant

motion such as that when the eye perceives something, sometimes it is
not what it seems to be that the mind leads a different impression and
judgment.
Answer: ___________________________
2. For Heraclitus, everything is flowing and ever changing. For
Parmenides, we cannot step into the same river twice for everything is
changing.
Answer: ___________________________
3. For Parmenides, Being is changeless. To think of what is not is
tantamount to not to thinking, therefore, to not existing.
Answer: ___________________________
4. For Zeno, there is permanency in things. A virtuous man will live in
isolation.
Answer: ___________________________
5. For Anaxagoras, the Nous is the force with beauty and harmony that
arises from chaos to cosmos. There is the non-material force creating
and controlling cosmic forces. Everything that is in harmony and order,
according to Anaxagoras, is maintained by a non-material force called
Nous.
Answer: ___________________________
6. For Democritus, Everything is basically atom. Atom alone exists.
Everything is made up of atoms. For Democritus every single identity and
reality is composed of numbers.
Answer: ___________________________
7. For Pythagoras, The Primary Substance is the Atom. In C.580-497
________________________________________________
B.C.,tohe
formulated
the 2010
reknown
Introduction
Philosophy
and Logic
Pythagorean
Theorem.
Liwanag, Rhodel
Toledo For Pythagoras,
Page 41
all things are inter-related because souls are in harmony with the great
number of things.
Answer: ___________________________
8. For Socrates, Virtue is knowledge. Virtue produces knowledge and
virtue produces happiness. Knowledge comes to any-one who is willing
to learn and practice virtue.
Answer: ___________________________
9. For Plato, knowledge is sense-perception. Ideas are innate in man. To
regain the perfect state of man he must re-collect (think oh his past in the
world of ideas).
Answer: ___________________________
10. For Aristotle, knowledge is not sense perception. Ideas pass from our
senses. Experience of the world gives rise to ideas and knowledge.
Experience from particular events, things and situations give rise to ideas.
Answer: ___________________________
11. For Plotinus, virtues are qualities inherent from God.
Answer: ___________________________
12. For St. Augustine, the criterion of truth is the will, the little voice of God
in every man. Evil cannot exist without violation of a moral good.
Answer: ___________________________
13. For Boethius, Man is an individual substance of a rational nature. Man
is man because he is a substance with the ability to reason.
Answer: ___________________________
14. For John Scotus of Erigena, The particular is prior to the universal
________________________________________________
thing.
Introduction
Page 42
universalia ante rem

Answer: ___________________________
15. For St. Anselm of Canterbury, I believe in order that I may understand.
Credo ut Intelligam
Answer: ___________________________
Introduction
THE
to
SCIENTIFIC
NEWTON
METHOD
OF
GALILEO,
KEPLER
AND
1. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

He discovered the laws of change through the inductive
method of motion. His second method, the deductive mathematical
method, is a success in determining the movement of heavenly
bodies.
He discovered the telescope.
________________________________________________
2. Johannes
Keplerand
(1571-1630)
Introduction
to Philosophy
Logic 2010
Page 43
He actually solved the problem of Galileo after he died by

setting forth the mathematical formulae on the method of induction
discovered by Galileo. He solved and formulated the mathematical
formulae on planetary motion.
3. Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
He developed and combined the mathematical and mechanical
theories of Kepler and Galileo. Galileo postulated the laws of the
falling bodies. Newton explained it as the laws of Inertia or the first
law of motion.
MODERN PHILOSOPHY
The Rationalists
1. Rene Descartes (1596 1650)
The Cartesian methodology is Cogito Ergo Sum. I think, therefore,
to
I exist. Or I exist, therefore, I am.
Introduction
The Cartesian Rules:

1. Never accept anything as true which is not clearly and distinctly
true.
2. Simplify complex problems.
3. Arrange ideas from simple to complex.
4. Specify points, and make sure nothing is omitted.
Proofs on Gods Existence:
1. Idea of an infinite God.
2. Idea of a Perfect Being.
2. Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677)
________________________________________________
Page 44
The human mind, according to Spinoza, cannot be absolutely

destroyed with the body because there is something eternal of it.
For Spinoza, God is eternal and infinite. No other substance is
conceivable without God.
3. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)
Leibniz agreed with Hobbes that philosophers should use
words that are accurate and logically mathematical. The rational
world and empirical world are opposite and must be understood by
the light of its own logic (understanding).
For Leibniz, everything is a MONAD, a self-existing entity
concerned with itself and reflects the world. For him, life is a preestablished harmony.
The Empiricists
1. John Locke (1632-1704)
Introduction
to Locke, the mindPhilosophy
and Philosophy
of Manor a
For John
is a blank slate,
a tabula rasa,
clean sheet. He denies the existence of innate ideas. For him, ideas are
not innate but gained through experiences. Nothing comes to the
intellect without passing through the senses.
2. David Hume (1711-1776)
For Hume, the only knowledge we can possess consists of
mere series of ideas, perception and assumptions that none of which
can be proven true. He postulated that mathematics can establish the
relationship of the series of ideas.
3. Francois Marie Arouet (1494-1778)
Known as Francis Voltaire, he believed that God is finite,
with powers so limited he could not eliminate evil. He believed that
mankind has its own freewill and can later change his views and
decisions.
________________________________________________
4. Jean to
Jacques
Rousseau
Introduction
Philosophy
and Logic 2010
Page 45
We should return to nature and seek thyself.

For Rousseau, man is born free but he is everywhere bound by
social obligations that he cannot escape.
The basic unit of the society is the family bound by social
obligation. That in every family there is neither slavery nor inequality.
THE GERMAN IDEALISTS
1. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
thoughts without content are empty, perceptions without
conceptions are blind Understanding can perceive nothing, the
senses can think nothing. Knowledge arises only from their united
action.
Human percept can grasp ideas based from experiences
according to Kant. Ideas poses the categories of thought which are:
Introduction a.to Quality and Quantity
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Plurality and Unity

Substance and Accidents
Cause and Effect
Active and Passive modality
Existence and Non-Existence
Necessity and Contingency
2. Johann Gottlieb Fitche (1762-1814)

Consciousness, for Fitche, is the key to understanding reality.
To be is to be perceived. He explained that self-consciousness
creates both the real and the ideal.
3. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)
He was called the philosopher of his era. His philosophy is
Logical Idealism. He adopted the Hegelian Dialectic, a dynamic logic
of thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis in arriving at truth.
________________________________________________
Page 46
For Hegel, like Heraclitus, life is a continuous flow of process

and change.
4. Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860)
The Aesthetic Doctrine of Salvation of Schopenhauer states
that Our aim in life is the greatest good.
THE BRITISH UTILITARIANISM

1. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
Only pleasure and avoidance of pain can be accepted as
proper measure of conduct. Everybody to count for one, nobody for
more that one."
2. James Mill
Introduction to
Association of ideas is organized from consciousness.
3. John Stuart Mill

Mill contended that every reasoning is inductive. He believed
that to arrive at the essential elements of generality we must reason
first from the particulars.
EVOLUTIONARY NATURALISM
1. Charles Darwin
Man must be understood in the light of animal ancestry. For
Darwin man evolved from animal species.
2. Friedrich Nietzsche
The ideal man, the Superman, for Nitzsche, is beyond good
and evil. The Superman creates his own values and rejects the other
moral world-order.
________________________________________________
Page 47
The individual self of Nietzsche is egoistic and individualistic.

CLASSICAL POSITIVISM
Auguste Compte (1798-1857)
All knowledge is relative. Metaphysical causes and
substances are not real. For Compte, only phenomena exist.
DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM
Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-1883)
The basic ideas of dialectical materialism are as follows:
Introduction 1.
to communism
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
materialism
abolition of private property
dictatorship
labor theory of value
religion is the opium of society
PRAGMATISM
1. Charles Peirce
Our idea of anything is our idea of sensible effects. For Peirce,
pragmatism is an application of the principle by their labor we shall
know them.
2. William James
James Metaphysics: My philosophy is what I call radical
empiricism, a pluralism, tychism, which represent order as being
gradually won and always in the making. It is theistic, but not
essentially so.
3. John Dewey
________________________________________________
Page 48
For John Dewey, ethical goals are the fulfillment of human

needs and desires. Continuous growth in moral sensitivity and human
progress is a practical realization of a better social-world.
NEO-REALISM
1. Bertrand Russell
Our knowledge of truth is a-priori. Knowledge is true if it
corresponds to reality. Intuition is true if it corresponds to actuality.
2. Alfred North Whitehead
The ideas of man are drops of experiences. The purposes of
God are realized through the expression of Gods goodness and the
Introduction to
conscious activity.
ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY
Ludwig Wittgenstein
The totality of true thoughts is a picture of the world.
EXISTENTIALISM
1. Soren Kierkegaard
Human beings are constantly faced with fundamental decisions
that demand a confession to-oneself, to the world and to God.
For Kierkegaard, ethical life recognizes the importance of
commitment, the essence, absence, and presence of personality.
Boredom, for him, is the root of evil because boredom forces man to
think and commit evil.
2. Jean Paul Sartre
Man is a being, an existence, who chooses his essence. His
freedom
places him in-the-world or out-of-the-world. He is
________________________________________________
he isRhodel
not by
his free choice.
Introductionresponsible
to Philosophy for
and everything
Logic 2010 he is and
Liwanag,
Toledo
Page 49
3. Martin Heidegger
Heidegger is a German Philosopher. His classic book is
Being and Time. For him, man is a Dasein, a being who can be said
to CARE or NOT TO CARE (Sorge).
Man is a being thrown in the world without choosing to be.
He is in-the-world without choosing his own existence.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
I. Matching Type. Match Set A with Set B. Find the Philosopher in Set B
who postulates the philosophy and match it in Set A.
SET A
1. ________________He discovered the laws of change through the

inductive method of motion. His second method, the deductive mathematical
method, is a success in determining the movement of heavenly bodies. He
discovered the telescope.
2. ________________He actually solved the problem of Galileo after he died
by setting forth the mathematical formulae on the method of induction
discovered by Galileo. He solved and formulated the mathematical formulae
on planetary motion.
3. _______________He developed and combined the mathematical and
mechanical theories of Kepler and Galileo. Galileo postulated the laws of the
falling bodies. He explained Inertia as the first law of motion.
________________________________________________
Page 50
4. _______________ Cogito Ergo Sum. I think, therefore, I exist. Or I

exist, therefore, I am.
5. _______________ The human mind cannot be absolutely destroyed with
the body because there is something eternal of it.
6. _______________ He agreed with Hobbes that philosophers should use
words that are accurate and logically mathematical. The rational world and
empirical world are opposite and must be understood by the light of its own
logic (understanding). Everything is a MONAD, a self-existing entity
concerned with itself and reflects the world. For him, life is a pre-established
harmony.
7. _______________ The mind is a blank slate, a tabula rasa, or a clean
sheet. He denies the existence of innate ideas. For him, ideas are not innate
but gained through experiences. Nothing comes to the intellect without
passing through the senses.
8. ________________ For him, the only knowledge we can possess consists
of mere series of ideas, perception and assumptions that none of which can be
proven true. He postulated that mathematics can establish the relationship of
the series of ideas.
9. ________________ He is known as Francis Voltaire. He believed that
God is finite, with powers so limited he could not eliminate evil. He believed
that mankind has its own freewill and can later change his views and
decisions.
10. _______________ We should return to nature and seek thyself. Man is
born free but he is everywhere bound by social obligations that he cannot
escape.
11. _______________ thoughts without content are empty, perceptions
without conceptions are blind Understanding can perceive nothing, the
senses can think nothing. Knowledge arises only from their united action.
12. ________________ Consciousness is the key to understanding reality.
To be is to be perceived. He explained that self-consciousness creates both
the real and the ideal.
13. ________________ He was called the philosopher of his era. His
philosophy is Logical Idealism of thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis in arriving
at truth.
________________________________________________
Page 51
14. _________________ Only pleasure and avoidance of pain can be

accepted as proper measure of conduct. Everybody to count for one,
nobody for more that one."
15. ____________________ Man must be understood in the light of animal
ancestry. That man evolved from animal species.
16. _____________________ The ideal man, the Superman is beyond good
and evil. The Superman creates his own values and rejects the other moral
world-order.
17. _____________________All knowledge is relative. Metaphysical
causes and substances are not real. For him, only phenomena exist.
18. ______________________ Our knowledge of truth is a-priori.
Knowledge is true if it corresponds to reality. Intuition is true if it
corresponds to actuality.
19. ______________________ The ideas of man are drops of experiences.
The purposes of God are realized through the expression of Gods
goodness and the conscious activity.
20. ______________________ He is a German Philosopher. His classic book
is Being and Time. For him, man is a Dasein, a being who can be said
to CARE or NOT TO CARE (Sorge). Man is a being
thrown in the
world without choosing to be. He is in-the-world without choosing his
own existence.
SET B
1. John Dewey
16. Immanuel Kant
2. William James
17. John Locke
3. Bertrand Russell
18. David Hume
4. Alfred North Whitehead
19. Rene Descartes
5. Soren Kierkegaard
20. Spinoza
6. Martin Heidegger
21. Leibniz
7. Charles Peirce
22.Newton
8. Charles Darwin
23. Galileo Galilei
9. Auguste Compte
24. Kepler
10.
Jeremy
Bentham
25. Francis Bacon
________________________________________________
11. James
Introduction
to Mill
Philosophy and Logic 2010
Page 52
12. Hegel
13. Fitche
14. Francois Arouet
15. Rosseuau
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________

II. Essay
1) Would you agree or disagree with Carl Marx that every thing
must be shared in common, abolish private property, the system of
government must be dictatorship?
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Introduction
Page 53
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NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________

III. Essay. Expound/Explain
2) The mind is a blank slate, a tabula-rasa, or a clean sheet. Ideas
are not innate but rather gained through experiences
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Introduction
Page 54
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________________________________________________________
Introduction
to
AN EXISTENTIALIST CONCEPT OF MAN,

BEING, TIME AND DASEIN
Existentialism involves the following elements:

1. Subjectivity
2. Freedom
3. Phenomenology
Subjectivity, Subjectivism, Object and Objectivity
Subjectivity indicates the personal interpretation of reality. It
is the True interpretation of reality.
Subjectivism is an erroneous interpretation of reality that
indicates falsity.
Object refers to a thing outside the self.
Objectivity is perception to something studied as an object.
Freedom
Freedom is a fundamental act of being (man). Man alone
realizes his own commitment and responsibility to make decisions.
Phenomenology
________________________________________________
Page 55
Phenomenology is an attitude that shows itself. A

phenomenon shows itself. It is a testimony to what presents itself.
THE NOTION OF BEING (By Martin Heidegger)
1. A being is anything that exists. Man is a being he exists. He is a being
whose concern is him-self. A being concerned with himself is DASEIN.
Dasein cannot be understood by mere story-telling. It can only be
Introduction
to questioning its own
Philosophy
understood by
being. and Philosophy of Man
2. Man inquires into his own being. He asks questions about himself, of
what it is to be? By inquiring, looking at himself, conceiving and
philosophizing, he, realizes his own mode of being. Thus, inquiring,
looking at, conceiving and philosophizing are all modes of being.
3. Dasein is a unique entity. His concern is his own being. Only Dasein is
the proper meaning for being (man). And only man is concerned with his
own possibility of becoming.
4. Man is concerned with his meaning. Concern is a mode of being. Dasein
is Concern (Sorge). Daseins being is existence. Existence is a mode of
man (being).
5. Man is a being who makes a stand. He can be anxious about his future
and takes care of that possibility. By inquiring into his own being and
possibilities, he maintain his relationship with himself.
6. Existence is possibility.
7. Man is Dasein. He interprets himself in terms of the world. His
interpretation of the world is in terms of his everyday manner.
8. Dasein is TO BE. To be is to move toward a future. Man is Dasein
concerned with his future and becoming.
9. Dasein is Time. The mode of being of man is bound by time and space.
10. Being needs uncovering. Dasein needs to uncover himself to have a full
grasp of its own being.
11. Dasein uncovers himself by unveiling his relationship with-the-world, inthe-world, and being-in (the world).
12. To exist is to stand out. To stand-out is to tell the world that you are
________________________________________________
present.
Introduction
Page 56
13. Being-in-the-world is a basic state. To be in the world is to be

alongside others, dwell with, and be familiar with the world and with
Dasein.
14. Knowing is a mode of being in the world. By knowing and standing-out,
Introduction
to absorption to thePhilosophy
Philosophy of Man
man escapes his
world (of theand
they).
15. Knowledge of oneself is grasping (understanding) and disclosing. By
projecting himself as a being-in-the-world, man understands what it is to
be.
16. Idle-talk is concealing of truth. It involves a preservation of an
understanding (of truth).
17. Idle-talk is dependence of what others say. It is fallen-ness into the
crowd or common opinion.
18. Idle-talk is inauthenticity. It is accepting a common opinion without
having ones own understanding and opinion.
19. In idle-talk, what is left to do is to have ones own understanding and
judgment.
20. Dasein is always directed towards its becoming (future/possibility).
21. To be true to oneself to uncover-being. To lie to oneself is to be in badfaith and alienate oneself with ones own being.
22. Dasein is Care. Care is the phenomenon of being. To Care is the truth
about being-Dasein.
23. Dasein is I. It understands itself.
24. I is selfhood. It understands itself in terms of the world.
25. Daseins existence is finite.
THE NOTION OF SORGE

Dasein is care. Anxiety reveals man as Dasein. The being of Dasein is
________________________________________________
Care. Totocare
is to go
of oneself
Introduction
Philosophy
andahead
Logic 2010
and
look into
future.
Liwanag,
Rhodelthe
Toledo
Page 57
Man is concern with himself. He is anxious of his own future and

possibility of becoming. By inquiring about his possibility of becoming, he
understands
own mode (manner)Philosophy
of existing. and Philosophy of Man
Introductionhis to
DEATH AS MANS OWNMOST POSSIBILITY
Death is the event that completes mans existence. It is the seal of
authenticity. Death is the own-most possibility of man. Man escapes some
experiences by making decisions. But death cannot be avoided no matter how
decisive one is in avoiding this own-most possibility.
Death is not an event that happens. It is a phenomenon that needs a
full understanding. It is an existential phenomenon that actualizes (the very
possibility of) man.
Death throws away man from the world of the they.
Death is certain. It is the truth about man. It is not just a possibility
but an actuality to be achieved by man.
TEMPORALITY
Being is time. To be is to relate with time. Man is temporal. His life is
bound and limited by time. Being-Man is temporalizing. There is no
escaping time. To exist is to be with time. To exist is time.
Temporality is not an entity. It is a process. The very being-of-Dasein
is finite. The life of man (Dasein) is temporal. Its end is death.
Death is not an event. It is certainty. It is mans own-most possibility.
THE CALL OF CONSCIENCE
Conscience is the call of Dasein to attain its potentiality and avoid
bad-faith. It forces man (as Dasein) to setforth for its becoming (future).
Conscience summons man to be himself and not to lose to the call of the
common-opinion.
Bad-faith is escaping ones possibility and nature. Thus, to lie is to be
in
bad-faith
(to lie is to cover the truth that one possesses).
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Page 58
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
I. Essay
1) Would you agree or disagree with Heidegger that man (I am) is
concerned with his (my) future, himself (myself) and his (my) possibility of
becoming?
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Introduction
Page 59
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NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________

II. Essay. Expound/Explain
2) Dasein is temporal. Dasein is Care
I am temporal and I Care.
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NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________

III. True or False. Write your answer in the blank.
1. _____________ A phenomenon is anything that exists. Man is a being
he exists. He is a being whose concern is him-self. A being concerned
with himself is DASEIN. The Dasein cannot be understood by mere
story-telling. It can only be understood by questioning its own being.
2. _____________Man inquires into the being of another. He asks questions
about himself, of what it is to be? By inquiring, looking at himself,
conceiving and philosophizing, he, realizes his own mode of being. Thus,
inquiring, looking at, conceiving and philosophizing are all modes of
being.
3. _____________Dasein is a unique entity. His concern is his own being.
Only Dasein is the proper meaning for being (man). Man is not concerned
with his own possibility of becoming.
4. _____________Man is concerned with his meaning. Concern is a
possibility of being. Dasein is Concern (Sorge). Daseins being is
existence. Existence is a mode of man (being).
5. _____________Man is a being who makes a stand. He cannot be anxious
about his future and takes care of that possibility. By inquiring into his
own being and possibilities, he maintain his relationship with himself.
6. _____________Existence is a possibility.
7. _____________Man is Dasein. He interprets himself in terms of the
world. His interpretation of the world is in terms of his everyday manner.
8. _____________Dasein is TO BE. To be is to move toward a future. Man
is Dasein concerned with his future and becoming.
9. _______________Dasein is Time. The mode of being of man is bound by
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time to
and
space. and Logic 2010
Introduction
Philosophy
Page 61
10. _______________Being needs uncovering. Dasein needs to uncover

himself to have a full grasp of its own being.
11. _______________Dasein covers himself by unveiling his relationship
with-the-world, in-the-world, and being-in (the world).
12. _______________To exist is to stand. To stand is to tell the world that
you are present.
13. _______________Being-unto death is a basic state. To be in the world
is to be another.
14. _______________Knowing is being in the world. By knowing and
standing-out, man escapes his absorption to the world (of the they).
15. _______________Knowledge of another is grasping (understanding) and
disclosing.
By projecting himself as a being-in-the-world, man
understands what it is to be.
16. _______________Idle-talk is concealing of truth. It involves a
preservation of an understanding (of truth).
17. _______________Idle-talk is dependence of what others say. It is fallenness into the crowd or common opinion.
18. _______________Idle-talk is in-authenticity. It is accepting a common
opinion without having ones own understanding and opinion.
19. _______________In idle-talk, what is left to do is to have ones own
understanding and judgment.
20. _______________Dasein is always directed towards its becoming
(future/possibility).
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

________________________________________________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE:
Introduction
_________
Page 62
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________

IV. True or False 2. Write your answer in the blank.
1. _____________ I am a person, a (human) being. I exist.
2. _____________ I am a being whose concern is my-self.
3. _____________ I am DASEIN.
4. _____________ I question my own being.
5. _____________ I inquire into my being of what it is to be?
6. _____________ I am a unique entity. My concern is my own being.
7. _____________ I am concerned with my own meaning.
8. _____________ I cannot be anxious of my own future and take care of
that possibility.
9. _____________ I exist for my future.
10. _____________ I interpret myself in terms of the world.
11. _____________ My interpretation of the world is in terms of my
everyday manner.
12. _____________ The I is TO BE. To be is to move toward a future.
13. _____________ I exist only for a short period of time.
14. _____________ I do not need uncovering.
15. _______________ I am a being in the world.
16. _______________ To be is to be Me.
17. _______________ To exist is to die in the future.
18. _______________ I exist in order to attain my own-most possibility.
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Page 63
19. _______________ I project myself as a being-in-the-world.

20. _______________ I am in Idle-talk when I conceal the truth.
21. _______________ I am in Idle-talk when I depend on what others say.
22. _______________ I am not in Idle-talk if I accept a common opinion
without having ones own understanding and opinion.
23. _______________ I am in idle-talk if I do not have my own
understanding and judgment of things.
24. _______________ As a Dasein I am always directed towards my
becoming (future/possibility).
25. _______________ I am Dasein. I Sorge.
Introduction
Definition and Meaning of Logic
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Page 64
What is Logic?
Is Logic a driving force in the possession of wisdom?
LOGIKE
TO THINK
THOUGHT
LOGOS
STUDY
DEFINITION AND MEANING OF LOGIC

Logic is the Science and Art of Correct Reasoning. It comes from the
Greek word LOGIKE which means Thought or To Think.
Logic is a branch of Philosophy. The other branches of Philosophy
are Cosmology ( study of heavenly bodies), Metaphysics (study of being),
Aesthetics (study of beauty), Rational Psychology (study of the rational
behavior of the soul), Epistemology (study of the validity of human
knowledge), Ethics (study of the morality of human conduct), Theodicy
(study of God by the light of human reason), Phenomenology (study of that
which appears), Social-Philosophy (study of the social aspect of man or Man
Introduction
Definition and Meaning of Logic
as a social-being).
A. Logic is a Science
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Page 65
Logic is a science because of its systematic approach in

bringing out logical truth and valid reason. It is a systematic body
of knowledge and acquired truths based on observations and
argumentation.
B. Logic is an Art
Logic is an art of reasoning. It awakens the feelings and
delights of people towards the appreciation of correct reason and
judgment.
Logic expresses the beauty of human reason and judgment.
It facilitates the mind of man to think, reason and judge
beautifully, rationally and validly.
C. Logic is Correct Thinking
Logic is a mental process providing students with the skill
and ability to detect erroneous reasons, statements or arguments
and proper judgement to support their conclusions. It provides
students with correct arguments when premises are sufficient
enough and, otherwise incorrect if insufficient.
Introduction
Sound, Sign and Symbol
SOUND, SIGN AND SYMBOL

We communicate through sound, signs and symbols. Communication is
expressed
in two ways: VERBAL / SPOKEN and WRITTEN.
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TERM/WORDS/SENTENCES
SOUND PATTERNS
IDEA
SOUND
When we speak we make use of sound patterns to express and convey
our thoughts and feelings.
A sound is a sensation produced by vibrations reaching the organs of
hearing or sensation that is heard as a tone or a noise that conveys a certain
impression and message.
Possible interpretations are produced when a sound is heard. Possible
expressions are likewise translated by the sensations produced.
CHIRP
CHIRP
CHIRP
Introduction
Sound, Sign and Symbol
CHIRP
Birds Chirping
Birds and animals produce sounds by vibrating their vocal chords and
other body organs to communicate.
SIGN
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Page 67
A sign is a mark representing an idea or object. Through signs we

transmit messages we want to communicate. A sign is a device in indicating a
message or idea.
Example Figure: No Parking Sign
This sign
part of the street or road.
signals a message of No Parking on a certain
SYMBOL
A symbol is also a word, a phrase or a name of a thing that symbolizes
and communicates something. It is a material object
that
often
Introduction
Sound,
Sign
andrepresents
Symbol
something rather than the material representation.
________________________________________________
Example-Figure
1: A SMILE
Introduction to Philosophy and Logic
2010
Liwanag,
Rhodel Toledo
Page 68
A smile may appear from anyone and it may symbolize something

other than the external manifestation of the face. It may mean a greeting, a
friendship, a communication or any other message it may apply-to such as
happiness.
A smile may mean anything. It symbolizes many things. It creates
many messages.
Example-Figure 2: Typewriter
A symbol is also a word, a phrase or a name of a thing, or the thing
itself that signifies something. The typewriter denotes a particular type of
machine used for typing.
Example-Figure 3: Pixels
The word or thing Pixel denotes a certain kind of a painting
material used for art making.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
I. Identify the different etymologies /meanings of the word Logic.
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and Logic 2010
Page 69
2. _____________________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________________
II. Define the following branches of philosophy.
1. Metaphysics __________________________________________
2. Cosmology ___________________________________________
3. Aesthetics_____________________________________________
4. Rational Psychology ____________________________________
5. Ethics _______________________________________________
6. Phenomenology _______________________________________
7. Social-Philosophy _____________________________________
8. Logic ________________________________________________
9. Theodicy _____________________________________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
III. Explain the following:
1. Logic as a Science
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and Logic 2010
Page 70
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2. Logic as an art of reasoning.
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3. Logic as correct thinking
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NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
IV. TRUE OR FALSE
____________1. Man searches for the truth.
____________2. Logic is an art.
____________3. Philean means wisdom.
____________4. The nature of man is his cause.
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Page 71
____________5. Logos means study.

____________6. Philosophy is the love for wisdom.
____________7. Philosophy understands things by the aid of human
understanding.
____________8. Logic is a science.
____________9. Logike in English is Thought
___________10. Logic is science of the cosmos.
___________11. We do not desire knowledge when we philosophize.
___________12. To desire is to love wisdom.
___________13. Philosophy values judgment.
___________14. Logic is also termed as study.
___________15. Sounds are produced by gestures.
___________16. A sign is not a mark representing an idea.
___________17. Interpretations are not produced through sound.
___________18. A sound is produced through vibrations.
___________19. Reasoning is a mental ability.
___________20. Logic is a skill to detect errors in reasoning.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISE
V. ESSAY
Write your reflection about the statement Philosophy is about the
meaning of life itself in no less than 5 sentences.
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Page 72
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NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
VI. AGREE / DISAGREE/ DEFEND / REFUTE. Below are the following
concerns of Philosophy:
1. Knowledge
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Page 73
2. Truth
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3. Questions and Meaning of life
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4. Ideas
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5. Insight
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NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
VII. IDENTIFICATION
_____________1. It is the search for meanings.
_____________2. Without it, communication is impossible.
_____________3. It is formed by vibrating the vocal chords when
communicating with other animals.
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Page 74
_____________4. It is the science of right reasoning.

_____________5. It is a statement that provides meaning to a word or term.
_____________6. It studies the morality of human conduct.
_____________7. It studies the validity of human knowledge.
_____________8. It is a branch of philosophy that deals with realities which
are beyond the physical.
_____________9. Beauty is the main concern of this branch of philosophy.
____________10. It is Sophia in Greek word.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
VIII. Choose and encircle the best possible answer that denotes / connotes /
and describes the following:
1. Bandage
a.
b.
c.
d.
Tool for communication

First Aid Instrument
Mode of Expression
An example of Technology
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Page 75
2. Abdomen
a.
b.
c.
d.
The Digestive System

A drawing guide
Part of the human body
About medicine and healthcare
a.
b.
c.
d.
Sewing Instrument.
Medicine gadget.
Hospital Instrument.
A drawing instrument.
a.
b.
c.
d.
It tells about events.

A sporting-good.
It tells about time.
A of gadget.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Emergency Medical Kit

A sporting-good.
It is a backpack.
A kind of bag.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Healthy and Sporty.

Dangerous to health and Lungs.
Prohibited cigarette.
A Sign of Danger.
3. Needle
5. Clock
6. First Aid Kit
7. No smoking Sign
8. Medstaff
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Page 76
a.
b.
c.
d.
A furniture
A sporting-good.
A sign.
Symbol for Medicine.
a.
b.
c.
d.
It tells about shelter.

It tells about a building.
It tells about architectures.
A place.
9. House
10. The Philippine Flag

a.
b.
c.
d.
It tells about freedom.

It tells about justice.
It tells about history.
It tells about nationality, and love of
country.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
IX. Look around your environment, or inside the classroom. Identify the
signs or symbols that you may find and that may lead to the knowledge
of something, then write/discuss a statement of what you think it
signifies.
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CHAPTER 1
Idea, Simple Apprehension, and Term
LESSON 1: IDEA
Idea: An Abstract Reality

(Notion of Service to People)
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Page 78
In the Mind
(Becoming a
Principle in life)
IDEA
An idea is a mental representation or image of a thing. It is an
abstract representation. It is in the mind. It is the intentional form the mind
acquired as it perceives an object. The mind retains the essence of this object
in the intellect.
As soon as the intellect abstracted the object perceived by the sense of
sight, the intellect forms an idea of the perceived object. The sense of sight
helps the intellect in the formation of an intelligible object in the mind. So
Chapter
Idea, Simple
Apprehension,
Term
when the1 mind recollects or recalls
the essence
of the objectand
as perceived
by
the sense of sight it produces the right idea as output.
LESSON 2: SIMPLE APPREHENSION
Idea
Grasping the essence of

the thing/or exercise.
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Page 79
Real object/Actual Nursing
SIMPLE APPREHENSION
Simple Apprehension is the process of abstracting and grasping the
essence or nature of a thing.
Chapter 1
LESSON 3: TERM
VERBAL
EXPRESSION
LET US SERVE
THE PEOPLE!!!
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Page 80
WHAT IS A TERM?
A Term is a verbal or outward expression or manifestation of an
idea. A Term is an articulate sound signifying an idea, or an expression of
idea through words, and it connotes and denotes something.
KUMUSTA NA PO KAYO
MGA KAIBIGAN?
HELLO! MAGANDANG GABI!
Chapter 1
Example-Figure 1: The articulate sound
A term is an articulate sound that signifies an idea (Example-Figure 1).

MAHAL
KITA
WALANG
IBA.
PANIWALA
AN MO
SANA AKO
SINTA.
Example-Figure 2. Expression through words

A TERM CONNOTES
SOMETHING.
AND
DENOTES
AN
IDEA
ABOUT
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Page 81
Example-Figure 1: Mother and Child

A Connotation is comprehension. When we speak of a mother we
meant it to be a woman with a CHILD or CHILDREN.
Im Mrs. Cruz. I am
married.
Chapter 1
Example-Figure 2: Mrs. Cruz
Definition and Classification of Terms
Denotation is extension. When we speak about the word MRS. we

mean a mother and a wife, and etc.
LESSON 4. DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF TERMS
Terms are classified according to quantity, nature of referents,
definiteness of meaning, and incompatibility.
A. Terms according to QUANTITY
QUANTITY refers to a definite or an indefinite number of things.
1. Singular Term
A baby.
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Singular Term is one that stands for a single word, thing or individual.
It may stand for a name of a thing, place, animal, fruit or person.
Examples:
Chapter 1
a.
Attorney L.S. Cedo
b.
Agora Market
c.
This Girl
d.
Lapu lapu
e.
Lemon
f.
Fish
g.
Manila
h.
Singapore
i.
Man
j.
Eye
2. Universal Term
MAN
Universal Term stands for a whole class and each member of that
class.
Examples:
a.
Man (Tao)
b.
Every dog
c.
All Filipinos
d.
Music
e.
Chicken
f.
Death
g.
Success
h.
Jose P. Rizal
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Introduction to Philosophy and Logic i.
2010 Rat
Page 83
j.
Cat
3. Particular Term
SOME MEN IN THE BUS.
Chapter 1
Particular Term stands for an indefinite number of things, people or

individual in a class. Particular term may be referred-to also as uncountable.
Thus we use the words: much, a little, some, many, few and most.
Examples:
a. Some weeks ago
b. Some students
c. Many FPJ fans.
d. Few Filipinos
e. Most believers
f. Some teachers
g. Most coins
h. Few books.
i. Ive spent a little time
j. Give me some money
4. Collective Term
A DANCE TROUP
Collective Term stands for a group of objects, people, or things

regarded
as a basic unit.
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Examples:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Chapter 1
Herd
Flock
Family
Army
Audience
Collective
Terms may
be Universal of
if Terms
used as a
Definition
and Classification
singular term or specified term.
Examples:
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
This Army
The Family
This Flock
This team
The group
Collective Terms may be Particular if used with the

terms SOME, FEW, MANY, MOST, SEVERAL and
MORE.
Examples:
k. Some Herds
l. Few Armies
m. Some Societies
n. Some armies
o. Some family
p. Some flock
q. Some team
r. Some group
B. Terms according to the nature of referents
1. Concrete Terms
Tangible
Concrete
Can be felt.
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Can be moved.
Can be seen.
Page 85
A Concrete Term stands for physical entities, tangible realities or

things perceived by the senses.
Chapter 1
Examples:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
Apple trees
Food
Shirt
Shoes
Cat
Books
Mountain
Car
Computer
House
2. Abstract Terms
God is BEAUTIFUL.
HE is a GOOD
GOD.
Abstract Terms stand

comprehended by the mind.
for
things
understood,
produced
or
Examples:
a. Justice
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b. Kindness
Page 86
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
Chapter 1
Humanity
Honor
Beauty
Health
Height
Weight
Width
3. Empty or Null Term
Null or empty Terms stand for imaginary things.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Unicorn
Fairies
Kapre
Mananangal
A pig that fly.
A horse that speaks.
C. Terms According to Meaning

MEANING describes what is being indicated by the Term. It
points out to something indicated by the word.
1. Equivocal Term
Equi means EQUAL
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Vocareand
means
SOUND
Logic 2010
Page 87
Chapter 1
A king is a RULER.
A RULER is
a measuring
instrument.
An Equivocal Term is a word that admits two or more meaning.

Equal or Same in Sound/Word but having different meaning and different
sense.
Examples:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
Ruler
Queen
Bark
Spring
Cast
Box
Leave
Story
Fast
King
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Page 88
Chapter 1
2. Univocal Terms
TORNI IS A MAN
DENCIO IS A MAN.
Univocal Terms can be predicated to two or more subjects that may

signify the same sense.
Examples:
DENNIS is
SUBJECT +
a MAN.
PREDICATE
DENCIO is a MAN.
SUBJECT + PREDICATE
MAN in this sense is univocal. It is predicated to the names
DENNIS and DENCIO.
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Page 89
Chapter 1
3. Analogous Term
LEGS OF A LADY.
LEGS OF A CHAIR.
Analogous Terms can be predicated by two or more things which are

partly the same and partly different.
Example:
Legs of a lady
Legs of a table
4. Contrary Terms
(BOTH ARE IN MOTION)

SLOW
FAST
Contrary Terms are those terms that represent two extremes among
objects
belonging
to the same class.
Between
Contrary
Terms there
is always
Chapter
1
Definition
and
Classification
of Terms
a
middle
ground.
________________________________________________
Page 90
Examples:
a. Slow
b. Hot
c. Loud d. Happy e. Better 5.
Fast
Cold
Quiet
Sad
Worst
Relative Terms
DOCTOR - PATIENT
Relative Terms are those terms that cannot be understood without the
other.
Examples:
a. Husband
b. Mother
c. Student
Chapter 1
Wife
Child
Teacher
________________________________________________
6. Deprivative
Terms
Introduction
to Philosophy
and Logic 2010
Page 91
WITH BODY AND SOUL
WITHOUT BODY AND SOUL
Deprivative Terms are those terms that signify the denial of a

perfection that one ought to possess.
Examples:
a. Bad b. Little
c. Blind
d. Sickness
e. Poverty
Goodness
Greatness
Sight
Health
Wealth
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
Introduction
Page 92
I. Identify the following:

______________________ 1. It is a mental image or representation of a
thing.
_______________________2. It is the process of grasping the essence of a
thing.
_______________________3. It is the verbal expression of an idea.
_______________________4. It is a term that stands for a single word.
_______________________5. It is a term that stands for a whole class and
each member of the class.
_______________________6. It is a term that stands for an indefinite
number of things or people.
_______________________7. It is a term that stands for a group of object or
things.
_______________________8. It stands for physical entities.
_______________________9. It stands for things comprehended by the
mind.
______________________10. Terms that stand for imaginary things.
______________________11. It is a term that admits two or more meanings.
______________________12. It is the term that can be predicated to two or
more subjects that may signify the same sense.
______________________13. These are terms that can be predicated to two
or more things which are partly the same and
partly different.
______________________14. These are terms that represent two extremes
among objects belonging to the same class.
______________________15. These are terms that cannot be understood without

the other.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Page 93
MIND EXERCISES
II. CLASSIFY THE TERMS (Singular/Universal/Particular/Abstract/Null/
Deprivative/Relative/Ambiguous/Univocal/Concrete/Equivocal/Analogous/
Contrary/Collective)
1. Apple -________________________________________________
2. Unicorn - _____________________________________________
3. Humanity -_____________________________________________
4. Queen -_______________________________________________
5. Spring - ________________________________________________
6. Mang Ruben- _________________________________________
7. Leg of a lady - _________________________________________
8. All and Nothing - _______________________________________
9. Mother and Child - _____________________________________
10. A dog - ______________________________________________
III. TRUE OR FALSE
____________1. An idea is a concrete thing.
____________2. Logic is an art.
____________3. Abstraction is grasping the essence of a thing.
____________4. An idea may also be called intentional form.
____________5. Simple apprehension is the process of abstracting and grasping the
essence of a thing.
____________6. A term is a verbal expression.
____________7. A universal term is a quantitative term.
____________8. Abstract term refer to terms produced by the mind.
____________9. Concrete terms refer to real beings.
___________10. Null terms refer to imaginary beings.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Page 94
MIND EXERCISES
IV. Identify the quantity of each phrase, words or statements.
_________________________ 1. Drink some milk.
_________________________ 2. Every man is a human being.
_________________________ 3. All people need basic education.
_________________________ 4. Many people have not seen a real tiger.
_________________________ 5. That girl is amiable.
_________________________ 6. He is not a bad boy.
_________________________ 7. Jons mother is a nurse.
_________________________ 8. Dogs bark.
_________________________ 9. Some watches are expensive.
_________________________ 10. Most human beings use their goodwill
and reason.
Chapter 1
Functions of Language
LESSON 5: FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
________________________________________________
Page 95
What is a Language?
Language is a body of words, sounds, signs, symbols, and gestures,
feelings and thoughts conceived as a means to communicate. It is mans
greatest invention. Thus, sounds, symbols, gestures, feelings, body
expressions and thoughts are necessary for the development of language.
Language flows from mans rationality. It is an instrument for man in
communicating his ideas, thoughts, emotions and desires.
Language can be Physical (gestures, body language), Verbal (spoken,
vocal), Written (handwriting, typewritten, signs, symbols). It is used for many
reasons, aims and purposes.
A. FUNCTIONS
1. Expressive Function
This function of language is one which expresses a
certain feeling or emotion. It uses the grammatical form of
interjecting sentences.
Examples:
a. Ouch! I broke my nose!
b. Oh the House is on fire!
c. Look! There is an accident!
2. Practical Function.
Chapter 1
This function of language is suited for actual activities

or useful activities. It involves the practical (practice) use of
language. It usually takes the formFunctions
of imperative
statements.
of Language
Examples:
a. Please close the doors.
b. Open your books on page 29.
c. Lets dance!
3. Logical Function.
________________________________________________
Page 96
This function of language is used for reasoning,

analyzing and judging an argument for clarification and
conclusion. This function of language may be used to prove or
disprove an argument.
Examples:
a. Nobody can walk fast and slow at the same
time.
b. Man is a rational animal. He has the ability
to reason, think and judge.
5. Performative Function.
This function of language is realized when there is a
discharge as a duty the task being spoken or presented to
anyone or an audience. It is used to fulfill an undertaking.
6. Complex Function.
This function of language is a combination of the
different functions of language.
Examples:
a. She has a pen in her hand. Dont you think
it is better for us to let her take down the
minutes of the meeting?
b. You are very good in mathematics. Would
you like to be my auditor?
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
V. ESSAY
Write your reflection about the statement Language flows from
________________________________________________
mans rational nature in no less than 5 sentences.
Page 97
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
VI. AGREE / DISAGREE. DEFEND. Below are the following concerns of
language:
________________________________________________
Page 98
1. Communication
_____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Truth
_____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Meaning of life
_____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. Logical communication
_____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. Insight
_____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
VII. Identify the function of language or the function of language being
conveyed.
_____________1. It is used to convey information.
________________________________________________
Page 99
_____________2. It is used to express feelings and emotions.

_____________3. It is used to perform an action as a discharge from the
expression.
____________4. It is the combination of two or more functions of language.
_____________5. It is a function of language suited for actual activities.
_____________6. Some students study their lessons often.
_____________7. Who are you? What do you want with me? Please dont
come near me or Ill scream.
_____________8. The child is shaking in fear.
_____________9. I am sorry.
____________10. Eat Bulaga is a noon-time show.
____________11. Oh! The house is on fire!
____________12. Please keep silent.
____________13. In the name of the Father.. (prayer)
____________14. Ninoy died on August 23, 1985.
____________15. Today is Saturday.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
VIII. Enumerate the basic necessities in establishing a language.
1. _______________________________________________________.
2. ______________________________________________________ .
________________________________________________
Page 100
3. ______________________________________________________ .
4. _______________________________________________________.
5. ______________________________________________________ .
6. ______________________________________________________ .
IX. Reflect about the following words or statements and try to discuss them:
1. What is the meaning of communicative language?
________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Which function of language is most important for you?
________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Simple apprehension.
________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. Ideas are speculative.
________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. A Term is a spoken pronouncement of idea.
________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
X. Identify the language and/or complete the sentences.
_______________________1. is a body of words, sounds, signs, symbols,
and gestures, feelings and thoughts conceived as a means to communicate.
________________________________________________
Page 101
2. Language flows from mans _________________________.

_________________________3. This function of language is one which
expresses a certain feeling or emotion. It uses the grammatical form of
interjecting sentences.
_________________________4. This function of language is suited for
actual activities or useful activities. It involves the practical (practice) use of
language. It usually takes the form of imperative statements.
_________________________5. This function of language is used for
reasoning, analyzing and judging an argument for clarification and
conclusion.
___________________________6. This function of language is realized
when there is a discharge as a duty the task being spoken or presented to
anyone or an audience. It is used to fulfill an undertaking.
___________________________7.
This
function
of
language
is
combination of the different functions of language.
CHAPTER 2
JUDGMENT AND PROPOSITION
LESSON 6: JUDGMENT
What is Judgment?
Judgment is the ability of the mind to form an opinion, an estimate or a
wise
and objective conclusion. It is a mental pronouncement. Judgment
________________________________________________
pronounces
an agreement
ideas. It is through
Introduction
to Philosophy
and Logicor
2010a disagreement
Liwanag,between
Rhodel Toledo
Page 102
judgment that we come to proclaim an ideas affirmation or denial. It is by

way of judgment that a Subject is affirmed or denied by a Predicate.
Examples:
1. A chicken is a bird.
-
Belonging to
Bird Family
is affirmed
by the Predicate
Chapter 2 In this case, the Subject chicken
Judgment
and Proposition
(of a membership in a class). The class is the Birds Family. The

agreement of the Subject and the Predicate comes from a judgment
based from an understanding of the two ideas chicken and bird.
2. This car is not new.
THIS IS A NEW CAR.
THIS IS NOT A NEW CAR.
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Page 103
In this case, the Subject car is denied of a quality by the

Predicate. But there is, however, an agreement between the Subject and
the Predicate. The agreement of the Subject and the Predicate comes
from a judgment based from an understanding of the two ideas car
and not new car. The Subject is however denied of a quality.
How do we arrive at a judgment?
In the pronouncement of a judgment there are these things considered:
1. An understanding of the concepts or ideas perceived by the
intellect or mind.
the two ideas.
Chapter 2 2. A mental comparison between
Judgment
and Proposition
3. A mental proclamation of a judgment of agreement or
disagreement between these ideas compared and perceived
from facts or reality.
Reality will provide the mind the tool in rendering the judgment true
or false. Therefore, the judgment of the Propositions agreement or
disagreement as pronounced by the mind will be affirmed or denied by
reality.
A Proposition is an expression of judgment of agreement and
disagreement between ideas whether or not it is an affirmation or a denial.
A Proposition expresses the pronouncement of an affirmation or a
denial of the agreement or disagreement of the Subject and the Predicate
based from a judgment made by the mind.
LESSON 7: SENTENCE
How do we distinguish a Sentence and a Proposition?
SENTENCE
A sentence is a word or a group of words expressing a complete thought.
Most
sentences contain a Subject and a Predicate.
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Page 104
1. A sentence is a word
Example: RUN!
Run is a single word expressing a complete thought.
Run in this sense is a sentence. It is an imperative sentence.
2. A sentence is a group of words.
Example: Agna is a baby.
Chapter 2
Judgment and Proposition
Agna is a baby is a group of words expressing a

complete thought. This sentence contains a Subject Agna and the
Predicate A BABY.
Agna
SUBJECT
IS
VERB
A BABY
+ PREDICATE
Other Examples of Sentences:

1. Why were you late?
(This is an interrogatory statement)
2. How are you today?
(This is an interrogatory statement)
3. Those girls are playing.
4. A cat is an animal.
5. These people are good boys.
6. She sings very well.
7. Mr. Escariote played Chess.
8. They have not eaten yet.
9. I always read books.
10. Shan is a pretty girl.
STATEMENT
A Statement is a declaration or assertion of an argument or a sentence. A
Statement is also sentence or vice-versa.
Examples:
1. He is stronger than I.
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Page 105
This statement is a sentence or a group of words expressing a

complete thought.
2. Jump!
This sentence is simply an imperative statement declaring a
command. It is simply a command or an imperative statement.
Other Examples:
Chapter 2
1. He walked.
2. This is a bicycle.
3. How many eggs did you eat?
4. This beer is as cold as ice.
5. God is the creator of heaven and earth.
6. He who sings well prays twice St. Augustine
7. How old are you?
8. Shes there.
LESSON 8: PROPOSITION
A Proposition is an expression of judgment. It may be something that is
stated for the purpose of discussion or something to be dealt-with as a
statement of fact and or truth.
A Proposition can be affirmative or negative. It either denies or affirms an
argument or a statement.
Example:
Anya is very good in reasoning.
This Proposition affirms that the Subject ANYA is very good in a
particular endeavor or field.
The Subject Anya is affirmed by the Predicate very good in
reasoning. It is affirmed of a quality by the predicate.
The proposition Anya is very good in reasoning is an affirmative
proposition. The linking verb IS is an indication of an affirmative
pronouncement of judgment.
________________________________________________
Page 106
How do we distinguish a sentence from a proposition?

Propositions are Sentences
Sentences/Statements are Propositions.
or
Statements.
But
not
all
Examples:
Chapter 2
1. Leave!
In this case, the imperative word Leave! is a complete

sentence expressing a complete thought but it is not a
proposition.
The word or sentence Leave! does not AFFIRM or
DENY anything. A Proposition denies or affirms something.
Therefore, the statement Leave! is not a proposition since it
neither affirms nor denies something.
2. Ouch!
The word Ouch! is an expression. It is an exclamatory
sentence but it is not a proposition. It expresses a complete
thought but it neither affirms nor denies something. A
proposition always affirms or denies something. But the
exclamatory statement Ouch! neither affirms nor denies
something. Therefore Ouch! is not a proposition.
3. Several birds are chirping.
This sentence is a proposition. It affirms an action. The
Subject Several birds is affirmed of an action by the
Predicate are chirping.
OTHER EXAMPLES OF PROPOSITIONS:

4. Man is a rational animal.
5. All dogs are animals.
6. Some Filipinos live in Malaysia.
7. Some Filipinos died from a tsunami in Thailand.
8. Not all people listen to their goodwill and conscience.
9. Manny the Pacman Pacquiao is as hungry as a hunter.
10. Some women are poor managers.
________________________________________________
Page 107
Chapter 2
Logical Structure of Proposition
LESSON 9:
LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF PROPOSITION
What do we mean by Logical Structure of Proposition?
A Proposition proclaims the agreement and disagreement of the
Subject + Copula (Verb in English Subject) + Predicate. It declares
affirmation or a denial. It proposes a positive or a negative assertion.
Example:
He is a dog.
There is an affirmation by the Predicate but there is a
disagreement between the two ideas HE and DOG in reality.
There is an agreement between the Subject and the Predicate
linked by a Copula. However, reality may deny such agreement
proclaimed by the mind. The mind, in its judgment, proclaims the
agreement or disagreement perceived, and that comparison
between the two ideas is either affirmed or denied.
He may be referred to a man. While Dog constitutes
an animal, without reason and IS NOT A MAN. Therefore, there
is a disagreement in the comparison of the two ideas. He and
the Dog are two different ideas belonging to different subclasses.
________________________________________________
Page 108
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
I. Define
1. Sentence ______________________________________________
2. Judgment ______________________________________________
3. Proposition ____________________________________________
II. Identify if affirmative or Negative
1. Man is an animal. _______________________________________
2. Man is not a dog. _______________________________________
3. She is not a man.________________________________________
4. All trees are tall.________________________________________
5. Some pets are not wild.___________________________________
6. No man is an island. _____________________________________
7. Dogs are not cats. _______________________________________
8. Man is a rational creature. ________________________________
9. Not all cats are hairy. ____________________________________
10.
She is not a pig. _____________________________________
III. Identify the logical structure of a Proposition
________________________________________________
Page 109
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Chapter 2
Truth and Falsity
LESSON 10: TRUTH
IDEA OF A NURSE
THE ACTUAL NURSE
Truth
Truth is the conformity of an idea to reality. It is the actual and real state
of matter perceived by the senses. Therefore, the correspondence of an idea
to the actual matter or reality is Truth.
________________________________________________
Page 110
Chapter 2
Truth and Falsity
LESSON 11: FALSITY
IDEA OF A NURSE
ACTUAL AND REAL NURSE
Falsity
Falsity is the non-conformity of an idea to reality.
It is the noncorrespondence of an idea to actual matter and reality. If the judgment of the
mind does not agree or conform to actual matter and reality it is false.
________________________________________________
Page 111
Chapter 2
The Categorical Proposition
LESSON 12: THE CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

A. Definition of a Categorical Proposition
1. Definition of Categorical
Categorical means unqualified and unconditional.
2. Definition of Proposition
A Proposition is an expression of judgment.
3. A Categorical Proposition is a direct (unqualified and unconditional)
expression of judgment between the Subject and the Predicate. It
asserts the agreement or disagreement of the Subject and the Predicate
unconditionally or directly.
Examples:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
Man is an animal.
No one is perfect.
Dogs are animals.
Some Filipinos are OFWs.
This new car is red.
Mary is a woman.
This man is not a criminal.
Oppressive people are not to be trusted.
No man of goodwill is untrustworthy.
B. QUALITY OF A CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

The Quality of a Proposition consists in the judgment of a proposition
whether affirmative or negative.
THE LINK
THE COPULA
Chapter 2
________________________________________________
Page 112
The copula or linking verb pronounces the affirmation or negation of a

proposition.
Examples:
1. All men are mortal
2. Some dogs are hounds.
C. QUANTITY OF A CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
Quantity refers to the Universality or Particularity of a proposition. It
denotes numbers, countable and uncountable.
Examples:
1. This boy is a Filipino.
(Singular in nature/Universal in sense)
2. One book is missing.
Many, Sometimes, Some, Someone, Few, Almost All,
Most, All, Every, Much, Not all are the quantifiers.
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
As regards Quantity, Categorical Propositions are either Universal or
Particular.
As regards Quality, categorical Propositions are either Affirmative or
Negative.
Categorical Propositions, as regards Quality and Quantity may be
Universal or Particular, Affirmative or Negative.
Chapter 2
________________________________________________
Page 113
D. FORMS OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS based from the

combinations of the Quality and Quantity of propositions.
1. A Proposition
(Universal Affirmative Proposition)
2. E Proposition
(Universal Negative Proposition)
3. I Proposition
(Particular Affirmative Proposition)
4. O Proposition
(Particular Negative Proposition)
E. THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF LOGICAL PROPOSITION

The basic structure of a proposition is SUBJECT + COPULA +
PREDICATE.
A proposition indicates the S is P agreement i.e. Subject (S) + Copula
(is) + Predicate (P) agreement.
F. THE FOUR (4) FORMS OF PROPOSITIONS:

1. The Universal Affirmative Proposition
(A)
The Universal Affirmative Proposition speaks of a whole. It stands for

each of the subject to which it can be applied. Universal affirmative
proposition does not deny the quality of each member of a class for which it
stands for.
Example:
All birds are animal.
2. The Universal Negative Proposition

Chapter 2
(E)
The Universal Negative Proposition does not affirm each member of a
class. It denies a total relationship for each member of another universal

class.
________________________________________________
Page 114
Examples:
1. No dog is a goat.
2. She is not a rat.
3. The Particular Affirmative Proposition
(I)
The Particular Affirmative Proposition speaks of a part of a whole. It

stands for an indeterminate numbers. It also stands for more than one but it
does not designate or define it definitely.
The Particular Affirmative Proposition does not deny the quality of
the Subject, or one, or group to which it can be applied.
Example:
1. Most of the animals have feathers.

2. Some cars are two-door vehicles.
4. The Particular Negative Proposition
(O)
The Particular Negative Proposition speaks of a part of a whole to

which it denies such connection or agreement. It stands for an indeterminate
numbers. It also stands for more than one but it does not designate or define it
definitely.
The Particular Negative Proposition denies agreement with its
Subject.
Examples:
1. Not all pigs are black.

2. Many houses are not painted in blue.
3. Men are not dogs.
4. No animals are trees.
5. Every human beings are not brutes.
Chapter 2
Hypothetical Propositions
LESSON 13: THE HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS

KINDS OF HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS
________________________________________________
Page 115
1. Conditional Proposition
A Conditional Proposition is an expression of judgment stating a condition or a
prerequisite. It has two compositions, the ANTECEDENT and the CONSEQUENT.
Conditional Propositions are usually expressed by the words if, in-case,
supposed and other words expressing a condition. It is usually called the IF and
THEN Proposition.
ANTECEDENT
If..
CONSEQUENT
then..
Example:
If a mans reason is unbiased,
Then, he can produce a better judgment.
2. The Conjunctive Proposition
A conjunctive Proposition is an expression of judgment denying the possibility
of two alternatives (hypothetical or categorical propositions).
Examples:
1. You cannot be in Pampanga and Las Pias Metro Manila at the same
time.
2. If you are in Espaa, Manila, you cannot be in Makati City.
3. The Disjunctive Proposition
A Disjunctive Proposition is an expression of judgment in which you either
affirm or deny from two alternative propositions. It is called the EITHER OR
statement because of its form.
Examples:
1. A person is EITHER a man OR a woman.
2. EITHER you talk OR you keep quiet.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
________________________________________________
Page 116
I. Identify the Quality and Quantity of the Propositions in SET B. Write AP

for particular affirmative, NU for universal negative, NP for particular
negative, and AU for universal affirmative in SET A.
SET A
_____________________________________________
QUALITY
:
QUANTITY
-------------------------------------------------------------------1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
SET
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
B
1. My First Aid Kit is on the table.

2. The pencil is not sharpened.
3. Jen is not a Nurse.
4. The doctor is out.
5. This is a microscope.
6. Some balls were flat.
7. Not all beds are white.
8. This letter is not an affidavit of complaint.
9. Some books at the library are obsolete.
10. Rolando M. Escariote, a traitor, is not a Nurse.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
________________________________________________
Page 117
II. TRUE OR FALSE

____________1. A proposition is a word of group of words.
____________2. A proposition is either affirmative or negative.
____________3. Judgment is a mental pronouncement.
____________4. Truth is the non-correspondence of idea to term.
____________5. A proposition requires the S is P form.
____________6. Falsity is the non-correspondence of reality to ideas.
____________7. Truth is a mental pronouncement.
____________8. All dogs is a universal proposition.
____________9. Quality is either affirmative or negaive.
___________10. E is a particular negative proposition.
III. DEFINE THE FOLLOWING TERMS

1. A PROPOSITION ___________________________________________
2. E PROPOSITION ___________________________________________
3. I PROPOSITION ____________________________________________
4. O PROPOSITION ___________________________________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
IV. IDENTIFY THE LOGICAL OPPOSITIONS.
________________________________________________
Page 118
1. A + O ____________________________________________________.
2. A + I _____________________________________________________.
3. A + E _____________________________________________________.
4. O + I _____________________________________________________.
5. O + E _____________________________________________________.
6. I + E _____________________________________________________.
7. I + A _____________________________________________________.
8. E + I _____________________________________________________.
9. E + O _____________________________________________________.
10. I + O _____________________________________________________.
V. IDENTIFY THE OPPOSITIONS
1. Some dogs. + Some dogs are not..
___________________________________________
2. Some cats are + All cats are
___________________________________________
3. No man is. + All Men are
___________________________________________
4. Some Animals + All Animals.
___________________________________________
5. Every rat is + Not all rats are.
___________________________________________
6. Some men are moral. + Some men are not moral.
___________________________________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
VI. Classify the Kind Of Hypothetical Proposition.
________________________________________________
Page 119
1. If man is mortal, then he will die.

2. You cannot sit and stand at the same time.
3. Either you are a man or a woman.
4. If life is fair everything is better.
5. Either you see me or not see me.
VII. Defend or Refute:
SENTENCES ARE NOT ALL PROPOSITION
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CHAPTER 3
INFERENCE AND REASONING
LESSON 14: INFERENCE

WHAT IS AN INFERENCE?
Inference is the process of deriving propositions or beliefs on the
basis of other propositions, rather than from direct experiences.
WHAT IS TO INFER?
To infer is to conclude by reasoning from premises or evidences.
TYPES OF INFERENCES
A. Mediate Inference
Mediate inference is deriving a conclusion by reasoning from
premises or evidences through intermediary proposition. It is deriving
conclusion from two or more arguments by the aid of a third
argument.
CHAPTER 3
Inference and Reasoning
Example:
All men are good by nature.
John is a Man.
Therefore, John is good by nature.
Deriving a conclusion in a mediate inference is deriving a
conclusion from beliefs, propositions and the basic features of a thing as
experienced.
There is a need for a medium or process (induction and deduction)
________________________________________________
before
a proposition
is derived.
Introduction
to Philosophy
and Logic
2010
Page 121
Examples:
It has an isosceles.
It has a hypotenuse.
It has three sides.
TRIANGLE
It bounces.
It is round.
It is made up of rubber.
BASKETBALL
Mediate Inference
Mediate inference is reasoning or logical thinking in a wide sense. It
may be inductive or deductive reasoning.
1. Deductive Reasoning is one which proceeds from generalization
to specific arguments. It is a form of reasoning in which
conclusions are derived from logical consequences.
2. Inductive Reasoning is one which proceeds from specific to
general arguments. It is a form of reasoning in which conclusions
are derived from particular observable phenomena.
CHAPTER 3
B. Immediate Inference
Immediate inference is deriving a conclusion directly from a single
argument or premise or a thing. Immediate inference draws a conclusion
from a single proposition directly without a medium or intermediary.
Example:
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Page 122
No apple is a papaya.
Immediately we can conclude that papayas are not apples and apples
are not papayas. Clearly there is no need for a third argument to derive a
conclusion. Immediate inference is deriving a conclusion directly from a
single proposition, an argument, a sentence or a statement.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
Define
1. Inference ___________________________________________________
2. Mediate Inference ____________________________________________
3. Immediate Inference __________________________________________
________________________________________________
Page 123
4. Deductive Reasoning _________________________________________

5. Inductive Reasoning __________________________________________
CHAPTER 3
LESSON 15: THE OPPOSITIONAL INFERENCES

(1 Proposition + 1 Proposition is Equivalent to an Opposition)
1. Universal Affirmative Proposition + Universal Negative Proposition =
(Contrary Opposition)
A + E = Opposition (Contrary Opposition)
2. Universal Affirmative Proposition + Particular Affirmative Proposition =
(Subalternate Opposition)
A + I = Opposition (Subalternate Opposition)
3. Particular Negative Proposition + Particular Affirmative Proposition =
(Subcontrary Opposition)
O + I = Opposition (Subcontrary Opposition)
________________________________________________
Page 124
4. Particular Affirmative Proposition + Universal Negative Proposition =

(Contradictory Opposition)
I + E = Opposition (Contradictory Opposition)
5. Universal Negative Proposition + Particular Affirmative Proposition =
E + I = Opposition (Contradictory Opposition)
6. Particular Negative Proposition + Universal Affirmative Proposition =
O + A = Opposition (Contradictory Opposition)
7. Universal Negative Proposition + Particular Negative Proposition =
(Subalternate Opposition)
E + O = Opposition (Subalternate Opposition)
8. Universal Affirmative Proposition + Particular Negative Proposition =
A + O = Opposition (Contradictory Opposition)
CHAPTER 3
LESSON 16: PARTS OF THE SQUARE
1. A PROPOSITION
FIGURE 1
2. E PROPOSITION
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Page 125
FIGURE 2
3. I PROPOSITION
I
FIGURE 3
4. O PROPOSITION
O
FIGURE 4
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
1. What is a Contrary Opposition?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. What is a Subalternate Opposition?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. What is a Subcontrary Opposition?
______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Introduction
Page 126
4. What is a Contradictory Opposition?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
6. What is a Proposition?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 3
LESSON 17: THE LOGICAL OPPOSITIONS

1. CONTRARY
FIGURE 1
A
FIGURE 2
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Page 127
CONTRARY OPPOSITIONS
a. It exists between two Universal
Propositions that differ in Quality.
b. It exists between A and E Propositions.
c. It exists between a Universal Affirmative
and a Universal Negative Proposition.
2. SUBCONTRARY
CHAPTER 3
I
OO
O
Inference
FIGUREand
3 Reasoning
O
FIGURE 4
SUB-CONTRARY OPPOSITIONS
a. It exists between two Particular
Propositions that differ in Quality.
b. It exists between
Propositions.
and
c. It exists between a Particular

Affirmative and a Particular Negative
Proposition.
3. SUBALTERNATE
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Page 128
3. SUBALTERNATE
I
FIGURE 5
O
CHAPTER 3

FIGURE 6
SUB-ALTERNATE OPPOSITION
a. It exists between two propositions
that differ in Quantity.
b. It exists between a Universal
Subaltern and a Particular
Subaltern.
c. It exists between A+I and E+O
Propositions.
4. CONTRADICTORY
I
FIGURE 7
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Page 129
FIGURE 8
CONTRADICTORY OPPOSITIONS
a. It exists between one Universal Proposition
and one Particular Proposition that differ in
both Quantity and Quality
b. It exists between a Universal Affirmative and a
Particular Negative; or a Universal Negative
and a Particular Affirmative Proposition.
c. It exists between A+O and E+I Propositions.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
I. What are the Parts of the Square of Oppositions?
1. ___________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________
II. What are the Four Types of Propositions?
1. ___________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________
________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________
Introduction
Page 130
III. What are the symbols for the Four Types of Propositions?
1. ______
2. ______
3. ______
4. ______
(Logical Propositions are either Affirmative or negative.)
SUMMARY OF LOGICAL OPPOSITIONS

CONTRARY OPPOSITION
1. Contrary Oppositions exist between two Universal Propositions
that differ in Quality.
2. Contrary Oppositions exist between A (Universal Affirmative
Proposition) and E (Universal Negative Proposition).
CONTRADICTORY OPPOSITIONS
1. Contradictory Oppositions exist between one Universal Proposition
and one Particular Proposition that differ in both Quantity and Quality.
2. Contradictory Oppositions exist between a Universal Proposition and a
Particular Proposition that differs in both Quality and Quantity.
3. It exists between A+O and E+I.
________________________________________________
SUBALTERNATE OPPOSITION
Page 131
1. Subalternate Oppositions exist between two propositions that differ in

Quantity.
2. Subalternate Oppositions exist between a Universal Subaltern and a
Particular Subaltern.
3. Subalternate Oppositions exist between a Universal Subaltern and a
Particular Subaltern.
4. Subalternate Oppositions exist between A+I and E+O.
CHAPTER 3
LESSON 18: THE OPPOSITIONAL INFERENCES (SUMMARY)

The Oppositional Inferences
The Oppositional inferences refer to the Square of Oppositions. There
are four kinds of Logical Oppositions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Contrary Opposition (A + E)
Sub-Contrary Opposition (I + O)
Contradictory Opposition (A + O) (E + I)
Subalternate Opposition (A + I) (E + O)
LESSON 19: THE VENN DIAGRAM

VENN DIAGRAM
A Venn diagram is a drawing, in which circular areas represent
groups of items sharing common properties. The drawing consists of two or
more circles, each representing a specific group. This process of visualizing
logical relationships was devised by John Venn (1834-1923).
A-proposition is diagrammed as:
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Page 132
E-proposition is diagrammed as:
S
I-proposition is diagrammed as:
X
S
O-proposition is diagrammed as:
Since a syllogism is VALID if and only if the premises entail the

conclusion, diagramming the premises will reveal the logical geography of
the conclusion in a valid syllogism. If the syllogism is invalid, then
diagramming the premises is insufficient to show the conclusion must follow.
Procedures:
1. Only the Premises must be shaded.
2. The Universals should be diagrammed first if premises contains
particular premises.
3. Only premises must be diagrammed.
4. An X must be placed to dissect the area designated.
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Page 133
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
DRAW THE DIAGRAM AND SHADE
1. All men are animals.
2. Some dogs are hounds.
3. Not all animals are people.
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Page 134
4. No coin is green.
CHAPTER 3
LESSON 20: THE LOGICAL OPPOSITIONS
All apples are sweet.

All S
is P
Some apples are sweet.
No apple is sweet.
No S
is P
Some apples are not Sweet.
The Square of Oppositions consists of propositions and logical

oppositions. The propositions give rise to the oppositions in the logical
oppositions.
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Page 135
CHAPTER 3
LESSON 21: THE LAWS

1. Laws of Contrariety (A and E Propositions)
a.
b.
c.
d.
If one is True, the other is False.

Contrary Oppositional Inferences cannot be both True.
If one is False, the other is Doubtful (or may be False).
Contrary Oppositional Inferences may be both False.
2. Laws of Sub-Contrariety (I and O Propositions)

e.
f.
g.
h.
If one is False, the other must be True.

Subcontrary Oppositional Inferences cannot be both False.
If one is True, the other is Doubtful (or may be True).
Contrary Oppositional Inferences may be both True.
3. Laws of Contradiction (A and O, E and I Propositions)

i. If one is True, the other is False.
j. Contradictory Oppositional Inferences cannot be both
True.
k. If one is False, the other is True.
l. Contradictory Oppositional Inferences cannot be both
False.
4. Laws of Subalternation (A and I, E and O Propositions)
m. The truth of the whole is the truth of its parts.
n. If A is True, then I is True.
o. The Falsity of the whole may be the falsity of the parts.
p. If A is False, then is Doubtful
q. The truth of the parts may not be the truth of the whole.
r. If I is True, then A may not be True.
s. The Falsity of the parts is the falsity of the whole.
________________________________________________
t. Ifand
I isLogic
False,
False. Rhodel Toledo
2010then, A isLiwanag,
Page 136
CHAPTER 3
LESSON 22: SUMMARY OF THE LAWS

SUMMARIZED AS:
If A is True, E is false.
If E is True, A is false.
If A is False, E is Doubtful.
If E is False. A is Doubtful.
SUMMARIZED AS:
If I is True, O is doubtful.
If O is True, I is doubtful.
If I is False, O must be True.
If O is False. I must be True.
SUMMARIZED AS:
If A is True, O is false.
If O is True, A is false.
If E is False, I is True.
If I is False. E is True.
SUMMARIZED AS:
If A is True, I is True.
If E is True, O is True.
If A is False, I is Doubtful.
If E is False. O is Doubtful.
If I is True, A is Doubtful.
________________________________________________
is True,and
E isLogic
Doubtful.
IntroductionIftoO
Philosophy
2010
Page 137
If I is False, A is False.
If O is False. E is False.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
Identify if it is TRUE (T), FALSE (F) or DOUBTFUL (?).
If A is True, E is _____.
If E is True, A is _____.
If A is False, E is _____.
If E is False. A is _____.
If I is True, O is ______.
If O is True, I is ______.
If I is False, O must be ______.
If O is False. I must be ______.
If A is True, O is _____.
If O is True, A is _____.
If E is False, I is _____.
If I is False. E is _____.
If A is True, I is _____.
If E is True, O is ____.
If A is False, I is ______.
If E is False. O is _____.
If I is True, A is _________.
If O is True, E is ________.
If I is False, A is _________.
________________________________________________
is False.and
E Logic
is ________.
IntroductionIftoO
Philosophy
2010
Page 138
CHAPTER 3
LESSON 23: APPLICATION OF THE LAWS

a. If one is True, the other is False.
If it is TRUE that Every new born baby is as soft as cotton,
then, that No new born baby is as soft as cotton is FALSE.
(TRUE) FALSE
A
b. Contrary Oppositional Inferences cannot be both True.

then, that No new born baby is as soft as cotton is FALSE.
(TRUE) FALSE
A
c. If one is False, the other is Doubtful (or may be False).

If it is FALSE that Every new born baby is as soft as cotton,
then, that No new-born baby is as soft as cotton is
DOUBTFUL.
(FALSE) DOUBTFUL
A
CHAPTER 3
E
________________________________________________
Page 139
d. Contrary Oppositional Inferences may be both False.

then, that No new born baby is as soft as cotton - MAY BE
FALSE.
(FALSE) DOUBTFUL
A
Laws of Contrariety (A and E Propositions)

If it is TRUE that No new born baby is as soft as cotton,
then, that Every new born baby is as soft as cotton is
FALSE.
FALSE (TRUE)
A
b. Contrary Oppositional Inferences cannot be both True.

FALSE.
FALSE (TRUE)
A
CHAPTER 3
E
c. If one is False, the other is Doubtful (or may be False).
________________________________________________
If it and
is FALSE
Logic 2010that
No new
born
baby
is as soft as cotton,
Liwanag,
Rhodel
Toledo
Page 140

DOUBTFUL.
DOUBTFUL (FALSE)
A
d. Contrary Oppositional Inferences may be both False.

If it is FALSE that No new born baby is as soft as cotton,
DOUBTFUL.
DOUBTFUL (FALSE)
A

a. If one is False, the other must be True.
If it is FALSE that Some new born baby is as soft as cotton,
then, that Some new born baby is not as soft as cotton is TRUE.
(FALSE)
TRUE
b. Subcontrary Oppositional Inferences cannot be both False.

CHAPTER 3
________________________________________________
Page 141
(FALSE)
TRUE
c. If one is True, the other is Doubtful (or may be True).

If it is TRUE that Some new born baby is as soft as cotton,
then, that Some new born baby is not as soft as cotton is
DOUBTFUL.
(TRUE)
DOUBTFUL
d. Subcontrary Oppositional Inferences may be both True.

then, that Some new born baby is not as soft as cotton
MAY BE TRUE OR DOUBTFUL.
(FALSE)
TRUE
Laws of Sub-Contrariety (I and O Propositions)

e. If one is False, the other must be True.
born babyand
is NOT
as soft as
CHAPTERIf3it is FALSE that Some new
Inference
Reasoning
cotton,
then, that Some new born baby is as soft as cotton is TRUE.
I
O
________________________________________________
TRUE
(FALSE)
Page 142
f. Subcontrary Oppositional Inferences cannot be both False.

If it is FALSE that Some new born baby is NOT as soft as
cotton,
TRUE
(FALSE)
g. If one is True, the other is Doubtful (or may be True).

If it is TRUE that Some new born baby is NOT as soft as
cotton,
then, that Some new born baby is as soft as cotton is
DOUBTFUL.
DOUBTFUL
(TRUE )
h. Contrary Oppositional Inferences may be both True.

If it is TRUE that Some new born baby is NOT as soft as cotton,
then, 3that Some new born baby isInference
as soft as cotton
MAY BE
CHAPTER
and Reasoning
TRUE OR DOUBTFUL.
DOUBTFUL (TRUE)
________________________________________________
3. Lawstoof
Contradiction
(A and
Introduction
Philosophy
and Logic 2010
O, ELiwanag,
and I Rhodel
Propositions)
Toledo
Page 143

FALSE.
(TRUE)
A
O
FALSE
b. Contradictory Oppositional Inferences cannot be both True.
FALSE.
(TRUE)
A
O
FALSE
c. If one is False, the other is True.
CHAPTER 3
Inference
Reasoning
then, that Some new born baby
is not asand
soft as
cotton is TRUE.
(FALSE)
A
O
TRUE
d. Contradictory Oppositional Inferences cannot be both False.
________________________________________________
Page 144

(FALSE)
A
O
TRUE
Laws of Contradiction (A and O, E and I Propositions)
e. If one is True, the other is False.
FALSE.
(TRUE)
E
I
FALSE
f. Contradictory Oppositional Inferences cannot be both True.
CHAPTERIf3it is TRUE that No new born
Inference
and
baby is as
softReasoning
as cotton,
then, that Some new born baby is as soft as cotton is FALSE.
(TRUE)
E
I
FALSE
g. If one is False, the other is True.
________________________________________________
Page 145
(TRUE)
E
I
FALSE
h. Contradictory Oppositional Inferences cannot be both False.
(TRUE)
E
I
FALSE
a. The truth of the whole is the truth of its parts.
CHAPTERthen,
3 that Some new born baby
Inference
Reasoning
is as soft and
as cotton
is TRUE.
(TRUE)
A
I
TRUE
b. If A is True, then I is True.
(TRUE)
________________________________________________
A
Page 146
TRUE
c. The Falsity of the whole may be the falsity of the parts.
DOUBTFUL.
(FALSE)
A
I
DOUBTFUL
d. If A is False, then is Doubtful
DOUBTFUL.
CHAPTER 3
(FALSE)
A
I
DOUBTFUL
e. The truth of the parts may not be the truth of the whole.
DOUBTFUL.
DOUBTFUL
________________________________________________
A
I
Page 147
(TRUE)
f. If I is True, then A may not be True.
DOUBTFUL.
DOUBTFUL
A
I
(TRUE)
g. The Falsity of the parts is the falsity of the whole.
CHAPTER
Reasoning
If 3it is FALSE that Some newInference
born baby and
is as soft
as cotton,
then, that Every new born baby is as soft as cotton is FALSE.
FALSE
A
I
(FALSE)
h. If I is False, then, A is False.
then, that Every new born baby is as soft as cotton is FALSE.
FALSE
________________________________________________
A
Page 148
(FALSE)
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
I. Identify the Oppositional Inference
___________________ 1. It exists between A and E propositions.
___________________ 2. It exists between two particular propositions.
___________________ 3. It exists between universal propositions.
___________________ 4. It exists between a universal and a particular
proposition with similar quality.
___________________ 5. It exists between A and O propositions.
________________________________________________
Page 149
II. Apply the laws (T for TRUE, F for FALSE, ? for DOUBTFUL) of the
Oppositional Inferences to the following oppositions.
If it is TRUE that Some good-looking individuals have evil hearts;
then, that No good-looking individual has an evil heart is
______________(1).
If it is FALSE that Some good-looking individuals have evil hearts;
then, that No good-looking individual has an evil heart is
______________(2).
If it is TRUE that Some good-looking individuals have no evil
hearts; then, that Every good-looking individual has an evil heart is
______________(3).
Some children are intelligent is _____________(4), if Every child
is intelligent is FALSE.
No child is intelligent is _______________(5) if some children are
intelligent is FALSE.
Some TV Hostess is a comedienne is ______________ (6) if No
TV hostess is a comedienne is TRUE.
If it is TRUE that All men are naturally good; then, that No man is
naturally good is ______________ (7)
If it is FALSE that All men are naturally good; then, that No man
is naturally good is ______________ (8)
Some women are moral is _____________ (9) if Some women
are not moral is TRUE.
Some women are moral is ____________ (10) if Some women
are not moral is FALSE.
________________________________________________
Page 150
III. TRUE OR FALSE. Write T if the statement is correct; F if incorrect.

1. If A is True, O is False in the Laws of Contrareity.
2.
Contrary Oppositions cannot be both False.
3. If one is False, the other may be False in subcontrareity.

4. Contrary Oppositions be both True.
5. If A is True, E is Doubtful.
6. If E is True, A is Doubtful.
7. If A is False, E is True.
8. If O is False. A is False.
9. Sub-Contrariety is between I and O Propositions.
10. Subcontrary Oppositions cannot be both False.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
IV. Identify the Oppositional Inferences.
__________________ 1. It exists between A and E propositions.
___________________2. It exists between two particular propositions.
___________________3. It exists between universal propositions.
___________________4. It exists between a universal and a particular
proposition with similar quality.
___________________5. It exists between A and O propositions.
________________________________________________
V. Identify
if TRUE,and
FALSE
or DOUBTFUL.
Introduction
to Philosophy
Logic 2010
Page 151
1. In a contradictory opposition, if one is true the other is ______________.

T/F/?
2. In a subcontrary opposition, if one is false the other is ______________.
T/F/?
3. In a contrary opposition, if one is false, the other is _________________.
T/F/?
4. In a subalternate opposition, if the universal is false, the other is
______________.
T/F/?
5. In a subcontrary opposition, if one is true, the other is ________________.
T/F/?
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
VI. True/False/Doubtful. Apply the rules of the square of oppositions.
If it is TRUE that No man is immortal, then, that,
1. Some men are immortal is __________________.
2. All men are immortal is _____________________.
3. Some men are not immortal is _______________.
If it is FALSE that Some animals are dogs, then, that,
1. Some animals are not dogs is ________________.
2.
All animals are dogs is _____________________.
________________________________________________
Page 152
3. No animal is a dog is _______________________.

If it is TRUE that all cats are not rats, then, that,
1. No cat is a rat is __________________________ .
2. Some cats are not rats is ___________________ .
3. Some cats are rats is ______________________ .
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
VII. Apply the Laws of the Opposition-al inferences.
(T)
) (T )
) (T)
( ) (
)(
(T) (
(F)
(F)
(
E
( ) ( )
( )
( )
(F)
( )
( ) (F)
________________________________________________
Page 153
CHAPTER 3
LESSON 24: NATURE OF REASONING

What is Reason?
Reason is the faculty of rationality in a human being. It is the power
of the mind in forming a conclusion or inference.
A. CONVERSION
Conversion is an immediate inference in which the Subject and the
Predicate are interchanged without changing the quality and truth of the
proposition.
Parts of Conversion
Convertend
Converse
- is the original state of proposition

- is the transposed proposition.
Kinds of Conversion
Simple/Perfect/Full
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Page 154
Simple Conversion is transposition of a proposition without changing

the quantity of both the Subject and the Predicate.
Example
Convertend
Converse
Convertend
Converse
All dogs are not cats.

All cats are not dogs.
Some cats are not dogs.
Some dogs are not cats.
Only E and I propositions can be transposed in simple conversion.

CHAPTER 3
Partial/Imperfect
Partial or Imperfect Conversion is transposition of proposition
in which one of the propositions quantity is reduced.
Convertend
Converse
-Every man is moral.

-Some moral (beings) are men.
RULES OF CONVERSION
1. Transpose the Subject into the Predicate and vice-versa.
2. Retain the quality of the Convertend.
B. OBVERSION
Obversion is transposition of a proposition wherein the quality of both the
Subject and the Predicate are changed.
In obversion we change the quality of the Subject and Predicate without
changing the meaning of the Proposition.
Example:
Obvertend
Obverse
Every S is P
No S is non-P
RULES OF OBVERSION
________________________________________________
Page 155
1.
2.
3.
4.
Retain the Subject and the Predicate.

Change the quality of the Obvertend.
Retain the quantity of the Obvertend.
Contradict the predicate of the Convertend.
Examples:
A-E
E-A
I-O
O-I
: All men are mortal.

: No men are non-mortal.
: No man is mortal.
: All men are non-mortal
: Some men are mortal
: Some men are not non-mortal
: Some men are not mortal (beings) :
: Some men are non-mortal (beings)
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
I. Convert the following:
SIMPLE CONVERSION
All cats are not pigs.
1. ___________________________________
Some dogs are not cats.
2. ___________________________________
PARTIAL CONVERSION
Every man is mortal.
3. __________________________________
All moral beings are human.
4. __________________________________
________________________________________________
Page 156
II. OBVERT THE FOLLOWING

1. All men are mortal - _____________________________________
2. No man is an animal- ____________________________________
3. Some men are tall - ______________________________________
4. Every dog is an animal -__________________________________
5. All cats are not dogs -____________________________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
IV. Identify the following:
_____________________ 1. The faculty of rationality in human beings.
_____________________ 2. It is an immediate inference in which the
Subject and the predicate are interchanged.
_____________________ 3. It is the transposition of a proposition without
changing the quantity of both the Subject and
the Predicate.
_____________________ 4. It is the transposition of proposition where the
quality of both the Subject and the Predicate are
changed.
_____________________ 5. It is the transposition of propositions in which
one of the propositions quantity is reduced.
V. Enumerate the rules of Oversion.
________________________________________________
1. ___________________________________________________________
Introduction
Page 157
2. ___________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 3
The Categorical Syllogism
LESSON 25: THE CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM

What is a Syllogism?
A Syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning in which two
premises support a conclusion. It is a kind of argumentation.
Kinds of Syllogisms:
1. Categorical Syllogism
2. Hypothetical Syllogism
The Simple Categorical Syllogism
1. Elements of the Simple Categorical Syllogism
a. Major Premise
This form of judgment or argument usually stands for
universal propositions.
b. Minor Premise
This form of judgment or argument usually stands for a
less universal proposition.
c. Conclusion
This is a form of inference as a result from two
premises or propositions.
2. Structure of the Simple Categorical Syllogism
________________________________________________
a. Major
Term
and Logic
2010
Page 158
The Major Term is found in the Major Premise. It is

usually universal.
b. Minor Term
The Minor Term is found in the Minor Premise. It is
CHAPTER 3 usually particular.
c. Middle term
The Middle Term is the means of comparison between
the Minor Term and the Major term. It is usually seen twice in
the Syllogism as a comparison.
LESSON 26: ELEMENTS OF THE SIMPLE CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM
1. Major Premise. This form of judgment or argument usually stands
for a more universal proposition.
Every bird is an animal; ---Major Premise
Some birds live on ice;
Therefore, some animals live on ice.
2. Minor Premise. This form of judgment or argument usually stands
for a less universal proposition.
Every bird is an animal;
Some birds live on ice; -----Minor Premise
3. Conclusion. This form of inference is a result of two premises or
propositions.
Some birds live on ice;
------- Conclusion
________________________________________________
Page 159
CHAPTER 3
LESSON 27: STRUCTURE OF THE SIMPLE CATEGORICAL

SYLLOGISM
Major Term. The Major Term is found in the Major Premise. It is
usually universal.
Every bird IS AN ANIMAL; ----Major Term
Some birds are chicken;
Therefore, some chickens are animals.
Minor Term. The Minor Term is found in the Minor Premise. It is
usually particular.
Some birds are CHICKEN; ------Minor Term
Middle term. The Middle Term is the term of comparison between the
Minor Term and the Major term. It is usually seen twice in the
Syllogism as a comparison.
Every BIRD (middle term) is an animal;
Some BIRDS (middle term) are chicken;
________________________________________________
Page 160
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
I. What are the Three (3) Elements of the Simple Categorical Syllogisms?
1.
_____________________________________________________
2.
_____________________________________________________
3.
_____________________________________________________
II. Identify the structures of the Simple Categorical Syllogism.

1.
_____________________________________________________
2.
_____________________________________________________
3.
_____________________________________________________
III. Define.
1. Syllogism ____________________________________________
2. Major Premise ________________________________________
3. Minor Premise ________________________________________
4. Conclusion ___________________________________________
________________________________________________
Page 161
CHAPTER 3
LESSON 28:
SYLLOGISM
FIGURES
OF
THE
SIMPLE
CATEGORICAL
a. SUB-PRE (Subject-Predicate)
Sub-Pre means that the Middle Term is the Subject of the Major
Premise and the Predicate of the Minor Premise.
MP
S M
S P
b. PRE-PRE
Pre-Pre means that the Middle Term is the Predicate of the Major
P M
S M
S P
c. SUB-SUB
Sub-Sub means that the Middle Term is the Subject of the Major
Premise and the Subject of the Minor Premise.
M P
M S
S P
d. PRE-SUB
Pre-Sub means that the Middle Term is the Subject of the Major
P M
________________________________________________
M S and Logic 2010
Page 162
S P
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
Identify the Major Term, Minor Term, Middle Term and the Conclusion in
the blank.
1. Every man is an animal;
John is a man;
Therefore, John is a man.
Major Term ___________________________________
Minor Term ___________________________________
Middle Term __________________________________
Conclusion ____________________________________
2. Some Dogs are hounds;
All hounds are animals;
Therefore, Some dogs are animals.
Major Term ___________________________________
Minor Term ___________________________________
Middle Term __________________________________
Conclusion ____________________________________
3. All men are mortal beings;
John is a man;
Therefore, John is a mortal being.
Major Term ___________________________________
Minor Term ___________________________________
Middle Term __________________________________
Conclusion ____________________________________
________________________________________________
Page 163
4. No cat is a rat;
No rat is a dog;
Therefore, No dog is a cat.
Major Term ___________________________________
Minor Term ___________________________________
Middle Term __________________________________
Conclusion ____________________________________
5. Some students are studius;
Some studius people are intelligent;
Therefore, Some intelligent people are students.
Major Term ______________________________________
Minor Term ______________________________________
Middle Term _____________________________________
Conclusion _______________________________________
CHAPTER 3
________________________________________________
Page 164
LESSON 29: VALID MOODS OF THE SIMPLE CATEGORICAL

SYLLOGISM
1. SUB-PRE FIGURE
In the 1st Figure (Sub-Pre) the valid figures are:
a.1. A A A
a.2. E A E
a.3. A I I
a.4. E I O
2. PRE-PRE FIGURE
In the 2nd Figure (Pre-Pre) the valid figures are:
a.1. A E E
a.2. E I O
a.3. A O O
a.4. E A E
3. SUB-SUB FIGURE
In the 3rd Figure (Sub-Sub) the valid figures are:
a.1. A A I
a.2. I A I
a.3. A E O
a.4. A I I
a.5. E I O
a.6. O A O
4. PRE-SUB FIGURE
In the 4th Figure (Pre-Sub) the valid figures are:
a.1. A A I
a.2. A E E
a.3. I A I
a.4. E I O
a.5. E A O
CHAPTER 3
________________________________________________
Page 165
Figures of the Simple Categorical Syllogism and its Valid Moods.

Figures
Moods
1. SUB-PRE
MP
SM
S P
a.1. A
a.2. E
a.3. A
a.4. E
AA
A E
I I
I O
2. PRE-PRE
P M
S M
S P
a.1. A E E
a.2. E I O
a.3. A O O
a.4. E A E
3. SUB-SUB
M P
M S
S P
a.1. A A I
a.2. I A I
a.3. A E O
a.4. A I I
a.5. E I O
a.6. O A O
4. PRE-SUB
P M
M S
S P
a.1. A A I
a.2. A E E
a.3. I A I
a.4. E I O
a.5. E A O
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Page 166
MIND EXERCISES
I. Determine the Figures and the Moods of the Syllogisms.
1. All Buildings are tall;
Some buildings are red;
Therefore, Some that are red are tall.
Figure ____________________________________
Mood _____________________________________
2. No criminal can be trusted;
Some Lawyers are not criminals;
Therefore, some lawyers cannot be trusted.
Figure ____________________________________
Mood _____________________________________
3. Every man is mortal;
Every mortal being is corruptible;
Therefore, every man is corruptible.
Figure ____________________________________
Mood _____________________________________
4. All Filipinos are Orientals;

Some Orientals are cold blooded;
Therefore, Some that are cold-blooded are Filipinos.
Figure ____________________________________
Mood _____________________________________
5. Some men of God are intellectuals;
Some Lawyers are intellectuals;
Therefore, some lawyers are men of God.
________________________________________________
Page 167
Figure ____________________________________
Mood _____________________________________
6. No comedian is a politician;
Allan K is a comedian;
Therefore, Allan K is not a politician.
Figure ____________________________________
Mood _____________________________________
7. No living thing can live without oxygen;
Plants and trees are living things;
Therefore, plants and trees cannot live without oxygen.
Figure ____________________________________
Mood _____________________________________
CHAPTER 3
LESSON 30: THE 8 SYLLOGISTIC RULES

1. There must be only three terms.
________________________________________________
Page 168
2. Neither the major term nor the minor term may be distributed in the
conclusion if undistributed in the premises.
3. The middle term must not appear in the conclusion.
4. The middle term must be distributed at least once in the premises.
5. Only affirmative conclusion can be drawn from affirmative premises.
6. No conclusion can be drawn from two negative premises.
7. The conclusion must follow the weaker sense. If one of the premises
is particular, the conclusion must be particular. If one premise is
negative, the conclusion must be negative.
8. No conclusion can be drawn from two particular premises.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
I. Identify the Syllogistic Rule violated.
________________ 1. Willy is not in Angeles City;
________________________________________________
Therefore, he is in Manila.
Page 169
________________ 2. Mario is a human being;

Maria is a human being;
John is an animal;
Therefore john is an animal.
________________ 3. Man is not a brute;
Man is not an island;
Therefore, an island is a brute.
________________ 4. Some dogs are cats;
Some Cats are rats;
Some Rats are dogs.
________________ 5. All men are mortals;
No Man is an animal;
No animal is mortal.
________________ 6. All balls are made of rubber;
Some balls are red;
Therefore, some that are red are
not balls.
________________ 7. No man can live alone;
Some men are drivers;
Therefore, No Driver can live
alone.
________________ 8. No chair is a table;
Maria is not a table;
Therefore, Maria is not a chair.
________________ 9. All buildings are tall;
All men are tall;
Therefore, all men are buildings.
________________10. Some shoes are expensive;
Some shoes are made of
leather;
therefore, some that are leather
are expensive.
CHAPTER 3
LESSON 31: SOME VIOLATIONS COMMITTED AGAINST THE 8

SYLLOGISTIC RULES
1. Fallacy of Four Terms is committed when in a syllogism appears
four terms.
________________________________________________
Page 170
2. Fallacy of illicit major - is committed when only the major term

becomes universal in the conclusion.
3. Fallacy of illicit minor is committed when the minor term becomes
universal in the conclusion.
4. Fallacy of two particular premises - is committed when the premises
are both particular. One of the premises must be distributed at least
once universally.
5. The fallacy of ambiguous middle is committed when the middle
term reflects two meaning.
6. Fallacy of undistributed middle term is committed when the middle
term is not used at least once in the premises.
7. Fallacy of two negative premises is committed when the middle
terms cannot establish relationship between the major and minor term.
CHAPTER 3
LESSON 32: APPLICATIONS OF THE LAWS

1. Fallacy of Four Terms is committed when in a syllogism appears
four terms.
All circles
1st Term
are round;
2nd Term
________________________________________________
But some
triangles
and Logic
2010
are three
sided;Rhodel Toledo
Liwanag,
Page 171
3rd Term
4th Term
Therefore, some triangles are round.

2. Fallacy of illicit minor is committed when the minor term becomes
universal in the conclusion.
No cats are bats;
Every bats are animals;
Therefore, No animals are bats.
Universal
3. Fallacy of illicit major - is committed when only the major term
All cats are animals;
No bats are cats;
Therefore, No bats are animals.
Universal
4. Fallacy of two particular premises - is committed when the premises
are both particular. One of the premises must be distributed at least
once universally.
CHAPTER 3

Some Filipinos are Asians;
But some Asians are Chinese;
Therefore, _________________
Some Filipinos are not Asians;
But some Asians are not Chinese;
Therefore, _________________

Therefore, _________________
________________________________________________
Page 172
5. Fallacy of undistributed middle term is committed when the middle

All men are unique;
But some unique things are red;
Therefore, some red things are men.
6. The fallacy of ambiguous middle is committed when the middle
term reflects two meaning.
A king moves one step at a time in any direction;
But Arthur of Camelot is a king;
Therefore, Arthur of Camelot moves one step at a time in any
direction.
7. Fallacy of two negative premises is committed when the middle
No dogs are cats;
But cats are not snakes;
Therefore, No snakes are not dogs.
Mario is not a joyful person;
But Peter is not Mario;
Therefore, Peter is not a joyful person.
Jun is not standing;
Reden is not happy;
Therefore, Reden is not Jun.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: _____________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: ______________
COLLEGE: ________________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
Explain why in each of the arguments there are violations of the Rules.
1. Willy is not in Angeles City;

Therefore, he is in Manila.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. Mario is
a human being;
Introduction
to Philosophy
and Logic 2010
Page 173
Maria is a human being;

John is an animal;
Therefore, John is an animal.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3. Man is not a brute;
Man is not an island;
Therefore, an island is a brute.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
4. Some dogs are cats;
Some Cats are rats;
Some Rats are dogs.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
5. All men are mortals;
No Man is an animal;
No animal is mortal.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
6. All balls are made of rubber;
Some balls are red;
Therefore, some that are red are not balls.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
7. No man can live alone;
Some men are drivers;
Therefore, No Driver can live alone.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Page 174
8. No chair is a table;
Maria is not a table;
Therefore, Maria is not a chair.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
9. All buildings are tall;
All men are tall;
Therefore, all men are buildings.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
10. Some shoes are expensive;
Some shoes are made of leather;
Therefore, some that are leather are expensive.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 3
The Hypothetical Syllogism
LESSON 33: THE HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISMS

What is a Hypothetical Syllogism?
A hypothetical Syllogism is mediate inference in which the major
premise presumes an arguments existence, and its minor premise and
conclusion are categorical.
Other Forms of Hypothetical Syllogism
________________________________________________
Page 175
A. CONDITIONAL SYLLOGISM
An argument in which the major premise or antecedent is expressed
by the word IF.
Example:
Antecedent
Premise
Consequent
If you are healthy, you must be strong;
---- Major
But Allan is healthy; ----- Minor Premise

Therefore, Allan must be strong. ----------- Conclusion
B. CONJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM
An argument in which the major premise denies the possibility of two
categorical propositions at the same time. It is conjoined by the word AND.
Example
You cannot stand AND sit at the same time.
But you are not sitting;
Therefore, you are standing.
CHAPTER 3
The Hypothetical Syllogism
C. DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM
An argument in which the major premise excludes the possibility of
the relationship of the Subject and Predicate. It is conjoined by the phrase
EITHER OR.
Example
EITHER the year is 2004 OR 2005;
But the year is not 2004;
Therefore, it is 2005.
________________________________________________
Page 176
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
I. Determine whether the Syllogism is Conjunctive, Disjunctive or
Conditional.
1. He cannot be in Cebu and Manila at the same time.
But he is in Manila; therefore, He is not in Cebu.
________________________________________
2. You cannot be talking and singing at the same;
________________________________________________
But you
are not singing;
Introduction
to Philosophy
and Logic 2010
Page 177
Therefore, you are talking.

_______________________________________
3. Man is either moral or immoral;
But man is moral;
Therefore, man is not immoral.
_______________________________________
4. Either you were born in June or on Dec. of 2003;
But you were not born in June;
Therefore, you were born on December.
_______________________________________
5. If you are a real man you should have tried the sports boxing;
But you are a real man;
Therefore, you have tried the sports boxing.
_______________________________________
CHAPTER 3
Dilemma
LESSON 34: DILEMMA

What is a Dilemma?
Dilemma is coined from the words di which means two and lemma
which is horn.
A Dilemma means two horns argument. Its purpose is to provide two
alternative arguments or choices in which either of the two alternatives will
pin down an arguer. A choice between alternatives will not free an opponent
or arguer of a situation.
Examples:
1.
________________________________________________
Either you
andgrow
Logic taller
2010
than meLiwanag,
or youRhodel
do not
grow taller than
Toledo
Pageme.
178
If you grow taller than me I will never care for you again.
If you do not grow taller than me I cannot show you your family.
Therefore in either case you cannot benefit from me.
2.
A dean of a college is either moral or immoral.
If she is moral, she is satisfied with her life.
If she is immoral, she is satisfied with her life.
Therefore, whether the dean is moral or immoral, she is satisfied
with her life.
RULES FOR DILEMMA

1. There should be no middle ground or third choice for the
alternatives.
2.
CHAPTERThe
3 horns must turn against the opponent.
Dilemma
3.
The Dilemma should not be open to rebuttal.
COUNTER DILEMMA
1. Escape between the horns.
2. Take the Dilemma by the horns.
3. Make the direct opposites of the Dilemma.
EXAMPLES OF A DILEMMA
1.
Either you grow taller than me or you do not grow taller than
me.
If you grow taller than me I will never care for you again.
If you do not grow taller than me I cannot show you your
family.
Therefore in either case you cannot benefit from me.
________________________________________________
2.
Page 179
A dean of a college is either moral or

immoral.
If she is moral, she is satisfied with her
life.
If she is immoral, she is satisfied with her
life.
Therefore, whether the dean is moral or
immoral, she is satisfied with her life.
THE COUNTER DILEMMAS

1. Escape between the horns.
2. Take the Dilemma by the horns.
3. Make the direct opposites of the Dilemma.
CHAPTER 3
Dilemma
1.
Either you grow taller than me or you do not grow taller than me.
If you grow taller than me I can still care for you again.
If you do not grow taller than me I can still show you your family.
Therefore in either case you can still benefit from me.
2.
A dean of a college is either moral or immoral.
If she is moral, she is not satisfied with her life.
If she is immoral, she is not satisfied with her life.
Therefore, whether the dean is moral or immoral, she is not
satisfied with her life.
________________________________________________
Page 180
CHAPTER 3
Other Forms of Reasoning
LESSON 35: OTHER FORMS OF REASONING

A. ENTHYMEME
An Enthymeme is a syllogism which is shortened or abridged. One
premise or premises or the conclusion is omitted but it is implied and
understood.
Four types of Enthymeme:
1. Enthymeme of the First Order
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
(But) he is a Priest.
Therefore, he can perform the Mass.
- the Major Premise is omitted but understood.
2. Enthymeme of the Second Order
Whoever is a Priest can perform the Mass.
Therefore, he can perform the Mass.
________________________________________________
- the Minor Premise is omitted but understood.
Page 181
3. Enthymeme of the Third Order

(But) he is a Priest.
- the Conclusion is omitted but understood.
4. Enthymeme of the Fourth Order
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
CHAPTER 3 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Induction
Both the minor premise and the conclusion are omitted but understood.
B. THE EPICHEREME
An Epichereme is an argument or syllogism in which one premise or two
premises are accompanied by a proof or explanation.
Examples:
Man is a rational being because of his power to reason.
Xian is a rational being.
Therefore, Xian has the power to reason.
LESSON 36: INDUCTION

What is Induction?
Induction is a form of mediate inference in which the starting point of
reasoning is a particular instance known by the light of human reason to
general conclusion. From particular evidences our mind produce general
conclusions or general knowledge.
General knowledge
________________________________________________
Page 182
Particular
Induction
Example
Vic Sotto is a comedian.
Tito Sotto is a comedian.
Joey De Leon is a comedian.
John Soliman is a comedian.
Maria is a comedian.
My father is a comedian.
My brother is a comedian.
All of these people are men.
all men are comedians.
CHAPTERTherefore,
3
Deduction
LESSON 37: DEDUCTION

What is Deduction?
Deduction is a form of immediate inference in which the starting
point of reasoning is a general knowledge known by human reason to
particular conclusion. From general conclusion our mind produce specific
conclusions or specific knowledge.
General knowledge
Particular
(Deduction)
Example:
All men are good by nature.
Some men are good by nature.
________________________________________________
Joey is aand
man.
Logic 2010
Page 183
John.is a man.
My father is a man.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
I. Define the following:
1. Deductive Reasoning
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Inductive Reasoning
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Mediate Inference
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Page 184
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. Immediate Inference
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
II. Define/Describe the following:
1. Syllogism - ________________________________________________ .
2. Premise - __________________________________________________ .
3. Conclusion - _______________________________________________ .
4. Minor Premise - ____________________________________________ .
5. Major Premise - ____________________________________________ .
III. Identify the Figures of the Simple Categorical Syllogism.
1. _________________________________________________________ .
2. _________________________________________________________ .
3. _________________________________________________________ .
4. _________________________________________________________ .
________________________________________________
Page 185
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
IV. IDENTIFY THE VALID MOODS OF THE SIMPLE CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM.
First Figure
1. ___________________ 2.___________________
3. ___________________ 4. ___________________
Second Figure
5. ___________________ 6.___________________
7. ___________________ 8. ___________________
Third Figure
9. ___________________10.___________________
11. ___________________12.___________________
13.____________________14. __________________
Fourth Figure
15._____________________16. _________________
________________________________________________
Page 186
17._____________________18. _________________
19. _____________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
V. DETERMINE THE FIGURE AND MOOD OF THE FOLLOWING
SYLLOGISMS AND MARK THE MAJOR TERM, MINOR TERM AND
MIDDLE TERMS.
1. No criminal is trustworthy;
But Etrellita is a criminal;
Therefore, Etrellita is not trustworthy.
Figure: __________________________ .
Mood: ___________________________ .
2. Some people of goodwill are kind to animals;
Some politicians are kind to animals;
Therefore, some politicians are people of goodwill.
Figure : _________________________ .
Mood : __________________________ .
3. All men are good by nature;
But Jeffrey is a man;
Therefore, Jeffrey is good by nature.
Figure: _________________________
Mood: _________________________
4. Every human is a rational being;
________________________________________________
But every rational being judges fairly and equally;
Page 187
Therefore, Every one who judges fairly and equally is human.

Figure: ______________________
Mood: ______________________
5. All knives are dangerous to life;
But some knives are kitchen utensils;
Therefore, some are kitchen utensil are dangerous to life.
Figure: ______________________
Mood: ______________________
6. Some reading materials are dangerous to childrens mind;
But some pornographic things are reading materials;
Therefore, some pornographic things are dangerous to childrens mind.
Figure: ______________________
Mood: ______________________
7. All living things have souls;
But some plants are not living things;
Therefore, some plants have no souls.
Figure: ______________________
Mood: ______________________
8. No Filipinos are dogs;
But Roli Montana is not a Filipino;
Therefore, Roli Montana is a dog.
Figure: ______________________
Mood: ______________________
9. Every Filipino has a close family ties;
Every Filipino is Asian;
Therefore, Every Asian has close family ties.
Figure: ______________________
Mood: ______________________
________________________________________________
Page 188
10. Some teachers are honest;

Some teachers are educators;
Therefore, some educators are honest.
Figure: ______________________
Mood: ______________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
VI. Enumerate the kinds of Hypothetical Syllogisms.
1. __________________________________________________________ .
2. __________________________________________________________ .
3. __________________________________________________________ .
VII. Identify the Form of Enthymeme.
__________________ 1. When the Major Premise is omitted but understood.
__________________ 2. When the Minor Premise is omitted but understood.
__________________ 3. When the conclusion is omitted but understood.
__________________ 4. When both minor and conclusion is omitted but
understood.
VIII. Enumerate the 8 Syllogistic Rules
1. ____________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________
4. ____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
5. ____________________________________________________________
Page 189
6. ____________________________________________________________
7. ____________________________________________________________
8. ____________________________________________________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
IX. Identify and supply the missing premises.
1. All birds have feathers.
Therefore, a chicken is a bird.
____________________________________
Write the missing premise here.
____________________________________
Identify the missing premise here.
2. All books are beneficial to man because they add to our
knowledge.
The Purpose of Life is a book.
____________________________________
____________________________________
3. Man is rational.
But Anya is rational.
___________________________________
___________________________________
4. Sex is healthy.
But natural is healthy.
___________________________________
________________________________________________
___________________________________
Page 190

NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
X. Construct a dilemma from the following statements:
1. Either you see me everyday or you do not see me every day.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
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2. Either you read this book or you do not read your book.
_____________________________________________________
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Page 191
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________
SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
XI. Classify the following Hypothetical statements.
_______________1. You cannot jump and crawl at the same time.
But you are not jumping.
Therefore, you are crawling.
_______________2. The Sun is either shining or the rain is heavy.
But it is not raining.
Therefore, the Sun is shining.
_______________3. If there is love, there is forgiveness.
But there is no love.
Therefore, there is no forgiveness.
________________4. If P is T, then C is L
But P is T.
Therefore, C is L.
________________________________________________
Page 192
CHAPTER 4
FALLACIES IN LANGUAGE
WHAT IS A FALLACY?
Fallacy comes from the word fallo or fallere. It means to deceive.
It means errors in reasoning. A Fallacy involves an error in the form or
arrangement or technical structure of an argument. There are two forms of
fallacies in language: Formal and Informal.
A. Formal Fallacy
A Formal fallacy is one that involves error in the form, arrangement
or technical structure of an argument. It involves errors from logical
reasoning. The point in question is not whether a conclusion is true or false,
but whether the form of argument is correct or incorrect, valid or invalid.
B. Informal Fallacy
The focus of informal fallacy is not on the form of the argument, but
on the meaning of the argument. It may convey our everyday conversation
with our friends, family or everyone. It is committed when factors
contributing to reasoning are distorted because of character assassination,
ambiguous and confused argumentation.
Informal
words
or grammar,
CHAPTER
4 Fallacy involves the misuse of language,
Formal
Fallacies
misrepresentation of opinion and idea, and misconceptions of Argumentation.
________________________________________________
LESSON
THE and
FORMAL
Introduction
to 38:
Philosophy
Logic 2010FALLACIES
Page 193
1. Fallacy of Accidental Definition

The Fallacy of Accidental Definition is committed when we widen the
extension of the definition by adding an accidental attribute.
Example:
Man is a rational being who has the skill to paint.
accident
2. Fallacy of Affirmative Conclusion drawn from a Negative Premise
The Fallacy of Affirmative Conclusion drawn from a Negative Premise
is committed when one of the premises is negative, and the other affirmative,
then the conclusion is affirmative.
Example:
No man is an animal;
But Roberto is an animal;
Therefore, Roberto is a man. -- The Conclusion is affirmative.
(It must be negative)
3. Fallacy of Ambiguous Middle
The Fallacy of Ambiguous Middle occurs when the middle term is
ambiguous or it has two shades of meaning.
Example:
A king moves one step at a time.
Arthur is a King.
Therefore, Arthur moves one step at a time.
4. Fallacy of Circular Definition
The Fallacy of Circular Definition is an error against the rule of
definition. It violates the prescription that the definiens should not include
the definiendum or its synonyms.
CHAPTER
4 Love is an emotion.
Formal Fallacies
Example:
5. Fallacy of Illicit Major
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Page 194
The Fallacy of Illicit Major is committed when the major term

becomes universal or distributed in the conclusion when it is only particular
or undistributed in the major premise.
Example:
Filipinos are industrious workers;
But the Chinese are not Filipinos;
Therefore, the Chinese are not industrious workers.
6. Fallacy of Four Terms
The Fallacy of Four Terms is committed when in a syllogism appears
four terms.
All circles
1st Term
are round;
2nd Term
But some triangles are three sided;

3rd Term
4th Term
Therefore, some triangles are round.
7. Fallacy of illicit minor
The Fallacy of Illicit Minor is committed when the minor term
Example
No cats are bats;
Every bat is an animal;
Therefore, No animals are cats.
Universal
8. Fallacy of illicit major
The Fallacy of Illicit Major is committed when only the major term
CHAPTER
4
Formal Fallacies
becomes universal
in the conclusion.
All cats are animals;
________________________________________________
No bats are cats;
Page 195
Therefore, No bats are animals.

Universal
9. Fallacy of two particular premises
The Fallacy of two particular premises is committed when the premises
are both particular. One of the premises must be distributed at least once
universally.
Examples
Some Filipinos are Asians;
Therefore, _________________
But some Asians are not Chinese;
Therefore, _________________
Therefore, _________________
10. Fallacy of undistributed middle term
The Fallacy of undistributed middle term is committed when the middle
All men are unique;
But some unique things are red;
Therefore, some red things are men.
11. The fallacy of ambiguous middle
The fallacy of ambiguous middle is committed when the middle term
reflects two 4meaning.
CHAPTER
Formal Fallacies
Example:
A king moves one step at a time in any direction;
But Arthur of Camelot is a King;
Therefore, Arthur of Camelot moves one step at a time in any
________________________________________________
direction.
and Logic 2010
Page 196
12. Fallacy of two negative premises

The Fallacy of two negative premises is committed when the middle
Examples:
No dogs are cats;
But cats are not snakes;
Therefore, No snakes are not dogs.
Mario is not a joyful person;
But Peter is not Mario;
Therefore, Peter is not a joyful person.
Jun is not standing;
Reden is not happy;
Therefore, Reden is not Jun
13. Fallacy of Incorrect Conversion
The Fallacy of Incorrect Conversion is committed when a term is
undistributed or particular in the convertend or original proposition, then
distributed or universal in the converse or inferred proposition.
Example:
Every Muslims are Filipinos.
Every Filipinos are Muslims.
14. Fallacy of Incorrect Obversion
The Fallacy of Incorrect Obversion is committed when in changing the
obvertend or original proposition, from affirmative to negative, or from
negative
to affirmative,
the meaning of the original proposition
is changed.
CHAPTER
4
Formal Fallacies
Example:
Some men are animals.
Some animals are not men.
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Page 197
15. IEO Fallacy

The IEO Fallacy occurs when we draw a conclusion from the IEO
mood. The major premise is a particular affirmative proposition (I) and the
minor premise is a universal negative (E). The conclusion is a particular
negative proposition (O).
If one premise is particular, the conclusion must also be particular;
and if one premise is negative, the conclusion must also be negative.
Example:
Fourth Figure
I Some W is M.
------ Affirmative
E No M is L.
------ Affirmative
O Some L is not W. ------ Negative
CHAPTER 4
The InFormal Fallacies
LESSON 39: THE INFORMAL FALLACIES

1. Anecdotal Evidence
Patutunayan yan ng isang alam kong

importanteng naganap.
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Page 198
The fallacy of Anecdotal Evidence is committed when one relies on

anecdotal evidence in proving the truth. Anecdotes dont actually prove
anything to anyone though anecdotes imply validity when the audience wants
to believe it.
2. Appeal to Flatter
Ang ganda mo lalo ngayon. Do
you know that the earth rests
on the side of the sun at
night?!
The Appeal to Flatter is committed when a person attempts to

compliment or flatter another in order to get an attention or to accept the truth
of a proposition.
3. Appeal to Intimidation
Nakita ko kayo na
magkasama nung
lalake nung isang
araw. Immorality
yun ah!
CHAPTER 4
You wouldnt want the

people to know do you?
This fallacy Appeal to Intimidation is a variation of the fallacy appeal

to force. It is committed when a persons idea is false and uses such assertion
as proof of ones persons immorality.
4. Argumentum ad Antiquitatem
Pamana pa ito ng ninuno ko
kaya maganda talaga ito.
Abah kung matagal

na ito, maganda
nga talaga ito.
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Page 199
The fallacy Argumentum ad Antiquitatem is committed when

something is right or good simply because it is old.
5. Argumentum ad Baculum (Appeal to Force or Threat)
Sir, ipasa na nyo na po
ako sa subject nyo please.
Kasi po pag bumagsak
ako hindi na po ako
papag-aralin ng magulang
ko.
Please maawa na
po kayo sa akin.
Pag di po ninyo ako

ipinasa sa subject
ninyo sisiraan ko po
kayo!
The fallacy Argumentum ad Baculum (Appeal to Force) is committed

when the acceptance of an argument is coupled with a threat or force.
CHAPTER 4
6. Argumentum ad Consequentiam (Appeal to Consequences)

Yan. Ayan. Magkakasundo tayo sa mga
punto na sinasabi mo na yan. Mali nga ang
mga yun.
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Page 200
The fallacy Argumentum ad Consequentiam or (Appeal to

Consequences) is committed when one points to agreeable beliefs and argues
that these agreeable arguments are false.
7. Argumentum ad Hominem (Attack against Man)
Naku huwag ninyong paniwalaan ang
mga sinasabi nitong si Romi.
Pasaway at matigas ang ulo niyan
bata pa siya. Tsaka masama ang ugali
ng pamilya niyan.
The fallacy Argumentum ad Hominem (Argument to the Man) or attack

against man is committed when a person attacks the arguers person and not his
view or arguments. The fallacy attacks or abuses ones personality, character,
CHAPTER
4
motives, intentions
or person.
7. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to Ignorance)

Eh, wala pa namang nakakapagpatunay na hindi totoo yun
kaya tama yun at totoo.
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Page 201
The fallacy Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (Argument to the

Ignorance) or Appeal to ignorance is committed when someone argues that
something is true because no one has proved it to be false, or when one
argues that something is false because no one has proved it to be true.
9. Argumentum ad Lazarum
Hindi makakagawa ng kasalanan yan dahil walang pera
na pambayad. Kaya paniwalaan mo na lang siya.
The fallacy Argumentum ad Lazarum is the opposite argumentum ad

crumemam. This fallacy is committed when someone argues that someone
poor is sounder or more virtuous than someone whos wealthier.
10. Argumentum ad Logicam
Ginamit na dahilan na yan nuon at mali yan. Kaya hindi
mo na magagamit uli ang argumentong yan dahil mali na
yan dun pa sa isang argumentong ginamit.
The fallacy Argumentum ad Logicam is committed when one argues that the
proposition is4 false because it has been presented
the conclusion
of a fallacious
CHAPTER
TheasInFormal
Fallacies
argument.
11. Argumentum ad Misericordiam (Appeal to Pity or Sympathy)

Sir, maawa na po kayo sa akin. Ipasa na ninyo ako! May
asawat anak po akong sinosuportahan.
The fallacy Argumentum ad Misericordiam (Appeal to Pity or

Sympathy) or appeal to pity is committed when one argues or appeals and
________________________________________________
seek the sympathy of the listener in accepting his argument or conclusion.
Page 202
12. Argumentum ad Personam (Argument to Ones Own Advantage)

Huwag ka ng mag-alala.
Sige ako na ang magbabayad ng lahat

ng gastos ninyo sa Ospital para
makalabas na sa ospital ang kapatid
mo. Basta gagawin mo lahat ng
gusto ko ha.
The fallacy Argumentum ad Personam (Argument to Ones Own

Advantage) is committed when an arguer appeals to the personal likes and
CHAPTER
The InFormal
Fallacies
preferences 4
of a listener in order to have an argument
accepted.
13. Argumentum ad Populum (Appeal to People)
Maraming nagsasabi nito kaya
paniniwalaan ko na lang iyo.
Sabi ng karamihan ganun iyon kaya

ganun na nga yun.
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Page 203
The fallacy Argumentum ad Populum (Appeal to People) is an

argument that tries to arouse an emotional, popular acceptance of an idea
without resorting to a logical justification. This fallacy is committed when an
appeal or argument is made from such things as bias, feelings and attitudes of
the many people. This fallacy is based from that of the majority of people
believing in something or anything.
14. Argumentum ad Verecundiam (Appeal to Traditions and Customs)
Bakit po ginawa nyo yun sa akin?
Cultura na dito yan kaya
sumunod ka na lang!
CHAPTER 4
The fallacy Argumentum ad Verecundiam (Appeal to Traditions and

Customs) is committed when the arguer made use of tradition as basis to
justify a proposition.
15. Bandwagon Fallacy
Abah! Kung galit sila sa kanya galit na rin ako!
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Page 204
Bandwagon fallacy is a variation of the appeal to people fallacy. This

fallacy is committed when an appeal or argument is also made from such
things as bias, feelings and attitudes of the many people.
16. False Cause (Non Causa Pro Causa )
Falling star oh! Katatapos
lang ng ulan ah.
Kaya pala biglang uminit at

minalas ako
CHAPTER 4
The false cause fallacy asserts that because two events occur together,
they must be related. This fallacy is committed when one argues that an event
leads to another, or concluding that series of events shall produce another
event.
17. Fallacy of Accident
Nadapa ako. Siguro may malaking
swerte na darating sa akin
Oh baka may mas malaking
mangyayari?!
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Page 205
The fallacy of accident or a dicto simpliciter ad dictum secundum

quid is committed when one argues that a particular event would lead to a
greater circumstance.
17. Fallacy of Amphiboly
His father a soldier died was a hero with a dog.
This fallacy is committed when one uses a phrase or phrases that are
ambiguous because of their syntax (grammatical construction).
CHAPTER 4
19. Fallacy of Composition

Ric is studius.
Ric is a student from the University of Santo Tomas.
Therefore, All students of University of Sto. Tomas are studius.
The Fallacy of Composition argues that what is true of each part of a

whole is true of the whole itself. This fallacy is committed when one
concludes that what is true of some parts of a whole is necessarily true of the
whole.
20. Fallacy of Division
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Page 206
Ric is a
student.
Ric is
diligent.
This fallacy, Fallacy of Division, states that what is true of the whole
is also true of its parts.
21. Fallacy of Equivocation
A ruler is a measuring device
A king is ruler. Therefore, a king is a
measuring device
CHAPTER
The InFormal
Fallacies
The 4Fallacy of Equivocation is committed
when a word
is used with
one meaning in one part of an argument and another meaning in another.
22. Fallacy of Irrelevant Premises
Rolando is a traitor
His mother is religious.
His father is a businessman.
He is not a good leader.
Therefore, he must be promoted
by the committee.
The fallacy of irrelevant premises is committed when a conclusion is

drawn from premises that are irrelevant to an argument.
23. Non Sequitor Esse
Estrell Loves Roli.
But Laluh is the most sweetest student in the University.
Therefore, Estrell is a criminal.
________________________________________________
Wala yatang koneksyon ang
Liwanag,
Rhodel Toledo
mga
premises?
Page 207
Non Sequitor Esse is a Latin phrase which means it does not follow.
This fallacy is committed when a conclusion does not follow from the
premises. This fallacy is committed when a conclusion is simply drawn from
an argument.
24. Petitio Principii (Begging the Question)
Ms. Ocampo, define Freedom !
Freedom is Kalayaan, Sir.
The fallacy Petitio Principii (Begging the Question) is committed

when one does not answer a particular issue directly and simply re-state the
CHAPTER
same inquiry4 or question.
25. Poisoning the Wells
Kay Gulapa galing ang

mga evidences na yan. Eh
mas masama pa
pinangalingan ng mga
evidences mo ah.
I therefore say that

your evidences are
without merits.
The fallacy Poisoning the Wells is an argument in which one

discredits the source of proposed evidence, so that the evidences are ruled out
to any consideration of such merits.
26. Red Herring
________________________________________________
Rolan Escariote
is the
Dean of ArtsLiwanag,
and Sciences.
and Logic
2010
Rhodel Toledo
He is a Doctor in Education Management.
His mother is a business woman.
Therefore, he should be promoted to a higher position.
Page 208
This fallacy, Red Herring, is committed when someone introduces

issues that are not related the main arguments in arriving at a conclusion or
when an arguer introduces irrelevant issues in order to have an argument
accepted.
27. Reification
Kathang isip lang yun. Wag mo naman
seryosohin.
Makalilipad din ako tulad

ng mga nasa T.V. o ni
DARNA.
CHAPTER 4
Reification occurs when an abstract concept is treated as a concrete thing.
28. Shifting the Burden of Proof

Patunayan mo muna yang sinasabi mo. Ikaw ang
gumawa kaya ikaw ang magpatunay at hindi ako.
The fallacy Shifting the Burden of Proof is committed when a

person denies or questions an assertion. This fallacy is committed when
something is assumed true unless proven otherwise by the other.
29. Straw Man
Sinulid lang ang pinag uusapan naging
lubid na dahil sa paglipat-lipat ng balita. Mali
ang mga yon!
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Page 209
This fallacy, Straw Man, is committed when a writer or arguer does

not attack the argument set forth. This fallacy occurs when one attempts to
express, or exaggerate the opposition's argument to the point of making the
argument a folly.
30. Fallacy of asking the question
Tapos na ba ang pambubugbog mo sa
asawa mo? May alam ka bang batas na
nagsasabing pwede kang mambugbog ng
asawa? Sabihin mo nga sa akin.
This fallacy occurs when one asks an opponent a question that does not have
CHAPTER
The InFormal
Fallacies
an answer. Or4that the opponent has no idea or background
about the
answer.
31. Appeal to authority
Brite papaya soap is the best
body soap according to Albert
Einstein.
The fallacy appeal to authority is an argument wherein one argues that

someone or somebody has the authority to speak of something and that he is an
expert of, so he should be trusted.
32. Slippery Slope

Hindi pwede yon kasi pag pnagbigyan kita sa
exception sa exam na hinihingi mo, eh dapat i-exempt
ko na rin lahat Parang mali yata yun kaya hindi
pwede.
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Page 210
Is a fallacy that assumes that something is wrong because it is close to

something wrong.
33. Argument by Poetic Language

Height is Might!
Abah mukhang maganda at tama yan ah
kasi magandang pakinggan.
The4 fallacy Argument by Poetic Language

is committed
when one argues
CHAPTER
The InFormal
Fallacies
that an argument or statement is true because it sounds good.
34. Tu Quoque (You Also)

Hoy! Mali ang
ginawa mo kagabi!
Excuse me! Eh ikaw

rin ginagawa mo yun eh.
This fallacy, which is a form of ad hominem fallacy, means

charging an arguer the similar wrongdoing to excuse oneself of the similar
wrong-doing. It may also mean for some logicians two wrongs make right.
35. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
May swerteng darating.

Falling star.
Kaya mananalo ako sa
lotto dahil diyan.
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Page 211
Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc is also termed "coincidental correlation".

It is translated as "after this, therefore because of this." It means events
will follow another.
36. Fallacy of Composition
Xian is an intelligent girl.
Xian studies at UST.
Everyone who studies at UST is intelligent.
The 4Fallacy of Composition assumes

that
what is Fallacies
true of a part, is
CHAPTER
The
InFormal
truth of the whole.
37. Fallacy of Division
Ang lahat ng mga bata ay malilikot.
Si harold ay isang bata.
Si harold ay malikot
The Fallacy of Division assumes that what is true of the whole is true
of the parts, or the members.
38. Fallacy of Complex Question
Tapos ka na ba sa
kabubugbog mo sa iyong
mga anak ?
Pag sumagot ako

wala rin akong
lusot . . .
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Page 212
Also termed as "Fallacy of Loaded Questions," this fallacy is

interrogative in form and it loads a lot of questions to an opponent that it
seem impossible to answer back.
39. Argument to the Future
Darating din ang araw na madidiskubre ang patunay
na tama ang sinasabi ko. Kaya maniwala ka na.
Totoo ba yun?
This fallacy is committed when one argues that such evidence will
someday be
or a point.
CHAPTER
4 discovered to support an idea The
InFormal Fallacies
40. Appeal to personal Charm
Ang lakas talaga ng sex appeal mo. Kaya
marami kang napapaniwala at marami
nakikinig sa iyo.
This fallacy is committed when one argues that something is good,

acceptable, trustworthy and amiable by virtue of personal charm.
41. Equivocation
A ruler is a measuring device.

A king is a ruler .
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Page 213
Therefore, a king is a measuring device.
This fallacy is committed when one word is used to mean one thing
and then it means different in another.
NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

SECTION/YR._________________________________DATE: _________
COLLEGE: ___________________________________________________
MIND EXERCISES
Identify the fallacy committed.
1. ____________________________________________________________
This man must be jailed because he belongs to a family of criminals.
2. ____________________________________________________________
May, you look so lovely with that dress. Did you know that the Earth
revolves around the sun?
3. ____________________________________________________________
For thousands of years, people believed that Jesus performed miracles
and still does.
4.____________________________________________________________
Lend me money or else I will kill your favorite dog.
5.____________________________________________________________
You cant agree that evolution is true, because if it were, then we
would be no better than monkeys and apes.
________________________________________________
6. ____________________________________________________________
Introduction
Page 214
What John said should not be believed because he is an unbeliever of

God.
7. ___________________________________________________________
Fairies and spirits do not exist because no body else proved them to
be real.
8. ____________________________________________________________
Please let me take the exam without my permit. If I cannot take the
exam today my mother shall disown me.
9. ____________________________________________________________
Estreita lectured the city prosecutor about criminal proceeding
because she said she is the mother of all.
10. __________________________________________________________
I believe in GOD because religious tradition affirms the existence of
GOD.
11. _________________________________________________________
Bigkas Papaya is the best peeling soap according to Francine Prieto.
12. __________________________________________________________
Not seeing the following ambulance, the car speed up.
13. ___________________________________________________________
Romea is the most beautiful student in our university according to the
Dean of Liberal Arts. Therefore, she should be given a scholarship.
14. ___________________________________________________________
Why are you in front of me?
Because I am not at the back!
15. ___________________________________________________________
I believe that there is Aswang because no one else can prove that they
dont.
________________________________________________
Page 215
LOGIC
Logic came from Greek Term (logos), meaning the word, or what is
spoken. Also it was a term to mean thought or reason. Usually it is used to
connote arguments.
The exact definition of logic is a matter of controversy among
philosophers. However, logic for most philosophers is a study of valid and
fallacious inferences which allow one to distinguish good arguments from
bad arguments.
Nature of logic
Logic introduces the fundamentals of ideas, form, School of thoughts
and exposition of some logical and essential concepts.
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Page 216
Informal, formal and symbolic logic
Informal logic studies the natural language arguments. The study of

informal fallacies is an especially important branch of informal logic.
Formal logic studies inference with purely formal content, where the
contents are made explicit.
Symbolic logic is the study of symbolic abstractions and studies the

formal features of logical inferences.
Relation to other sciences

Logic is related to rationality and the structure of concepts. Also, it
has, to some degree, overlap with the study of psychology. It is generally
understood a form of reasoning.
Mathematical logic
Mathematical logic refers to two distinct areas of research:
1. First is the application of the techniques of formal logic to
mathematical equations and reasoning.
2. Second, it is a technique in the applications of
mathematical equations.
SYMBOLIC LOGIC
The primary objective of symbolic logic is to provide to:
(1) recognize and reconstruct arguments in ordinary language,
(2) translate propositions and arguments from English into logical notation,
(3) test propositions for equivalency, consistency, tautology, contradiction, and contingency,
(4) test arguments for validity, and
(5) generate valid conclusions from assumed premises under the rules of inference.
________________________________________________
Page 217
TRUTH OF STATEMENTS, VALIDITY OF REASONING

True Premises, False Conclusion
0. Valid
Impossible: no valid argument can have true premises and a

false conclusion.
Cats are mammals.

1. Invalid Dogs are mammals.
Therefore, dogs are cats.
True Premises, True Conclusion
2. Valid
Cats are mammals.

Tigers are cats.
Therefore, tigers are mammals.
Cats are mammals.

3. Invalid Tigers are mammals.
Therefore, tigers are cats.
False Premises, False Conclusion
4. Valid
Dogs are cats.

Cats are birds.
Therefore, dogs are birds.
Cats are birds.

5. Invalid Dogs are birds.
Therefore, dogs are cats.
False Premises, True Conclusion
________________________________________________
Page 218
6. Valid
Cats are birds.

Birds are mammals.
Therefore, cats are mammals.
Cats are birds.

7. Invalid Tigers are birds.
Therefore, tigers are cats.
The distinction between truth and validity is the fundamental
distinction of formal logic.
THE SAMPLE ARGUMENTS

1.
True premises do not guarantee validity.

(Proved by cases #1 and #3 in the table above.)
2.
A true conclusion does not guarantee validity.

(Proved by cases #3 and #7.)
3.
True premises and a true conclusion together do not guarantee

validity.
(Proved by case #3.)
4.
Valid reasoning does not guarantee a true conclusion.

5.
False premises do not guarantee invalidity.

6.
A false conclusion does not guarantee invalidity.

7.
False premises and a false conclusion together do not guarantee

invalidity.
________________________________________________
8. Invalid reasoning does not guarantee a false conclusion.
Page 219
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC TERMS AND SYMBOLS

1. A simple statement - uses these symbols p, q, r.
2. A compound statement - is one with two or more simple
statements as parts or what we will call components. A component of a
compound is any whole statement that is part of a larger statement;
components may themselves be compounds.
3. An operator (or connective) joins simple statements into
compounds, and joins compounds into larger compounds. The symbols are , , , and
to designate the sentential connectives. They are called
sentential connectives because they join sentences (or what we are calling
statements).
4. The symbol, ~, is the only operator that is not a connective; it
affects single statements only, and does not join statements into compounds.
Example of Simple Statements

P
~p
"p is true"
"p is false"
assertion
negation
Example Compounds and connectives

p q
pq
p q
p
q
"either p is true, or q is true, or both"

"both p and q are true"
"if p is true, then q is true"
"p and q are either both true or both false"
Disjunction
Conjunction
Implication
Equivalence
Implication statements (p q) are sometimes called conditionals, and

equivalence statements (p
q) are sometimes called biconditionals.
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Page 220
A truth table is a complete list of the possible truth values of a

statement. We use "T" to mean "true", and "F" to mean "false".
For example, p is either true or false. So its truth table has just 2 rows:
P
T
F
But the compound, p q, has 2 components, each of which can be true
or false. So there are 4 possible combinations of truth values. The disjunction
of p with q will be true as a compound whenever p is true, or q is true, or
both:
p
T
T
F
F
Q
T
F
T
F
p q
T
T
T
F
If a compound has n distinct simple components, then it will have 2 n

rows in its truth table.
The truth table columns that define the basic connectives are as
follows:
P
T
T
F
F
Q
T
F
T
F
~p
F
F
T
T
~q
F
T
F
T
p q
T
T
T
F
pq
T
F
F
F
p
T
F
T
T
p
T
F
F
T
TRUTH-FUNCTIONAL PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

1.
Bivalence. This logic is 2-valued (or bivalent). Therefore, the

argument "She was not unhappy" must be translated as if it were
synonymous with "She was happy."
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2.
Exclusive disjunction. " " expresses inclusive disjunction: "p q"

means that either p is true or q is true or both. The exclusive
disjunction of p and q asserts that either p is true or q is true but not
both. The natural, but long-winded, way to express exclusive
disjunction, then, is "(p q) ~(p q)".
3.
Conjunction. It uses "and", including "but," "moreover," "however,"

"although", and "even though".
4.
Unless. "unless" could be translated as inclusive disjunction, and

sometimes as exclusive disjunction.
5.
And/or. "and/or", is translated simply, "S H".
6.
Neither, nor. "Neither p nor q" means that both p and q are false.
Translated as "~p ~q" or "~(p q)".
7.
Not both / both not. "not both" with "both not" is equivalent to "~p
~q". Also, if p and q are "both not" true, then we are denying each
of them; they are both false: "~p ~q". Neither of them may be true;
so this is equivalent to "~(p q)".
8.
Material implication. "p q" translates a wide variety of English

expressions, for example, "if p, then q", "if p, q", "p implies q", "p
entails q", "p therefore q", "p hence q", "q if p", "q provided p", "q
follows from p", "p is the sufficient condition of q", and "q is the
necessary condition of p". The least intuitive is "p only if q".
9.
Necessary and sufficient conditions. "p q", the antecedent p is a

sufficient condition of the consequent q, and the consequent q is a
necessary condition of the antecedent p.
10.
Only if. "p only if q" as "p
q".
Modus tollens assures us that p q asserts that p is true only

if q is true, or that q is the necessary condition of p. For under modus
tollens, from p q and ~q we can validly infer ~p.
If and only if. "p only if q" is translated "p
q" translated "q p".
q". Clearly, "p if
11.
Just when- should be translated as "p
q".
12.
Even if. "P even if q" means "p whether or not q" or "p regardless of
q". It is simply "p". If you want to spell out the claim of
"regardlessness", then you could write "p (q ~q)".
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13.
Punctuation. Parentheses and brackets are the punctuation marks of

our logical language. With a few exceptions, whenever you have two
or more operators in a single compound expression, you will need
parentheses in order to prevent ambiguity. For example, "p q r" is
ambiguous. It could mean "(p q) r", or "p (q r)", which are not
equivalent.
1. Negation is the only one of our operators with a pre-defined
scope: namely, the first meaningful proposition (simple or
compound) to its right. Hence "~p q" is not ambiguous; it
means "(~p) q", not "~(p q)".
Similarly, "~(p
q) r" is not ambiguous; it means "(p
q) r", not "[(~p)
q] r", nor "~[(p
q) r]", nor any
of several other variations.
2. Disjunction is both commutative and associative. So "(p q)
r" is equivalent to "(q p) r" and "p (q r)". As a result,
omitting parentheses from disjunctive strings does not create
ambiguity. One may write "p q r". The same is true of
conjunctive strings. (However, strings that mix disjunctions
and conjunctions require parentheses to prevent ambiguity.)
3. Unnecessary parentheses are inelegant but not illogical. When
you mean "p", you could write "(p)" or "((p))" without
affecting the truth-value of the statement or the validity of any
argument in which the statement occurred. The same is true
with "p q", "(p q)", "((p) (q))", and so on.
4. Omitting necessary parentheses is a common mistake in
translation. Make one last check before you think your
translation is finished.
PREDICATE LOGIC: SINGLY GENERAL MONADIC

Canonical Quantitative Propositions
Here are some often recurring expressions
All A's are B's
(x)(Ax Bx)
No A's are B's
(x)(Ax ~Bx)
Some A's are B's
( x)(Ax Bx)
Some A's are not B's
( x)(Ax ~Bx)
All and only A's are B's (x)(Ax
Bx)
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Only A's are B's
= All B's are A's (above)
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Not all A's are B's

All A's are not B's
1.
= Some A's are not B's (above)

= No A's are B's (above)
Quantifier scope. The scope of a quantifier is like the scope of a

negation sign: the first whole proposition (simple or compound), or
propositional function, to its right.
a.
Hence, "(x)Ax Bx" is not ambiguous. It means "[(x)Ax]

Bx", not "(x)(Ax Bx)".
b. It follows that the way to put a long compound in the scope of

a quantifer is: "(x)[ . . . ]", not: "[(x) . . . ]".
c.
Remember that the existential quantifier expresses the

inclusive sense of "some".
d. As its name implies, the existential quantifier is more a way of

asserting existence than a way of asserting plurality. It means
"more than zero, at least one", not "more than one, at least
two". Don't let the word "some", which usually translates this
quantifier, and which usually suggests plurality, mislead you.
e. The exclusive sense of "some" should be translated as "not
all". For example, "( x)(Mx ~Ex)" says that there is at least
one M&M that she does not eat. We should resist the
temptation to conjoin to this the inclusive "some" (asserting
that there is also at least one M&M that she does eat); for then
we will have ruled out the possibility that she selected none at
all, which we don't want to rule out.
2.
Only some. Thus: "( x)(Ex Fx) ( y)(Ey ~Fy)" essentially,

"some are and some aren't".
The word "some" should be translated as "only some" when
used in a sentence whose other parts explicitly or implicitly rule out
the inclusive sense. For example, are all the M&M's poisoned? "No,
but some are." The "no" rules out the claim that all are poisoned, so
the "some" clearly says "not none and not all", which is what "only
some" asserts.
3.
Avoid the negative. Translate into affirmative propositions, not

negated ones. "We have no bananas" can be translated as "(x)(Bx
~Hx)" or "~( x)(Bx Hx)" (they are equivalent). But the former is
much easier to use in with our rules of inference.
Translating "and" as "or". Be prepared to translate "and" as "or".

For example: "Men and women are welcome to apply." It's tempting
________________________________________________
to translate the "and" here as a conjunction:
"(x)[(Mx Wx) Page
Ax]".
224
4.
But this actually says that everything that is both a man and a woman
is welcome to apply. But we mean that everything that is either a man
or a woman (or both) is welcome to apply: "(x)[(Mx Wx) Ax]".
5.
Avoid existentially quantified conditionals. "( x)(Bx Lx)". This

formula is equivalent to "( x)(~Bx Lx)", and "( x)~(Bx ~Lx)"
which are not conditionals.
Here are 10 of Copi's examples. Let Axy mean that x attracts y.

1
2
3
4
5
6
Everything attracts everything.

Everything is attracted by everything.
Something attracts something.
Something is attracted by something.
Nothing attracts anything.
Nothing is attracted by anything.
Everything
attracts
something.
7
(Here "something" = "something or other".)
Something is attracted by everything.
8
(Here "something" = "something in particular".)
Everything is attracted by something.
9
(Here "something" = "something or other".)
Something
attracts
everything.
10
(Here "something" = "something in particular".)
(x)(y)Axy
(y)(x)Axy
( x)( y)Axy
( y)( x)Axy
(x)(y)~Axy
(y)(x)~Axy
(x)( y)Axy
( y)(x)Axy
(y)( x)Axy
( x)(y)Axy
a. Note that pairs 1-2, 3-4, and 5-6 are equivalent.

b. On the distinction between "something or other" and
"something in particular".
The truth-table for material implication looks like this:

p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
p
T
F
T
T
Strategy tips for constructing proofs (Copi)
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1. Be sure that you have translated or copied the problem correctly. If

you make a mistake, then you may have written down an invalid
argument. If so, you'll never prove it valid!
2. Similarly, make sure the argument is valid. Don't make up problems
at random except for adventure. If your problem is invalid, then (if
you make no mistakes) your derivation will trudge on inconclusively
forever.
3. Know the rules of inference and replacement intimately. For this
purpose, practice is much more valuable than memorization. You will
only see a path from your given premises to your desired conclusion
if you know how to walk.
4. If any of the rules still seem strange (illogical, unwarranted) to you,
try to see why they are valid. You can prove them valid or you can
work to make their validity familiar and intuitive. But until you get
this far, they will be much harder to apply in practice.
5.
Remember that the rules of inference apply to all statements that share
their form, even if enormously complicated. For example, modus
ponens applies to any conditional statement no matter how complex,
provided it and its antecedent are both given. Recognize huge
compounds as cases of your simpler rules. In large, complex
compounds, look for the main connective to help you diagnose what
rules might apply to it.
6.
Think backwards. Ask yourself what would suffice to prove the

conclusion; then ask what would suffice to prove that, and so on.
Eventually you should reach one of your given premises, or get so
close that you can see the bridge from where they are to where you
are.
7. Remember that the different variables in the rules of inference might,

in a special case, stand for the same proposition. For example, the rule
of material implication tells us that (p q)
(~p q). One case of
this general truth is (p p)
(~p p), which can be very helpful.
8. Get simple. Derive the simplest propositions you can and use them to
build up to a compound conclusion.
9. If a simple proposition occurs in the premises and not in the
conclusion, drop it as soon as you can. Remember which rules (and
combinations of rules) allow you to drop components of compounds.
10. If a simple proposition occurs in the conclusion and not in any or all
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the premises, add it to the appropriate proposition. Remember which
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rules (and combinations of rules) allow you to add components to

compounds.
11. Learn how to use the rules to change connectives you don't want into
connectives you do want.
12. Learn how to use the rules to change from a negated compound to an
un-negated one. Take negation signs off the outside of compounds
whenever you can; only then can you decompose them (pursuant to
tip 8 above).
13. Learn useful "sub-routines" or clusters of rules. For some examples,
see below.
14. Use the methods of conditional and indirect proof when appropriate.
Try them whenever you get stuck if only for a change of scenery.
15. If you get stuck, check to see whether you have made any mistakes to
that point. Check each step. Check your original translation or
transcription of the problem.
16. If you are really stuck, make (valid) inferences at random. That is,
follow the inference rules but have no particular goal. This is
inelegant but perfectly valid. It will enlarge the set of "premises" from
which you can draw inferences. At some point you might see a path
from where you are to the conclusion. (Keep one eye on tips 8-10 as
you go.)
USEFUL SUB-ROUTINES
1. Derive any statement you need from a contradiction
A
given
~A
A
simplification
~A
simplification
addition; B is any statement we
A B
happen to need
B
disjunctive syllogism
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2. Move from any B to A
B
given
B ~A
logical addition
~A B
commutation
A B
material implication
Along the same lines, do you see how to move from any given ~A to A
3. Move from A
(B C) to A B
A (B C)
~A (B C)
(~A B) (~A C)
~A B
A B
given
distribution
simplification
4. Move from (A B)
(A B) C
~(A B) C
(~A ~B) C
C (~A ~B)
(C ~A) (C ~B)
C ~A
~A C
A C
5. Move from A
A ~A
~A ~A
~A
C to A
given
DeMorgan's theorem
commutation
distribution
simplification
commutation
~A to ~A
given
tautology
6. Move from ~A
~A A
A A
A
B?
A to A
given
tautology
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Can you see how to move from [A

using only exportation and commutation?
(B
C)] to [B
(A
C)]
JUSTIFYING THE RULE OF RIGOR

In the first half of the lessons, or so, we will follow the rule of rigor
for derivations. To see what this means, look at how Copi presents the rule of
simplification:
pq
p
The rule of rigor means that from "p q" we can infer only the lefthand conjunct "p" by the rule of simplification. To infer the right-hand
conjunct "q" we must first put "q" on the left, using the rule of commutation,
and then apply the rule of simplification.
The rule of rigor forces us to take more steps in order to spell out the
obvious. Therefore it is a nuisance. What can justify it?
1. When human beings skip steps in their reasoning, they are
prone to make mistakes. Taking every step and no short-cuts
will reduce the chance of error. It will also cultivate our
logical intuition, so that we may thereafter skip steps with less
chance of error. At some point, then, we will relax the rule of
rigor.
2. Skipping no steps vividly shows us that reasoning can be
reduced to step-taking. (Or: this kind of reasoning can be
reduced to step-taking.) When each step is small enough to
require no intelligence, then this means that reasoning (this
kind of reasoning) can be mechanized. This fact is of supreme
importance for the theory of computation. And this is one
reason we study logic: to learn how to program reasoning for
machines to carry out.
3. I assured you on the first day of class that you already know
how to reason in the basic ways studied in this class. What we
are learning in the course is the formal structure of that
reasoning, which is analogous to learning the grammar of your
native language. As formal knowledge of grammar, it is new
(and perhaps difficult); but as your native language, it is very
________________________________________________
familiar.
Your
impatienceLiwanag,
with the
rule
of rigor proves
and Logic
2010
Rhodel
Toledo
Page this
229
point. You reason so fluently that you can skip steps without
giving up intuitive obviousness. Inferences that are intuitive
and immediate for you still have some internal structure that
our notation, terminology, and rules can explicate. One value
of this course is to make the structure of that reasoning
explicit, even if in practice you don't use your explicit
knowledge. The fact that what you do easily in one step can be
explicated and justified logically only in several steps is less a
nuisance than a commentary on the fine-grained detail of our
logical apparatus and the fluency of your natural reasoning.
The rule of rigor, then, teaches us much about our natural
reasoning, not just about the formal reasoning which can be
programmed.
Actually, the previous paragraph is misleading. The number of
steps in an inference does not depend on the inference, but on
our decision to recognize some rules of inference and not
others. We could add another rule to our toolkit, say, rightconjunct simplification that would allow us to get "q" from "p
q" in one step. The inference would take one step in the
enlarged toolkit, two in our current toolkit. Your fluency in
natural reasoning is the same either way, but with one set of
rules we model that natural reasoning with 20 rules, and with
the other we use 19. We could add rules like right-conjunct
simplification whenever the rule of rigor got in our way,
although that would be pretty silly. The new rules would not
extend the deductive power of our rule-set in any way at all,
and would only enhance its intuitive completeness in
microscopically small ways. Moreover, there are good reasons
to keep the rule-set relatively small. For example, one
psychological purpose of proof is to reduce a complex, nonintuitive inference to a series of steps that are each simple and
intuitive. With our small rule-set, we need only work on
making 19 rules familiar and intuitive. Even if we were
willing to add rules like right-conjunct simplification, would
that succeed in eliminating the nuisance of the rule of rigor?
It's possible that in any finite set of rules, no matter how large,
the rule of rigor will show some obvious inferences to take
several steps and the nuisance would survive. But that's
speculation. Let's be logical: either adding new rules would
eliminate the nuisance or it would not. If it would, then we
would eliminate one nuisance only at the price of adding
another, namely, an unmanageably huge set of rules. If it
would not eliminate nuisance, then we could only eliminate
________________________________________________
4.
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the nuisance by ceasing to follow rules, which is to give up

logic.
5. One motivation to develop the kind of logic we are studying in
this course is to clarify our intuitive notion of proof. In the late
19th and early 20th centuries, mathematicians discovered
paradoxes at the foundations of set theory and some branches
of logic. Since the rest of mathematics could be construed to
rest on these fields, the possibility that mathematics itself was
paradoxical or self-contradictory was open and had to be
explored. Mathematicians differed on methods by which they
attacked this problem, but they agreed that the concept of
proof in mathematics had to be made much more rigorous and
precise, and that proofs had to be conducted according to a
much higher standard of rigor. We do logic and mathematics
in the wake of this aroused vigilance. We are free to adopt the
rules of our choice, but once we adopt them, there are very
good reasons to follow them rigorously.
THE FOUR RULES OF INFERENCE

Generalization (adding quantifiers)
From
From variables
constants
Ax
(y)Ay
UG Illegal
Aa
( x)Ax
Restrictions:
1. Must generalize from a variable (here "x")
2. The variable to be generalized (here "x") must not be
free in (y)Ay
3. If an assumption contains a free occurrence of the
variable to be generalized (here "x"), then UG is not
permitted within the scope of that assumption
4. the convention
Ax
( y)Ay
EG
Restriction:
Restriction:
the convention the convention
Instantiation (removing quantifiers)
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To constants
(x)Ax
Aa
UI
To variables
(x)Ax
Ay
Restriction:
Restriction:
1. don't instantiate a negated quantifier
the convention
2. the convention
( x)Ax
...
Ay
...
p (where p is any statement with no free "y" in it)
p
EI Illegal
Restrictions:
1. don't instantiate a negated quantifier
2. must instantiate to a variable (here "y")
3. must instantiate to an assumption
4. y must not be free in the proof prior to the assumption
(unless it was free in the scope of an assumption since
discharged)
5. y must not be free in p
6. the convention
7. the converse of the convention
DERIVATIONS IN PREDICATE LOGIC

1. All the derivation rules we've learned so far apply in predicate logic:
the 9 rules of inference, the 10 rules of replacement, plus conditional
and indirect proof. So keep practicing them; you still need them.
2. Of the four new rules, UI, EI, UG, and EG, two are easy (UI and EG),
and two are difficult and become familiar only with practice (EI and
UG).
3. Remember that UI, EI, UG, and EG apply only to entire lines of
proof, not to components of larger compounds.
4. The QN rules apply either to whole lines or to components within
larger compounds.
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5. The general strategy for predicate logic derivations is to work through

these three phases: (1) instantiate the premises, (2) work with what
you have then, using the original 19 rules plus CP and IP, and (3) then
generalize as needed to put the right quantifiers on the conclusion.
If your conclusion is quantified, then the second-to-last step

will usually be a generalization (EG or UG) to put the right
quantifier on it. So in "thinking backwards" for proof strategy,
cut the quantifiers off the conclusion and then look for
premises that will give you that unquantified proposition.
6. One reason why it's usually necessary to instantiate your premises is

that the original 9 rules of inference usually do not apply to quantified
statements. They only apply to simple statements and truth-functional
compounds.
For example, modus ponens does not apply to this argument:

(x)(Ax Bx), (x)Ax, / (x)Bx. Nor does it apply to this one:
(x)(Ax Bx), Ax, / Bx.
On the other hand, if the conditional statement is not within

the scope of a quantifier, and if we have the antecedent exactly
(with its quantifiers, if any), then modus ponens will apply.
Hence, it does apply to this argument: (x)Ax
( x)Bx,
(x)Ax, / ( x)Bx.
7. The original 10 rules of replacement apply to components within

larger compounds, even components of predicate logic expressions.
8.
For example, we can turn (x)(Ax Bx) into (x)(~Ax Bx) by

material implication, and we can turn the latter into
(x)~(AxBx) by DeMorgan's theorem.
Keep some clear statement of UI, EI, UG, and EG at hand when doing
derivation exercises, at least at first. (Use the inside back cover of
Copi's book, or my hand-out, or your own notes.) Whenever you need
to drop a quantifier, look up the relevant instantiation rule to see
whether you can comply with all restrictions. Whenever you need to
add a quantifier, look up the relevant generalization rule to see
whether you can comply with all restrictions. It can help to write
down the inference you want to draw (adding or dropping a
quantifier) and then look up the relevant rule. After a handful of
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practice derivations for each rule, you should be able to apply them
without the reference sheet.
9. It is usually helpful to instantiate all quantified expressions to the
same variable or constant. Then the instantiated statements are more
likely to "bind" with one another under the inference rules.
For example, if you instantiate (x)(Ax Bx) to Ax Bx, and

later instantiate (x)Ax to Ay, then you cannot infer Bx by
modus ponens. For that, you need Ax, not Ay.
10. Instantiate existential quantifiers before universal quantifiers.
For example, once you instantiate (x)Ax to Ax, you cannot

instantiate ( x)Bx to Bx, since x has already occurred freely
in the proof. You could instantiate both quantified expressions
to x, however, if you did them in the reverse order.
11. If you have two or more existential quantifiers, realize that you cannot
instantiate them to the same variable. Before you instantiate them to
different variables, see whether you can do the proof without
instantiating one or more of them at all.
12. Don't instantiate negated quantifiers. Copi forgot to tell you that this
is illegal.
If it were legal, then (x)~Ax and ~(x)Ax could both be

instantiated to ~Ax. Since the latter could be generalized to
(x)~Ax, this would enable us to infer "all not" (all snakes are
non-poisonous) from "not all" (not all snakes are poisonous),
which is invalid.
If you find yourself with a negated quantified statement like

~(x)Ax, then move the negation sign to the right side of the
quantifier with the QN rules before you instantiate.
13. The restriction on UG inside the scope of an assumption should be

understood precisely or you will fail to take some permissible
inferences.
When you are within the scope of an assumption, then you

may not generalize universally on a variable that is free in the
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assumption. But this is not a flat ban on UG in arguments with

assumptions.
You may use UG before making, or after discharging, an

assumption.
You may use UG within the scope of an assumption provided

the variable being generalized was not free in that assumption.
14. When generalizing, the new quantifier goes at the far left of the
expression, putting the entirety of the original expression within its
scope.
For example, Ax
Bx.
Bx becomes (x)(Ax
Bx), not (x)Ax
Exception: when using prenex normal form, new quantifiers

go to the far left, but the scope of the new quantifier need not
be marked with new brackets. For example, (y)(Ax
By)
becomes (x)(y)(Ax By), not (x)[(y)(Ax By)].
15. A special case of the previous rule is that, when generalizing a

negated statement, the negation sign stays to the right of quantifier.
When you're finished, the negation sign should be inside scope of the
quantifier, not vice versa.
16.
For example, ~Ax becomes (x)~Ax, not ~(x)Ax.
We now have three kinds of assumption, and they all discharge

differently. Each can nest inside any combination of the others. So
keep track of which is which, and discharge each one properly.
CP assumptions discharge with the conditional statement

asserting that the assumption implies the last line.
IP assumptions discharge with the negation of the assumption.
EI assumptions discharge with the last line.
17. In working with polyadic predicates, generally avoid generalizing

different variables to the same variable in the same expression.
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For example, it is legal to generalize Axy to (x)Axx. But

unless the latter is just what you need to finish the proof, it is
usually unwise to generalize in this way. The reason is that the
convention will prevent you from instantiating (x)Axx to Axy
again; you will only be able to instantiate it to Axx, Ayy, Azz
and so on.
If the convention gives you little flexibility in instantiating

(x)Axx, it gives you unexpected flexibility in generalizing
Axx. You may generalize this to (y)Ayx, and then generalize
it again to (z)(y)Ayz.
Apart from these obstacles and opportunities, derivations with

polyadic predicates are not very different from derivations
with monadic predicates.
QUANTIFICATION THEORY
Major forms of categorical proposition:

(x)(Sx Px)corresponds to the A proposition, "All S are P."
(x)(Sx ~Px)corresponds to the E proposition, "No S are P."
(x)(Sx Px)corresponds to the I proposition, "Some S are P."
(x)(Sx ~Px)corresponds to the O proposition, "Some S are
not P."
Quantification Rules
In order to prove the validity of syllogisms, however, we first need to
strip the quantifiers from each statement, apply the appropriate rules of
inference, and then restore quantifiers to each statement.
The four quantification rules dictate the conditions under which it is
permissible to delete or add a quantifier:
Using x to represent any expression in which the individual
variable "x" appears, Universal Instantiation (UI) can be stated as an
argument of the form:
________________________________________________
(x)( x )
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_______
u
The "u" in this case can be any arbitrarily chosen individual constant
or variable. In the context of a proof, for example, the truth of "(x)
[Fx (Gx Hx)]" could be used to justify that of "Fb (Gb
Hb)." If the statement holds for all x, then it certainly must hold
for b.
In similar fashion, Universal Generalization (UG) has the form:

y
_______
(x)( x )
In this case, however, it is crucial that the "y" is an arbitrarily
chosen individualthat is, an individual that was introduced into the
proof by an application of UI. Only then can we be sure that what
holds of it is not some special feature but something that would hold
equally well of all " x."
Removing an existential quantifier requires application of Existential

Instantiation (EI), and argument of the form:
(x)( x )
_______
u
In this case, the individual constant "u" must be one which has
never been used in any earlier line of the proof; otherwise, we might
mistakenly associate two things which have nothing in common.
Thus, it is usually best to employ EI as soon as possible (certainly,
before any application of UI) in a proof.
Finally, Existential Generalization (EG) is an argument of the form:

u
_______
________________________________________________
(x)( x )
Page 237
Here, as in UI, "u" may be any individual constant or variable.

Using these quantification rules together with the inference and
replacement rules of the propositional calculus, it is possible to prove the
validity of any of the valid categorical syllogisms.
For EIO-1, for example:
1. (x)(Mx ~Px)
2. (x)(Sx Mx)
3. Sd Md
4. Md ~Pd
5. Sd
6. Md Sd
7. Md
8. ~Pd
9. Sd ~Pd
10. (x)(Sx ~Px)
premise
premise
2 EI
1 UI
3 Simp.
3 Comm.
6 Simp.
4, 7 M.P.
5, 8 Conj.
9 EG
GLOSSARY
1. Absurd means to point-out to nothing. It means point-less or
meaningless.
2. Analytic refers to the type of proposition whose truth can be determined
without comparing the proposition to any particular phenomena it is
supposed to describe.
3. Anti-thesis is the second stage of Hegelian Dialectic in which what was
stated is now negated, contradicted and denied.
________________________________________________
Page 238
4. Apoditik refers
demonstrable.
to
the
GREEK
word
apodeitikos
meaning
5. A posteriori is the term for the type of proposition that can be verified
only after the fact.
6. A priori refers to the type of proposition that can be verified
independently of, and prior to experience rather than matters of fact.
7. Argument is a dispute between two or more person aimed at an analysis
and exposition of a subject matter.
8. Atheism is a philosophical position that holds that there exist no
supernatural beings such as God or gods.
9. Bad-Faith is Sartres term for the various ways in which people attempt
to avoid responsibilities.
10. Being-for-Itself is Sartres term for the mode of existence that is defined
by mans ability to know itself on the basis of self-concept.
11. Being-in-Itself is Sartres term for the mode of being that has no
consciousness of itself.
12. Capitalism is a type of economic system composed of privately owned
enterprises in competition with the free-market supported by investments
and capitals.
13. Causality refers to the specific type of relation between two events or
necessary connection.
14. Change is the process in and by which things are altered or transformed.
15. Communism is Karl Marxs proposal for a classless society, consisting
of a powerful centralized state.
16. Determinism is the doctrine that the dominance over the world of the
laws of cause and effect is so complete that the future lies completely
outside the power of human beings.
17. Empirism refers to the school of epistemology whose position is that all
ideas, including abstract ideas are reducible to sensible/sensory
experiences.
18. Ego refers to the conscious component of the self in Freuds theory.
________________________________________________
Page 239
19. Experience refers to the product of the contact between the data
originating in the world and the faculties of senses.
20. Freedom is a positive conception of the ability to function as an ultimate
cause of actions and choices.
21. Free-will is the idea of human volition as an independent origin of
choices.
22. Hedonism is a type of ethical doctrine that equates what is good with
what is simply pleasurable.
23. Humanism is the belief that no better authority, either religious or
mystical, exists for the grounding of human knowledge and the solution
of human problems than human intelligence itself.
24. Hypothesis is a tentative working analysis and assumptions subject to
revision.
25. Hypothetical refers to the type of proposition that can be confirmed only
be experience, a confirmed hypothesis expressed in expansive judgment.
26. Idea refers to what is represented in the mind.
27. Idealism is a family of metaphysical views, often associated with
rationalism in epistemology. It is any doctrine that holds that reality is
essentially composed of thought and is perfectly rational in structure. It
holds that ideas are objects that we can know with certainty.
28. Individualism is a political doctrine which states that the fundamental
unit of the society is the individual and that certain rights accrue to each
individual.
29. Language is a system of concrete symbols that function as a medium for
communication.
30. Matter is the substance of which an entity is composed.
31. Mysticism is the belief that knowledge can be gained through subjective
or supernatural insight, intuition or revelation.
32. Noumenal refers to the scope of perception and knowledge of the world
as it appears.
________________________________________________
33. Omnipotence
theLogic
absolute
Introduction
to Philosophyisand
2010
ability to
control
events
possessed byPage
God.
Liwanag,
Rhodel
Toledo
240
34. Ontological argument is the argument for the existence of God setforth
by St. Anselm, whose strategy is to assert that the very meaning of the
concept of God is such that there can be no doubt about Gods existence.
God is perfect and absolute. In order to be perfect, a thing must be.
35. Paradox is the concept or argument that seems highly ambiguous or selfcontradictory.
36. Phenomenal means available to intuition or senses.
37. Phenomenalism is the theory that the only class of objects with which
we are actually in contact for the sake of knowledge are things we are
able to sense.
38. Pleasure is the idea of what is gratifying to our most immediate desires is
often treated as sensual and satisfactory.
39. Pragmatism is a philosophical movement founded by Peirce, James and
Dewey based on the assumption that the pursuit of truth is practical,
ongoing/continuous, and limited by the finite capacities of human reason.
40. Premise refers to an argument (proposition/assertion) in a syllogism.
41. Prudence is the idea of self-restraint, caution and practical wisdom.
42. Quality refers to perceptible properties of things.
43. Quantity refers to different numbers of things.
44. Rationalism the school of epistemology that maintains that certainty of
knowledge can be attained but only insofar as reality admits of being
understood with rational principles.
45. Realism refers to a family of metaphysical views often associated with
empiricism in epistemology. It holds that ideas in the mind represent
reality as it is.
46. Reason is the faculty of rationality in human beings.
47. Recollection refers to the theory of Plato about our ability to recall. It
states that our knowledge depends on our ability to recollect our ideas
from the world-of-forms.
________________________________________________
Page 241
48. Reductionism is boiling all reality or existence into a single idea and
scheme in which things of particular kinds are to be seen as modes of
beings (modalities).
49. Reflection refers to introspection or self-reflection.
50. Self is the object of the idea of personal identity.
51. Skepticism refers to a philosophical attitude characterized by the attempt
to cast a shadow of doubt over claims to knowledge.
52. Sophistry is a method used by the Sophists to deceive. It means
fallacious and pseudo-logical.
53. Stoicism is an ancient school of philosophy that advocated the effort to
attain a harmonious state of mind through attention to the laws of nature.
54. Subjectivism is a type of doctrine that holds that what determines our
senses of reality is a greater extent of our subjective interpretations of
concepts.
55. Syllogism is the type of deductive reasoning/inference forming logical
inferences (arguments).
56. Synthesis is the final stage in Hegelian Dialectic in which the opposition
between antithesis and thesis is resolved.
57. Tabula-Rasa literally means blank-slate. It means no innate ideas.
58. Temporal is the opposite of eternal. It means not permanent.
59. Thesis is the first stage is Hegelian Dialectic in which a thing comes to be
or asserted.
60. Transcendentalism is a philosophical movement which holds that ethics
is an expression and extension of natural order with a radical opposition
to the state.
61. Utilitarianism is an ethical doctrine that takes the object of moral
judgment to be the consequences of actions.
62. Utopia is a fictional, ideal state, society or universal satisfaction.
63. Virtue refers to the moderation and harmony of human affairs.
________________________________________________
Page 242
64. Violence refers to the use of metaphysical force by one person or group
against another.
65. Will is the faculty of preferring or desiring something.
EPILOGUE
Compared with other sciences, LOGIC also takes a procedure due to
its method i.e. correct reasoning. There is no venture that cannot benefit from
the mental training and sharpness of mind which philosophy and logic alone
can bring.
Logic improves what a man is. It sharpens the rationality of man. The
rational element of man which is the principal instrumentality which
philosophy requires in order to achieve its goal and objective is developed
________________________________________________
and enhanced.
Page 243
Logic indeed, is a science that uses reason. It is the art and science of
correct thinking.
RHODEL T. LIWANAG
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bachhuber, Andrew H. Introduction to Logic. New York: Appleton-CenturyCofts, Inc., 1967. Reprint. National Bookstore.
Bittle, Celetine N. The Science of Correct Thinking. Revised ed. Milwaukee:
The Bruce Publishing Co., 1950. Reprint. National Bookstore.
Copi, Irving M. Introduction to Logic. Fifth ed. New York: Macmillan
Publishing Co., Inc., 1978.
Copleston, Frederick, S.J.. A History of Philosophy. Vol I, Part I. New York:
Image Books, 1962.
_______________, A History of Philosophy. Vol II, Part II. New York:
Image Books, 1965.
Cruz, Corazon L. Introduction to Logic. Revised ed. Manila: National
________________________________________________
1983.2010
IntroductionBookstore,
to PhilosophyInc.
and Logic
Page 244
Descartes. Discourse on Method and Meditation on First Philosophy.

Translated by Donald A. Cress. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1980.
Plato. Dialogues of Plato. Translated by Jowette. 2 vols. New York: random
House. 1920.
Roth, John K and Sontag, Frederick. The Questions of Philosophy.
Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Timbreza, Florentino. Logic Made Simple for Filipinos. Phoenix Publishing
House. Inc. 1992.
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Philosophy is the science of the lifeworld.

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

What can philosophy do for me?

Philosophy studies things

Ano kaya ang

A material cause tells us about the material components

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

external appearance of a thing.

God created man to serve his creation

NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

1. Man (Tao) ____________________________________________

NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

7. acquaint our-selves with possible learning.

NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

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Philosophizing and Reasoning

Below are some basic examples of man philosophizing and reasoning:

A Nurse Thinking and Analyzing.

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When we think or even doubt anything, we philosophize and use our

A Nurse Analyzing and Observing

Philosophizing and Reasoning

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

2. Truth correspondence of an idea to reality.

NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

Agree or Disagree. Expound on the following:

1. Philosophy will help us face lifes problem.

Match Set A with Set B.

EMPIRICAL STUDY OF MAN

SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF MAN

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

Philosophy and Philosophy of Man

WHAT CAN WE KNOW?

THE BRANCHES OF PHILOSOHY

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

Logic is a branch of Philosophy. The other branches of Philosophy

NAME: ______________________________________ SCORE: ________

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Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

Liwanag, Rhodel Toledo

If you are to choose, will you be alone with yourself or be with

THE PROBLEM OF MATTER

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THE PROBLEM OF IDENTITY AND CHANGE

what it seems to be that the mind leads a different impression and

Pythagoras, all things are inter-related because souls are in harmony

NAME: ______________________________ SCORE:

NAME: ______________________________ SCORE:

NAME: ______________________________ SCORE:

NAME: ______________________________ SCORE:

NAME: ______________________________ SCORE:

NAME: ______________________________ SCORE:

NAME: ______________________________ SCORE:

NAME: ______________________________ SCORE:

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