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STARTALK:FromPapertoPractice2

Why Is Lesson Planning Important?

Many educators believe that lesson planning is a critical element of effective instruction. As an old
adage says, Failing to plan is planning to fail.

Lesson planning helps ensure that classroom instruction aligns with curriculum goals and objectives
and therefore enables students to demonstrate their successful learning on unit or curricular
assessments. Lessons not only shape how and what students learn, they also impact student attitudes
toward language learning. In the long run, it is the lessonnot the curriculum or the unit planthat
students actually experience. It is through the lessons they teach each day that teachers communicate
what language learning is all about and what they believe matters in language learning. As they
experience the lesson, students may decide whether they will or will not invest their time and energy to
learn the material.

Classrooms are busy places with many things happening all at once. Teachers are challenged to
monitor multiple classroom events simultaneously while at the same time collecting and analyzing data
on student performance. In the course of teaching lessons, teachers must make important instructional
decisions almost continually: What question should I ask next? Should I call on a particular student or
not? What does this students answer reveal about their understanding or skill? Are my students
showing that they are ready to move on, or do I need to clarify information for them?

Clearly, just remembering how the lesson should unfold can be challenging when teachers are
simultaneously trying to monitor student learning while also making significant instructional decisions.
Lesson planningwell in advance of the actual class meetingallows for the luxury of time. Teachers
need time to think through their lesson goals and objectives. They need to consider the logical
progression of the lesson as it unfolds to lead students to improved knowledge and performance.

The decision-making process of lesson planning requires teachers to pull together an array of
knowledge and understanding: What do I know about learning in general? What do I know about
language learning? What characteristics of my students will affect the choices I make about my lesson
experiences? What are the many ways I know to help my students achieve the lesson goals, and, of all
the ways I know, which ones should I choose and why?

Lesson planning is also an opportunity to think about the kinds of teaching that result in student
learning. Foreign language educators are generally in agreement regarding a repertoire of teacher
STARTALK:FromPapertoPractice3

behaviors that result in improved student learning. If these behaviors are key to successful language
learning, then teachers must ensure that these behaviors are consciously planned for in each lesson.

This guide provides a framework for thinking about the elements essential to foreign language lesson
plans and guidelines for developing plans that reflect theory and practice in language education today.
Before You Begin
Lessons are parts of a unit. Each unit lasts for a period of time, and each lesson contributes to bringing
the learner to the end goal and objectives for the unit. Most units culminate with some form of
assessment. In the course of the unit, individual lessons each have an objective that is a step toward the
units larger goals. Often, teachers will assess student progress toward the units end goals as part of
each lesson.

Units of instruction are packages of instructional material that are derived from a course syllabus or a
curriculum guide. Depending on the length of the instructional period, a syllabus or curriculum may
have many units. For example, in schools, the instructional period is a year, and a curriculum may have
as few as four units, as many as eight, or even more. In contrast, a one-week summer program may
have just one unit. A school curriculum may cover just one academic year or several years.

For the purposes of this guide, a lesson is defined as a single class session (learning episode) lasting no
more than ninety minutes. Longer blocks of time will involve several learning episodes and lesson
plans.
What Matters in Lesson Planning? Strategies Common to All Disciplines
Effective teachers in all disciplines plan lessons. Much of their planning requires attention to features
of lessons that have been shown to make a difference in student learning, whether the subject is
mathematics, art, or foreign language. Other aspects of lesson planning are discipline-specific.

In this guide, we look at a number of factors teachers consider as they develop lesson plans. First, we
look at those that are common to all disciplines, and then we will look those that are specific to foreign
language instruction. Some factors are organizing principles, some are critical features of effective
lessons, some are teacher behaviors, and some are instructional decisions that reflect student
characteristics. All are important for planning and implementing lessons that lead to student learning.
STARTALK:FromPapertoPractice4

Generally Accepted Lesson Features and Instructional Strategies

The following are generally accepted lesson features and instructional strategies that should always be
considered when designing lessons:

Setting purpose and agenda
Backward design
Context of the lesson within the unit
Research-based instructional strategies
Assessment
Feedback
Student-centered instruction
Brain-compatible instruction
Differentiation
Motivation
Scaffolding
Developing mentally appropriate practices
Blooms Taxonomy
Closure

More information about these lesson features and instructional strategies as well as resources for
further reading can be found in Appendix A.

Planning the Lesson
Lesson planning is a cognitively demanding task in which teachers bring to bear their expertise and
experience to make good instructional decisions. When planning lessons teachers consider the
following:

Where are students now and where do they need to be? (What do my students need to know and be
able to do that they do not know and are not able to do now?)
What should I do and in what order should I do it? (What do I know about learning in general and
second language learning in particular that will influence decisions I make as I plan my lesson?
What options or choices do I have about learning experience and activities, and based on the
factors above, which one is most likely to lead to the result I want?)
What student characteristics (needs, abilities, and interests) should I keep in mind as I am
planning? (What are the needs, abilities, and interests of my students?)

Because language learning takes such a long period of time and there is so little time available for
school-based language learning, there is no time to waste. Teachers must make every minute and every
activity count as they lay out their ideas for a lesson.
STARTALK:FromPapertoPractice5

The concept of backward design is commonly accepted as an organizing principle in development of
curriculum. It consists of three basic stages:

Stage 1: What should students know and be able to do?
Stage 2: How will students demonstrate what they know and can do?
Stage 3: What activities will students experience to prepare them to demonstrate what
they know and can do?

Backward design planning is found in a growing numbers of curriculum documents and even textbook
materials throughout the United States.

Recently, the idea has emerged that the backward design concept can also serve as an effective
organizing tool for planning lessons, regardless of the subject matter. Backward design allows the
teacher to think clearly about desired outcomes, what students need to know to get to those outcomes,
what the outcomes will actually look like when demonstrated, and what instructional steps are needed
to reach the outcomes. Following these steps of backward design, as outlined in the STARTALK
Lesson Plan Template, allows teachers to think clearly about learning targets and what it will take to
reach them.
Stage 1
Using the STARTALK Lesson Plan Template, the teacher must first think about two things: (1) what
will students be able to do at the end of this lesson, and (2) what must they know in order to do that?
Since lessons occur within a unit context, everything the teacher includes in the lesson plan is housed
under the umbrella of the units theme, learning targets, and knowledge base. This means that the
learning targets for a particular lesson can come directly from the unit plan or may need to be
unpacked to include a number of subtargets that are in service to a bigger, more inclusive target.
However the teacher arrives at the focus of the lesson, the target(s) should be attainable within the
scope of the lessons available time, and they should be stated in student-friendly language. Learning
targets that speak to the needs and interests of students are more likely to capture their energy and
commitment.


STARTALK:FromPapertoPractice6

Here are some sample learning targets:

You will be able to figure out and tell someone how to use the metro system in Beijing to get from
place to place.
You will be able to give an interviewer five reasons why your favorite Arabic-speaking country
should be selected as the country of the year.
You will be able to write a social network personal profile for yourself.

From these targets, the teacher then must determine what students need to know in order to achieve
those outcomes. Generally, it is suggested that teachers think about the vocabulary, structures, and
culture that students do not already know and that would be necessary to meet the objectives. It is
totally possible that nothing new would emerge and that students need to spend the lesson internalizing
language to be able to demonstrate the target. Or it is possible that some vocabulary is needed but no
new structures. Or perhaps both vocabulary and structures are in place, but there is some important
cultural information that is needed (e.g., making sure students know about the week pass available in
the Beijing metro system as a more economical way of purchasing tickets).

Again, everything that is selected for students to know (and to learn in the lesson) must be achievable
during that lesson within the time that is available.

National and state standards discuss what students will be able to do as a result of the language learning
experience, and curriculum is usually written from that same point of view. Lesson planning should do
no less. Many times, a teachers lesson plan might look like a schedule. It might include the activities
for the day as well as the amount of time the teacher thinks each activity will take. The plan serves
more as a recipe for the teacherdo this first, then do that, and follow it with some of those. Deciding
which activities to do is very important and is a critical part of planning a lesson (as we will see in
Stage 3), but starting with activity selection before deciding what the lessons focus is leaves the
lessons outcomesor what student can actually do at the end of the lessonmore to chance than to
forethought. If students are to end up being able to use the language they have been studying, it will
require conscious thought, attention, and intentional planning.
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Stage 2
How will we know that students can do what we targeted as the lessons objectives? How will they
know that they can do what was targeted? The only way teachers will know if the learning targets have
been hit is if students show what they have learned to do.

Lessons are parts of units. How we assess students at the end of a lesson may be different from how we
assess students at the end of a unit. During the course of each lesson, the teachers job is to determine if
students have met the target of the lesson and also monitor progress toward the goals and objectives of
the whole unit. Therefore, the teacher needs to know whether or not the students can do what was
targeted. The concluding activity of the lesson may accomplish this task for the teacher. Alternatively,
the teacher may ask students to prepare an exit slip that provides the necessary information. Simply
put, Stage 2 of the lesson plan is that all-important opportunity for the teacher to see if the students
were able to achieve the lessons intent and if modifications are needed for the next day. Additionally,
this part of the lesson is a chance for students to recognize what they can do now that they couldnt do
at the start of the lesson as well as demonstrate to them that they are using language that has
meaningful purpose in the real world. Checking for student learning does not need to take a long time,
nor does it not to be a complicated process.

Here is an example of Stage 2 for a lesson plan:

Stage 1: What will students be able to do at the end of this lesson?

You will be able to figure out and tell someone how to use the public transportation system in Beijing
to get from one part of the city to another.

Stage 2: How will students show what they know and can do?

As a closing activity, students will give the teacher directions* on how to get from Point A to Point B
using the Beijing public transportation system.

*Students may text, e-mail, or handwrite this information to give it to the teacher.
STARTALK:FromPapertoPractice8

Stage 3
Deciding which activities will enable students to demonstrate the lessons learning target and the order
in which they will unfold is the heart and soul of Stage 3 in the backward design lesson planning
process. Historically, this aspect of instructional design is what has constituted lesson planning for most
teachers. In this process, however, its connection to carefully thought-out learning objectives better
insures that everything the teacher and students do during the lesson is (1) connected, (2) has a clear
purpose, and (3) advances the learning goals.

As teachers start to plan activities that will enable students to meet the learning targets identified in
Stage 1, following the process below can go a long way towards ensuring that the lesson plan will lead
to the desired results.
Step 1: Brainstorming
In considering the activities for Stage 3 of the lesson plan, ask yourself these questions:

What are two or three ways that might work for achieving the learning target(s)?
What do I like and not like about each of those possibilities?
What do I know about learning in general and language learning in particular that leads me to
believe that these activities will be effective?
Step 2: Asking Some Tough Questions
Once teachers have narrowed down their choices based on answers to the above questions, some
additional questions must be considered. Do the activities you have selected do the following:

Give students a reason for needing to or wanting to pay attention and be on-task
Provide students with an authentic (real world) purpose for using language
Make the learnernot the teacherthe active participant
Engage all students as opposed to just one or two at a time
Provide sufficient opportunities for input before expecting output
Provide multiple, varied opportunities for students to hear new words and expressions in highly
visualized contexts that make meaning transparent
Represent the best use of instructional time
Take an appropriate amount of time considering the age of the learner
Include enough variety to enable a lively pace for the lesson
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Vary in the level of intensity and physical movement from one to the next
Step 3: Putting It All Together Into a Teaching Plan
To help teachers navigate through the process of designing lessons that focus on achieving the learning
targets set out in Stage 1, use of the Stage 3 Lesson Plan Organizer might prove useful, at least in the
initial stages of conceptualizing a backward design lesson plan process.

The organizer leads teachers through a process in which they determine

which learning target or objective the activity addresses,
a name or tag for the activity,
if the activity involves presentation or practice of new material or previously introduced content,
why the activity is being placed in a particular spot,
who is doing the activity (teachers or students),
how much time will be set aside for the activity,
which mode the activity addresses (interpersonal, interpretive, or presentational),
which of the four skills it practices (listening, speaking, reading, or writing), and
the discourse level the activity requires (words, sentences, or paragraphs).

Clearly, no teacher would have the time to complete such an organizer for every lesson that they
design. The purpose, therefore, of the organizerand of all of the process steps laid out for Stage 3is
to initially lead teachers through a thought process that eventually becomes second nature as they think
through determining the activities of the actual lesson plan.

Earlier in this document, a number of lesson features and instructional strategies that are generally
accepted within the field of education were set forth that should always be considered in designing
lessons. More information about these concepts can be found in Appendix A. These elements should
always be envisioned as overarching the lesson design process.





STARTALK:FromPapertoPractice10

Appendix A: Generally Accepted Lesson Features and Instructional Strategies

The following are generally accepted lesson features and instructional strategies that should
always be considered when designing lessons.

Setting Purpose and Agenda
The lesson begins with an overview of the intended outcomes and the learning activities that
will help students achieve those outcomes.

Further Reading
Marzano, R. J ., Pickering, D. J ., & Pollock, J . E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works:
Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA:
ASCD.

Backward Design
Each unit and lesson is designed by (1) identifying the end goallearning outcomes, (2)
determining the evidence that will tell teachers and students whether the outcomes were
attained, and (3) designing a pathway of learning activities that will eventually enable students
to demonstrate evidence that they have attained those outcomes.

Further Reading
McTighe, J ., & Wiggins, G. (2005). Understanding by design (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA:
ASCD.

Context of the Lesson Within the Unit
A lesson is a part of a unit. While it is expected that units will demonstrate a range of content
and instructional strategies, not every lesson will include every possible strategy.

STARTALK endorses six major principles considered to be highly effective practices within
the foreign language field. Units of instruction (although not all lessons) should reflect these
principles.

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The six principles are

standards-based, thematic curriculum;
use of the target language;
incorporation of authentic materials;
student-centered instruction;
integration of language and culture; and
performance-based assessment.

Further Reading
Georgia Department of Education. (2011). Modern Languages and Latin.
https://www.georgiastandards.org/Frameworks/Pages/BrowseFrameworks/modernlang
latin.aspx

STARTALK-Endorsed Principles for Effective Teaching and Learning and Characteristics of
Effective Language Lessons. College Park, MD: National Foreign Language Center at the
University of Maryland.
http://startalk.umd.edu/principles

Research-Based Instructional Strategies
Research in a variety of grade levels and subject matters has shown that there are instructional
strategies that make an impact on student learning. Some of these strategies are

identifying similarities and differences,
summarizing and note taking,
reinforcing effort and providing recognition,
homework and practice,
nonlinguistic representations,
cooperative learning,
setting objectives and providing feedback,
generating and testing hypotheses, and
STARTALK:FromPapertoPractice12

questions, cues, and advance organizers.

Further Reading
Marzano, R. J ., Pickering, D. J ., & Pollock, J . E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works:
Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA:
ASCD.

Assessment
Teachers use diagnostic assessment to determine what students already know and can do prior
to new instruction. They plan for and use formative assessment to monitor student progress
toward learning objectives and goals during the course of instruction. They also plan for
summative assessment as they write unit plans so that they are clear from the outset about
what students are expected to know and be able to do at the end of the unit of instruction and
what will demonstrate that students met the instructional goals of the unit or course.

Further Reading
Fisher, D., & Frey, N. 2008. Checking for understanding: Formative assessment techniques
for your classroom. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Stiggins, R. (2005, September). Assessment for leaning defined. Available at
http://www.assessmentinst.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/05/afldefined.pdf

Feedback
Feedback helps students understand how well they are making progress toward learning goals.
Descriptive feedback provides students with information on how they can improve and may
come from the teacher, classmates, or the students own assessment of their work.

There are various forms of feedback that affect learning in different ways. Some forms may
lead to negative gains in achievement; therefore, teachers need to be aware of the various types
of feedback and their potential to assist students in reaching learning targets.

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Further Reading
Brookhart, S. M. (2008). How to give effective feedback to your students. Alexandria, VA:
ASCD.

Council of Chief State School Officers. (2008). Attributes of effective formative assessment.
Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers. Available at
http://www.nycomprehensivecenter.org/docs/form_assess/AttributesofEffectiveFormat
iveAssessment.pdf

Marzano, R. J ., Pickering, D. J ., & Pollock, J . E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works:
Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA:
ASCD.

Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems.
Instructional Science, 18, 119140.

Student-Centered Instruction
In student-centered classrooms, students frequently interact with peers in pairs or small
groups. Curriculum themes or topics may be selected to align with student interests. Students
may have choices about what they learn, the learning experiences that will lead to instructional
goals, and how they will show what they have learned.

Further Reading
For a review of research on cooperative learning, see the following resource:

Marzano, R. J ., Pickering, D. J ., & Pollock, J . E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works:
Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA:
ASCD.


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To read about choice boards as a means of addressing student interests, see the following
resource:

Smith, G., & Throne, S. (2009, December 4). Tic-tac-toeing with choice boards in any
classroom. http://www.istecentral.com/2009/12/04/tic-tac-toeing-with-choice-boards-
in-any-classroom

Brain-Compatible Instruction
Recent research into how the brain learns has highlighted the importance of planning brain-
based lessons. Brain research suggests that it is helpful for students to learn in low-stress
environments, that the brain responds to novelty and strong positive emotions, and that
periodic movement of the bodys limbs increases blood flow to the brain and therefore
enhances brain function.

One finding of brain research, in particular, that has serious implications for lesson planning is
the primacy-recency effect: Learners remember best the first part of a learning episode. The
next best-remembered is the last part of a learning episode. Students remember least what
comes in the middle. The primacy-recency effect has major implications for determining
where to place the activities that make up the lesson plan.

Further Reading
For information on brain research and instruction, see the following sources:

J ensen, E. (2005). Teaching with the brain in mind (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Sousa, D. A. (2006). How the brain learns: A classroom teacher's guide. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin Press.


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For further information on the primacy-recency effect, see the following source:

Cafarella, J . (n.d.). Primacy-recency effect. Available at
http://sciencegnus.com/Primacy%20Recency%20Effect.pdf

Differentiation
Teachers address the needs, abilities, and interests of students by using a variety of strategies
that make content accessible to learners. They provide choices that allow students to determine
their own learning pathways or different options to demonstrate their learning.

Further Reading
Bosch, N. (2008). A different place. http://www.adifferentplace.org/classroom.htm

Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all
learners. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Tomlinson, C. A., & Imbeau, M. B. (2010). Leading and managing a differentiated classroom.
Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Available at
http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/108011.aspx

Motivation
Motivation is an inner drive that pushes students to work toward their goals. Motivation is
believed to be responsible for paying attention, investing effort in learning, and persistence
when tasks are challenging.

Further Reading
Borich, G. D., & Tombari, M. (2006). Motivation and classroom learning. In Educational
psychology: A contemporary approach. Available at
http://www.edb.utexas.edu/borich/pdfdocs/chapter7.pdf

STARTALK:FromPapertoPractice16

Drnyei, N. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language Teaching,
31(3), 117135.

Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1959). Motivational variables in second-language
acquisition. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 13, 266272.

Gardner, R. C., & Tremblay, P. F. (1994). Motivation, research agendas, and theoretical
frameworks. Modern Language Journal, 78(3), 359368.

Scaffolding
Instructional scaffolds are a technique in which teachers enable students to successfully
acquire new concepts or to accomplish challenging tasks by providing students with supports
such as guidance, modeling, and resources. Teachers frequently model for students, carry out
the task along with students, and gradually have students carry out the task on their own. (This
technique is also called I do/we do/you do.)

Further Reading
For original discussion, see the following resources:

Lipscomb, L., Swanson, J ., & West, A. (2008, February 5). Characteristics and critical
features of scaffolded instruction. In Scaffolding. Available at
http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding#Characteristics_and_Criti
cal_Features_of_Scaffolded_Instruction

Wood, D. J ., Bruner, J . S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal
of Child Psychiatry and Psychology, 17(2), 89100.


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For information about scaffolding with graphic organizers, see the following resource:

Cammarata, L. (2005, February). Instructional scaffolding with graphic organizers. The
Bridge. Available at
http://www.carla.umn.edu/immersion/acie/vol8/2005BRIDGE8.2.pdf

Developing Mentally Appropriate Practices
As children grow from the early grades through high school, their social, psychological, and
cognitive abilities mature. Teachers take into account these maturational characteristics as they
plan and implement instruction.

Further Reading
Education.com. (n.d.). Developmentally appropriate practice.
http://www.education.com/definition/developmentally-appropriate-practice

NAEYC. (n.d.). Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP). http://www.naeyc.org/DAP

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. (n.d.). Developmentally appropriate practices.
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/instrctn/in5lk5.htm

Blooms Taxonomy
First described by Benjamin Bloom, the taxonomy has evolved from a description of learning
objectives to a means of classifying the level of thinking that certain types of questions or
tasks demand of students. Higher order thinking or tasks are those that require students to
analyze, evaluate, or create; lower order tasks involve knowing (remembering), understanding,
and applying.


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Further Reading
Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E.,
Pintrich, P. R., Raths, J ., & Wittrock, M. C. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning,
teaching, and assessingA revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives.
Boston, MA: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon,
Pearson Education.

Closure
Lessons end with an overview or summary of the objectives of the lesson and what students
learned during the lesson. Frequently, students provide this information by responding to
teacher questions, summarizing with peers in pairs or small groups, or indicating verbally or
nonverbally whether they feel they have met the lessons objectives.

Further Reading
DeBacker, T. K., & Crowson, H. M. (2009). The influence of need for closure on learning and
teaching. Educational Psychology Review, 21(4), 303323. Available at
http://www.springerlink.com/content/57431024120v5539/fulltext.pdf

Hunter, M. (1982). Mastery teaching. El Segundo, CA: TIP Publications.

Wolf, P., & Supon, V. (1994, February 22). Winning through student participation in lesson
closure. Available at http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED368694.pdf

Appendix B: Stage 3 Lesson Plan Organizer

Stage1LearningTargets(asmanyorasfewasneeded)

1.____________________________________________________________________________

2.____________________________________________________________________________

3.____________________________________________________________________________

Addresses
Which
Objective?
ActivityName Presentationor
PracticeofNew
Materialor
Previously
Introduced
Material
Whyplacedhere? Teacher
Centered
orStudent
Centered?
How
Many
Minutes?
Mode
(Interpretive,
Interpersonal,
or
Presentational)
Skills
(Listening,
Speaking,
Reading,
or
Writing)
Levelof
Discourse
Required
(Words,
Phrases,
Sentences,or
Paragraphs)

Stage2(activitythatstudentswilldotoprovideevidencethattheyhaveaccomplishedtheStage1learningtargets)