Uranium Mining in the U.

S Southwest-Hazard Identification
Background
After the end of World War II, the United States encouraged uranium mining production
because of the nuclear arms race with the U.S.S.R., its opponent in the Cold War.
Large uranium deposits were found on and near the Navajo Reservation in the Southwest, and
private companies hired many Navajo employees to work the mines. Disregarding the known
health risks imposed by exposure to uranium, the private companies and the United States
Atomic Energy Commission failed to inform the Navajo workers about the dangers and to
regulate the mining to minimize contamination. This report identifies the health problems
caused by uranium and its decay products(radon and radium), the exposure routes and the
mechanisms of disease causation.
Uranium
Uranium (chemical symbol U) is a naturally-occurring radioactive element, with atomic number
92. Uranium is commonly found in very small amounts in rocks, soil, water, plants, and animals
(including humans). Uranium is weakly radioactive and contributes to low levels of natural
background radiation in the environment. Because uranium has such a long radioactive half-life
(4.47x10
9
years for U-238), the total amount of it on earth stays almost the same.


Chemical Toxicity
Exposure to uranium can result in both chemical and radiological toxicity. The main chemical
effect associated with exposure to uranium and its compounds is kidney toxicity. This toxicity
can be caused by breathing air containing uranium dusts or by eating substances containing
uranium, which then enters the bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream, the uranium
compounds are filtered by the kidneys, where they can cause damage to the kidney cells. Very
high uranium intakes (ranging from about 50 to 150 mg depending on the individual) can cause
acute kidney failure and death. At lower intake levels (around 25 to 40 mg), damage can be
detected by the presence of protein and dead cells in the urine, but there are no other
symptoms. Also, at lower intake levels, the kidney repairs itself over a period of several weeks
after the uranium exposure has stopped.
Radiological Toxicity
Several possible health effects are associated with human exposure to radiation from uranium.
Because all uranium isotopes mainly emit alpha particles that have little penetrating ability, the
main radiation hazard from uranium occurs when uranium compounds are ingested or inhaled.
However, workers in the vicinity of large quantities of uranium in storage or in a processing
facility also are exposed to low levels of external radiation from uranium decay products. At the
exposure levels typically associated with the handling and processing of uranium, the primary
radiation health effect of concern is an increased probability of the exposed individual
developing cancer during their lifetime. Cancer cases induced by radiation are generally
indistinguishable from other "naturally occurring" cancers and occur years after the exposure
takes place. The probability of developing a radiation-induced cancer increases with increasing
uranium intakes.
Compound Solubility and Route of Exposure
The extent of damage from exposure to a uranium compound depends on the solubility of the
compound and the route of exposure. In most assessments only inhalation, ingestion, and
external radiation are considered. Although absorption of some soluble compounds through
the skin is possible, such dermal exposures generally are not significant. For inhalation or
ingestion of soluble or moderately soluble compounds such as uranyl fluoride (UO
2
F
2
) or
uranium tetrafluoride (UF
4
), the uranium enters the bloodstream and reaches the kidney and
other internal organs, so that chemical toxicity is of primary importance. For inhalation of
insoluble compounds such as uranium dioxide (UO
2
) and triuranium octaoxide (U
3
O
8
), the
uranium is generally deposited in the lungs and can remain there for long periods of time
(months or years). The main concern from exposure to these insoluble compounds is increased
cancer risk from the internal exposure to radioactivity. Ingested insoluble compounds are
poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and are only retained in the body for a short
time, thus generally having a low toxicity.
Limits
Certain studies show that uranium levels as low as 14 g/l(micrograms per liter) have caused kidney
damage to a certain extent. Threshold dose has not been scientifically established. The uranium limit
is 30 g/l in drinking water as established by EPA.
Radon
Once radon enters a building it is easily dispersed through the air. The radioactive decay
process that leads to the creation of radon does not stop. This causes the radon to decay into
several radioactive elements called radon decay products. These decay products are made up
of different forms of polonium, lead and bismuth.
Unlike radon, which is a gas, the radon decay products produced from radon are solid particles.
These particles become suspended in the air when they are formed from the decaying radon
gas. These particles are extremely small and cannot be seen.
Because they are extremely small particles, radon decay products are easily inhaled and can
attach to lung tissue. They have very short half-lives which means that they will decay
relatively quickly after they are formed. In fact, if they are inhaled, they will decay in the lungs
before the lungs have an opportunity to clean themselves.
It is the radon decay products that actually present the health risk associated with radon gas.
Radon is a Lung Cancer Causing Gas
When radon decay products decay, they release alpha, beta and gamma radiation. It is actually
the alpha radiation (in the form of particles) from the two radon decay products - polonium 218
and polonium 214 - that are the most hazardous.
The alpha particles, that come from the decay of radon products will impact the sensitive lung
tissue. In most cases they will kill the lung tissue cell. However, the alpha particles can impact
the DNA, or create a chemical reaction that will affect the DNA. When this occurs the cell can
become mutated.
This is the mechanism by which prolonged exposure to radon and radon decay products can
increase the potential of lung cancer.
Limits
Most U.S. EPA lifetime safety standards for carcinogens are established based on a 1 in 100,000
risk of death. Most scientists agree that the risk of death for radon at 4 pCi/l is approximately 1
in 100. At the 4 pCi/l EPA action guideline level, radon carries approximately 1000 times the risk
of death as any other EPA carcinogen. It is important to note that the action level is not a safe
level, as there are no "safe" levels of radon gas.
Radium
Since radium is present at low levels in the natural environment, everyone has some minor
exposure to it. However, individuals may be exposed to higher levels of radium if they live in an
area where there is an elevated level of radium in the surrounding rock and soil. Private well
water in such areas can also be an added source of radium.
People can also be exposed to radium if it is released into the air from the burning of coal or
other fuels. Certain occupations can also lead to high exposures to radium, such as working in a
uranium mine or in a plant that processes ores.
Radium emits several different kinds of radiation, in particular, alpha and gamma radiation.
Alpha radiation is only a concern if radium is taken into the body through inhalation or
ingestion. Gamma radiation, or rays, can expose individual even at a distance. As a result,
radium on the ground, for example, can expose individuals externally to gamma rays or be
inhaled or ingested with contaminated food or water.
People may swallow radium with food and water, or may inhale it as part of dust in the air.
Radium can also be produced in the body from "parent" radionuclides (uranium and thorium)
that have been inhaled or swallowed, but this is not a significant source.
Most radium that is swallowed (about 80%) promptly leaves the body through the feces. The
other 20% enters the bloodstream and accumulates preferentially in the bones. Some of this
radium is excreted through the feces and urine over a long time. However, a portion will remain
in the bones throughout the person's lifetime.
Health Effects of Radium
Alpha particles emitted by radium are generally only harmful if emitted inside the body.
However, both internal and external exposure to gamma radiation is harmful. Gamma rays can
penetrate the body. Long-term exposure to radium increases the risk of developing several
diseases. Inhaled or ingested radium increases the risk of developing such diseases as
lymphoma, bone cancer, and diseases that affect the formation of blood, such as leukemia and
aplastic anemia. These effects usually take years to develop. External exposure to radium's
gamma radiation increases the risk of cancer to varying degrees in all tissues and organs.
However, the greatest health risk from radium is from exposure to its radioactive decay product
radon.
Limits
The Maximum Contaminant Levels(MCL) of radium and other radionuclides in publicly supplied
drinking water. For 226 and 228 radium, the MCL is 5 picocuries per liter and for 224 radium, it is
15pCi/l. Both the air and water standards limit the increased lifetime cancer risk to about 2 in 10,000.
References
http://web.ead.anl.gov/uranium/guide/ucompound/health/index.cfm
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tf.asp?id=439&tid=77
http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/ra.htm
http://www.epa.gov/radiation/radionuclides/radium.html