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Ken Thompson (B language Father) and
Dennis Ritchie C programming language
C Programming

History of c:
























C
Meaning: Computing
year: 1972
Designed:Dennies
Ritchie
Before language:B
Present version:C11
Os:Multiple Platform
Extension: .c
C Compilers:
Turboc, Borland,
Gcc, Dev C
Developed At
AT &T Bell Lab
Encoding: ANSI
American National
Standards institute

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What is C : -
The C is a structured procedure programming language is a widely used programming
language for creating computer programs.
This powerful computer programming language was developed in 1972 by Dennis
Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories.
C programming is used basically for System programming.
C language is a middle level language.
It is a structured language.
C language is a case sensitive language.
All syntax written in c language is in lower case.
C is the basis for C++.
The statements, commands used in C are also available in C++. Thus learning C is a first
step towards learning C++ which is quite similar to c with some additional features.
As you all know we always talk about ANSI C, ISO-C, C99,c88 ,etcbut we dont know the
actual differences between these all version of c language. So here i am going to explained all
versions of c language.
Brief History :
Root of c language is started in 1966 when Martin Richards has designed BCPL(Basic
Combined Programming Language), that was a procedural, imperative, and structured
computer programming language .
After that in 1669 Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie has designed B programming language
at Bell Labs
K&R C :
In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie published the first edition of The C Programming
Language. Which is known to C programmers as K&R. For most of the year this book was
taken as the informal standard of c programming language.

K&R introduced several language features:
standard I/O library
long int data type
unsigned int data type
compound assignment operators
Here function declarations did not include any information about function arguments. Here
function parameter type checks were also not performed.
After the publication of K&R C, some other vendors has added several unofficial features to the
language, like
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void functions (i.e. functions with no return value)
functions returning struct or union types (rather than pointers)
assignment for struct data types
enumerated types
So after this all, the large number of extensions and lack of agreement on a standard library,
together with the language has created so many issue. So now all need to standardize the
specification of c programming language.
ANSI C and ISO C (C89 and C90) (Standard c):
In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) formed a committee, X3J11, to
establish a standard specification of C. In 1989, the standard was ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989
Programming Language C. This version of the language is often referred to as ANSI C,
Standard C, or sometimes C89.
In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with formatting changes) was adopted by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, which is sometimes called C90.
Therefore, the terms C89 and C90 refer to the same programming language.
C89 is supported by current C compilers, and most C code being written today is based on it.
Any program written only in Standard C and without any hardware-dependent assumptions
will run correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation, within its resource
limits.
C99 :
After the ANSI/ISO standardization process, the C language specification remained relatively
static for some time. But The C standard was further revised in the late 1990s, leading to the
publication of ISO/IEC 9899:1999 in 1999, which is commonly referred to as C99.

C99 introduced several new features, including inline functions, several new data types
(including long long int and a complex type to represent complex numbers), variable-length
arrays, support for variadic macros (macros of variable arity) and support for one-line
comments beginning with //, as in BCPL or C++. Many of these had already been implemented
as extensions in several C compilers.
You can find the detail Specification of this version C99 ISO 9899:1999: available online
After this all in In 2007 another revised version of c programming language is come with
name C1X.
in 2008 one more standard for Embedded C comes.
note : GCC, Sun Studio such compiler support all version of the c programming language. By
default in gcc c89 is used you can also change the mode of gcc for different version.

Why use C?
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C has been used successfully for every type of programming problem imaginable from
operating systems to spreadsheets to expert systems - and efficient compilers are available
for machines ranging in power from theApple Macintosh to the Cray supercomputers. The
largest measure of C's success seems to be based on purely practical considerations:
1. the portability of the compiler;
2. the standard library concept;
3. a powerful and varied repertoire of operators;
4. an elegant syntax;
5. ready access to the hardware when needed;
6. and the ease with which applications can be optimised by hand-coding isolated
procedures
C is often called a "Middle Level" programming language. This is not a reflection on its lack of
programming power but more a reflection on its capability to access the system's low level
functions. Most high-level languages (e.g. Fortran) provides everything the programmer might
want to do already built into the language. A low level language (e.g. assembler) provides
nothing other than access to the machines basic instruction set. A middle level language, such
as C, probably doesn't supply all the constructs found in high-languages - but it provides you
with all the building blocks that you will need to produce the results you want!
Uses of C:
C was initially used for system development work, in particular the programs that make-up
the operating system. Why use C? Mainly because it produces code that runs nearly as fast as
code written in assembly language. Some examples of the use of C might be:
1. Operating Systems
2. Language Compilers
3. Assemblers
4. Text Editors
5. Print Spoolers
6. Network Drivers
7. Modern Programs
8. Data Bases
9. Language Interpreters
10. Utilities
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In recent years C has been used as a general-purpose language because of its popularity with
programmers. It is not the world's easiest language to learn and you will certainly benefit if
you are not learning C as your first programming language! C is trendy (I nearly said sexy) -
many well established programmers are switching to C for all sorts of reasons, but mainly
because of the portability that writing standard C programs can offer.

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The Edit-Compile-Link-Execute Process
Developing a program in a compiled language such as C requires at least four steps:
1. editing (or writing) the program
2. compiling it
3. linking it
4. executing it
We will now cover each step separately.
Editing
You write a computer program with words and symbols that are understandable to human
beings. This is the editing part of the development cycle. You type the program directly into a
window on the screen and save the resulting text as a separate file. This is often referred to as
the source file (you can read it with theTYPE command in DOS or the cat command in unix).
The custom is that the text of a C program is stored in a file with the extension .c for C
programming language
Compiling
You cannot directly execute the source file. To run on any computer system, the source file
must be translated into binary numbers understandable to the computer's Central Processing
Unit (for example, the 80*87 microprocessor). This process produces an intermediate object
file - with the extension .obj, the .obj stands for Object.
Linking
The first question that comes to most peoples minds is Why is linking necessary?The main
reason is that many compiled languages come with library routines which can be added to
your program. Theses routines are written by the manufacturer of the compiler to perform a
variety of tasks, from input/output to complicated mathematical functions. In the case of C the
standard input and output functions are contained in a library (stdio.h) so even the most basic
program will require a library function. After linking the file extension is .exe which are
executable files.

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Executable files
Thus the text editor produces .c source files, which go to the compiler, which produces .obj
object files, which go to the linker, which produces .exe executable file. You can then run .exe
files as you can other applications, simply by typing their names at the DOS prompt or run
using windows menu.
Add Comments to a Program
A comment is a note to yourself (or others) that you put into your source code. All comments
are ignored by the compiler. They exist solely for your benefit. Comments are used primarily
to document the meaning and purpose of your source code, so that you can remember later
how it functions and how to use it. You can also use a comment to temporarily remove a line of
code. Simply surround the line(s) with the comment symbols.
In C, the start of a comment is signalled by the /* character pair. A comment is ended by */.
For example, this is a syntactically correct C comment:
/* This is a comment. */
Comments can extend over several lines and can go anywhere except in the middle of any C
keyword, function name or variable name. In C you can't have one comment within another
comment. That is comments may not be nested. Lets now look at our first program one last
time but this time with comments:
main() /* main function heading */
{
printf("\n Hello, World! \n"); /* Display message on */
} /* the screen */
This program is not large enough to warrant comment statements but the principle is still the
same.


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Keywords And Identifiers
Character Set:
Character Set Are The Set Of Alphabets, Letters And Some Special Characters That Are Valid In
C Language.
Alphabets:
Uppercase: A B C .................................... X Y Z
Lowercase: A B C ...................................... X Y Z
Digits:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9

Functions:F1-F12
F1=Help
F2=Save
F3=Open Files
F10=File Menu
Spl Characters:
~=Tilde
`=Apostrophe
!=Factorial
@=At The Rate Off
#=Hash
$=Dollar
%=Remainder
^=Caret(Power) Ex:2^3=2*2*2=8
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&=Ampersand
*=Asterisk
( )=Paranthesis
{ }=Braces
[ ]=Curly Brackets
.=Dot/End Point
: =Colons
;=Semi Colons
=Double Quotations
=Single Quotations
/=By/Ablick/Back Slash
\ =Foreword Slash


Graphical Keys:
Esc :To Cancel The Applications
Tab :Goto Next Option
Caps Lock:On/Off Button Of The Upper Case Letters
Num Lock: On/Off Button Of The Numerical Keypad

( Back Space):To Delete The Left Side Characters
Del/Delete : To Delete The Right Side Characters
Home :The Cursor Goes To First Position Of The Line
End : The Cursor Goes To End Position Of The Line
= pipe
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Print Screen :To Print /Get The Screen As A Image(Photo)
Navigation Keys(Arrow Keys):

Moving The Cursor From One Place To Other Place
Alt+Shift+Ctrl=Supporting Keys

Ex:99/25=3,99%25=24 25)99(3(Quotient) (/)
75
24(Remainder)(%)
White Space Characters:
Blank Space, New Line, Horizontal Tab, Carriage Return And Form Feed

Constants
The term constant means that it does not change during the execution of program.In
the language C, constant and is the data with a constant value that does not change in the
program. For example, in the program "100" "3.14" "'A'" "" Hello "" and the like, if you write
data directly, and constant. Moreover, also called a literal constant. Constant expression is an
expression consisting only of constants. There are four basic types of constants in C. They are:
1.Integer constants
2.Floating-point constants
3.Character constants
4.String constants
Integer and floating-point constants represent numbers. They are often referred to as
numeric-type constants. The following rule applies to all numeric type constants:
Comma and blank spaces cannot be included within the constants.
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Constants can be preceded by a or + sign, if desired. If either sign does not precede the
constant it is assumed to be positive.
The value of a constant cannot exceed specified minimum and maximum bounds. For each
type of constant, these bound vary from one C compiler to another.



Variables
What is a Variable?

A variable is a "container" for information you want to store. A variable's value can change during
The Program Execution You can refer to a variable by name to see its value or to change its value.

Variables are means for location in memory used by a program to store data. The size
of that block depends upon the range over which the variable is allowed to vary.
For example, on personal computer the size of an integer variable is two bytes, and that of a
long integer is four bytes.
A variable region is temporarily remember a number or string value, such as covered by the
program. To identify the variables, you have a name unique to every single variable. This is
called a variable name. Before using a variable, use variables to what is called a variable
declaration that you have to reveal the names and data types that can be stored in the variable
variable.

The format for declaring a variable in C.
[Storage-class] type data variable name [= initial value];

Storage class and the initial value can be omitted.

The same data type and storage class variable can be declared, separated by commas.
[Storage-class] type data variable name [= initial value] variable [= initial value] variable [=
initial value];
In C the size of a variable type such as an integer need not be the same on all types of
machines. When we declare a variable we inform the compiler of two things, the name of the
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variable and the type of the variable. For example, we declare a variable of type character with
the name i by writing:
char i;
On seeing the "char" part of this statement the compiler sets aside one bytes of memory
to hold the value of the character. It also sets up a symbol table. In that table it adds the
symbol i and the relative address in memory where those one byte was set aside. Thus, later if
we write: i = 'x'; we expect that,at run time when this statement is executed, the value 'x' will
be placed in that memory location reserved for the storage of the value of i.
Following are the rules for naming the variables:
1. All variables must be declared before they can appear in executable statement.
2. A declaration consists of a data type followed by one or more variable names separated by
commas.
Example: int a,b,c;
3. Variables can be distributed among declarations in any fashion. The above declaration can
be written as
int a;
int b,c;
4. Integer type variables can be declared to be short integer for smaller integer quantities or
long integer for larger integer quantities.
Example:
short int a,b,c;
long int a,b,c;
5. An integer variable can also be declared to be un signed by writing unsigned int.
Example: unsigned int;

Keywords
Keywords Are The Reserved Words Used In Programming. Each Keywords Has Fixed Meaning
And That Cannot Be Changed By User. For Example:
Int Money;
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Here, Int Is A Keyword That Indicates, 'Money' Is Of Type Integer.
As, C Programming Is Case Sensitive, All Keywords Must Be Written In Lowercase. Here Is
The List Of All Keywordspredefined By Ascii C.




Keywords In C Language(32)
Auto Double Int Struct
Break Else Long Switch
Case Enum Register Typedef
Char Extern Return Union
Continue For Signed Void
Do If Static While
Default Goto Sizeof Volatile
Const Float Short Unsigned
Besides These Keywords, There Are Some Additional Keywords Supported By Turbo C.
Additional Keywords For Borland C
Asm Far Interrupt Pascal Near Huge Cdecl
All These Keywords, Their Syntax And Application Will Be Discussed In Their Respective
Topics. However, If You Want Brief Information About These Keywords Without Going
Further Visit Page: List Of All C Keywords.
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Identifiers
In C Programming, Identifiers Are Names Given To C Entities, Such As Variables, Functions,
Structures Etc. Identifier Are Created To Give Unique Name To C Entities To Identify It During
The Execution Of Program. For Example:
Int Money;
Int Mango_Tree;
Here, Money Is A Identifier Which Denotes A Variable Of Type Integer.
Similarly, Mango_Tree Is Another Identifier, Which Denotes Another Variable Of Type Integer.

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Rules For Writing Identifier:
1. An Identifier Can Be Composed Of Letters (Both Uppercase And Lowercase Letters),
Digits And Underscore '_' Only.
2. The First Letter Of Identifier Should Be Either A Letter Or An Underscore. But, It Is
Discouraged To Start An Identifier Name With An Underscore Though It Is Legal. It Is
Because, Identifier That Starts With Underscore Can Conflict With System Names.
In Such Cases, Compiler Will Complain About It. Some System Names That Start With
Underscore Are _Fileno, _Iob, _Wfopen Etc.
3. There Is No Rule For The Length Of An Identifier. However, The First 31 Characters Of
An Identifier Are Discriminated By The Compiler. So, The First 31 Letters Of Two
Identifiers In A Program Should Be Different.

Rules for writing c programming:
All keyboard words must be lower case
C is a case sensitive :ex num is different from NUM means both are different
Keywords cant be used for any other purpose that is they cant be used as a variables o f
functions
Main () function is always the first function called when programme execution begins.
Every line end with semi colon(termination operator)
Close the brackets correctly

Tips For Good Programming Practice:
Programmer Can Choose The Name Of Identifier Whatever They Want. However, If The
Programmer Choose Meaningful Name For An Identifier, It Will Be Easy To Understand And
Work On, Particularly In Case Of Large Program.
C Programming Variables And Constants
Variables
Variables Are Memory Location In Computer's Memory To Store Data. To Indicate The
Memory Location, Each Variable Should Be Given A Unique Name Called Identifier. Variable
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Names Are Just The Symbolic Representation Of A Memory Location. Examples Of Variable
Name: Sum, Car_No, Count Etc.

Int Num;
Here, Num Is A Variable Of Integer Type.
Rules For Writing Variable Name In C
1. Variable Name Can Be Composed Of Letters (Both Uppercase And Lowercase Letters),
Digits And Underscore '_' Only.
2. The First Letter Of A Variable Should Be Either A Letter Or An Underscore. But, It Is
Discouraged To Start Variable Name With An Underscore Though It Is Legal. It Is
Because, Variable Name That Starts With Underscore Can Conflict With System Names
And Compiler May Complain.
3. There Is No Rule For The Length Of Length Of A Variable. However, The First 31
Characters Of A Variable Are Discriminated By The Compiler. So, The First 31 Letters
Of Two Variables In A Program Should Be Different.
In C Programming, You Have To Declare Variable Before Using It In The Program.
Constants
Constants Are The Terms That Can't Be Changed During The Execution Of A Program. For
Example: 1, 2.5, "Programming Is Easy." Etc. In C, Constants Can Be Classified As:
Integer Constants
Integer Constants Are The Numeric Constants(Constant Associated With Number) Without
Any Fractional Part Or Exponential Part. There Are Three Types Of Integer Constants In C
Language: Decimal Constant(Base 10), Octal Constant(Base 8) And Hexadecimal
Constant(Base 16) .
Decimal Digits: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Octal Digits: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Hexadecimal Digits: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F.
For Example:
Decimal Constants: 0, -9, 22 Etc
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Octal Constants: 021, 077, 033 Etc
Hexadecimal Constants: 0x7f, 0x2a, 0x521 Etc
Notes:
1. You Can Use Small Caps A, B, C, D, E, F Instead Of Uppercase Letters While Writing A
Hexadecimal Constant.
2. Every Octal Constant Starts With 0 And Hexadecimal Constant Starts With 0x In C
Programming.
Floating-Point Constants
Floating Point Constants Are The Numeric Constants That Has Either Fractional Form Or
Exponent Form. For Example:
-2.0
0.0000234
-0.22e-5
Note:Here, E-5 Represents 10
-5
. Thus, -0.22e-5 = -0.0000022.
Character Constants
Character Constants Are The Constant Which Use Single Quotation Around Characters. For
Example: 'A', 'L', 'M', 'F' Etc.
Escape Sequences:
Sometimes, It Is Necessary To Use Newline(Enter), Tab, Quotation Mark Etc. In The Program
Which Either Cannot Be Typed Or Has Special Meaning In C Programming. In Such Cases,
Escape Sequence Are Used. For Example: \N Is Used For Newline. The Backslash( \ ) Causes
"Escape" From The Normal Way The Characters Are Interpreted By The Compiler.
Escape Sequences
Escape Sequences Character meaning
\b Backspace
\f Form Feed
\n Newline
\r Return
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\t Horizontal Tab
\v Vertical Tab
\\ Backslash
\' Single Quotation Mark
\" Double Quotation Mark
\? Question Mark
\0 Null Character
String Constants
String Constants Are The Constants Which Are Enclosed In A Pair Of Double-Quote Marks. For
Example:
"Good" //String Constant
"" //Null String Constant
" " //String Constant Of Six White Space
"X" //String Constant Having Single Character.
"Earth Is Round\N" //Prints String With Newline
Enumeration Constants
Keyword Enum Is Used To Declare Enumeration Types. For Example:
Enum Color {Yellow, Green, Black, White};
Here, The Variable Name Is Color And Yellow, Green, Black And White Are The Enumeration
Constants Having Value 0, 1, 2 And 3 Respectively By Default. For More Information About
Enumeration, Visit Page: Enumeration Types.
C Programming Data Types
In C, Variable(Data) Should Be Declared Before It Can Be Used In Program. Data Types Are The
Keywords, Which Are Used For Assigning A Type To A Variable.
Data Types in C
1. Fundamental Data Types(Basic Or Primary)
Integer Types
Floating Type
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Character Types
Important notice: in c there is no direct string data type, declare the string by using char,
(display) that sting by using format code is %s.
2. Derived Data Types
Arrays
Pointers
Structures
Enumeration
3. Empty Data Types:
Void
4. User Defined Date Types;
Typedef
Enum


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Followings are the most commonly used data types in C.

Keyword Format Specifier Size Data Range
char %c 1 Byte -128 to +127
unsigned char <-- -- > 8 Bytes 0 to 255
int %d 2 Bytes -32768 to +32767
long int %ld 4 Bytes -231 to +231
unsigned int %u 2 Bytes 0 to 65535
float %f 4 Bytes -3.4e38 to +3.4e38
double %lf 8 Bytes -1.7e38 to +1.7e38
long double %Lf 12-16 Bytes -3.4e38 to +3.4e38



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Syntax For Declaration Of A Variable
Data Type Variable Name; ex : int a;

Integer Data Types
Keyword Int Is Used For Declaring The Variable With Integer Type. For Example:
Int Var1;

Here, Var1 Is A Variable Of Type Integer.
The Size Of Int Is Either 2 Bytes(In Older Pc's) Or 4 Bytes. If You Consider An Integer Having
Size Of 4 Byte( Equal To 32 Bits), It Can Take 2
32
Distinct States As: -2
31
,-2
31
+1, ...,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2,
..., 2
31
-2, 2
31
-1
Similarly, Int Of 2 Bytes, It Can Take 2
16
Distinct States From -2
15
To 2
15
-1. If You Try To Store
Larger Number Than 2
31
-1, I.E,+2147483647 And Smaller Number Than -2
31
, I.E, -
2147483648, Program Will Not Run Correctly.
Floating Types
Variables Of Floating Types Can Hold Real Values(Numbers) Such As: 2.34, -9.382 Etc.
Keywords Either Float Or Double Is Used For Declaring Floating Type Variable. For Example:
Float Var2;
Double Var3;
Here, Both Var2 And Var3 Are Floating Type Variables.
In C, Floating Values Can Be Represented In Exponential Form As Well. For Example:
Float Var3=22.442e2

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Difference Between Float And Double
Generally The Size Of Float(Single Precision Float Data Type) Is 4 Bytes And That Of
Double(Double Precision Float Data Type) Is 8 Bytes. Floating Point Variables Has A Precision
Of 6 Digits Whereas The The Precision Of Double Is 14 Digits.Note: Precision Describes The
Number Of Significant Decimal Places That A Floating Values Carries.

A scope in any programming is a region of the program where a defined variable can have its
existence and beyond that variable can not be accessed. There are three places where variables
can be declared in C programming language:
1. Inside a function or a block which is called local variables,
2. Outside of all functions which is called global variables.
3. In the definition of function parameters which is called formal parameters.
Let us explain what are local and global variables and formal parameters.
Local Variables
Variables that are declared inside a function or block are called local variables. They can be used only by statements that are inside that
function or block of code. Local variables are not known to functions outside their own. Following is the example using local variables.
Here all the variables a, b and c are local to main() function.
#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
/* local variable declaration */
int a, b;
int c;

/* actual initialization */
a = 10;
b = 20;
c = a + b;

printf ("value of a = %d, b = %d and c = %d\n", a, b, c);

return 0;
}
Global Variables
Global variables are defined outside of a function, usually on top of the program. The global variables will hold their value throughout the
lifetime of your program and they can be accessed inside any of the functions defined for the program.
A global variable can be accessed by any function. That is, a global variable is available for use throughout your entire program after its
declaration. Following is the example using global and local variables:
#include <stdio.h>

/* global variable declaration */
int g;

int main ()
{
/* local variable declaration */
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int a, b;

/* actual initialization */
a = 10;
b = 20;
g = a + b;

printf ("value of a = %d, b = %d and g = %d\n", a, b, g);

return 0;
}
A program can have same name for local and global variables but value of local variable inside a function will take preference. Following
is an example:
#include <stdio.h>

/* global variable declaration */
int g = 20;

int main ()
{
/* local variable declaration */
int g = 10;

printf ("value of g = %d\n", g);

return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:
value of g = 10
Formal Parameters(arguments)
A function parameters, formal parameters, are treated as local variables with-in that function and they will take preference over the
global variables. Following is an example:
#include <stdio.h>

/* global variable declaration */
int a = 20;

int main ()
{
/* local variable declaration in main function */
int a = 10;
int b = 20;
int c = 0;

printf ("value of a in main() = %d\n", a);
c = sum( a, b);
printf ("value of c in main() = %d\n", c);

return 0;
}

/* function to add two integers */
int sum(int a, int b)
{
printf ("value of a in sum() = %d\n", a);
printf ("value of b in sum() = %d\n", b);
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return a + b;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:
value of a in main() = 10
value of a in sum() = 10
value of b in sum() = 20
value of c in main() = 30

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Character Types
Keyword Char Is Used For Declaring The Variable Of Character Type. For Example:
Char Var4='H';

Here, Var4 Is A Variable Of Type Character Which Is Storing A Character 'H'.
The Size Of Char Is 1 Byte. The Character Data Type Consists Of Ascii Characters. Each
Character Is Given A Specific Value. For Example:
For, 'A', Value =97
For, 'B', Value=98
For, 'A', Value=65
For, '&', Value=33
For, '2', Value=49
Here Is The List Of All Ascii Characters In C Language.
Qualifiers
Qualifiers Alters The Meaning Of Base Data Types To Yield A New Data Type.
Size Qualifiers:
Size Qualifiers Alters The Size Of Basic Data Type. The Keywords Long And Short Are Two Size
Qualifiers. For Example:
Long Int I;

The Size Of Int Is Either 2 Bytes Or 4 Bytes But, When Long Keyword Is Used, That Variable
Will Be Either 4 Bytes Of 8 Bytes. Learn More About Long Keyword In C Programming. If The
Larger Size Of Variable Is Not Needed Then, Short Keyword Can Be Used In Similar Manner As
Long Keyword.
Sign Qualifiers:
Whether A Variable Can Hold Only Positive Value Or Both Values Is Specified By Sign
Qualifiers. Keywords Signed And Unsigned Are Used For Sign Qualifiers.
Unsigned Int A;
// Unsigned Variable Can Hold Zero And Positive Values Only
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It Is Not Necessary To Define Variable Using Keyword Signed Because, A Variable Is Signed By
Default. Sign Qualifiers Can Be Applied To Only Int And Char Data Types. For A Int Variable Of
Size 4 Bytes It Can Hold Data From -2
31
To 2
31
-1 But, If That Variable Is Defined Unsigned, It
Can Hold Data From 0 To 2
32
-1.
Constant Qualifiers
Constant Qualifiers Can Be Declared With Keyword Const. An Object Declared By Const Cannot
Be Modified.
Const Int P=20;
The Value Of P Cannot Be Changed In The Program.
Volatile Qualifiers:
A Variable Should Be Declared Volatile Whenever Its Value Can Be Changed By Some External
Sources Outside Program. Keyword Volatile Is Used To Indicate Volatile Variable.

C Programming Input Output (I/O)
Ansi Standard Has Defined Many Library Functions For Input And Output In C Language.
Functions Printf() And Scanf() Are The Most Commonly Used To Display Out And Take Input
Respectively. Let Us Consider An Example:

#Include <Stdio.H> //This Is Needed To Run Printf() Function.
Int Main()
{
Printf("C Programming"); //Displays The Content Inside Quotation
Return 0;
}
Output
C Programming
Explanation Of How This Program Works
1. Every Program Starts From Main() Function.
2. Printf() Is A Library Function To Display Output Which Only Works
If #Include<Stdio.H>Is Included At The Beginning.
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3. Here, Stdio.H Is A Header File (Standard Input Output Header File) And #Include Is
Command To Paste The Code From The Header File When Necessary. When Compiler
Encounters Printf() Function And Doesn't Find Stdio.H Header File, Compiler Shows
Error.
4. Code Return 0; Indicates The End Of Program. You Can Ignore This Statement But, It Is
Good Programming Practice To Use Return 0;.
I/O Of Integers In C

#Include<stdio.h>
Int main()
{
int c=5;
printf()("number=%d",c);
return 0;
}
Output
Number=5
Inside Quotation Of Printf() There, Is A Conversion Format String "%D" (For Integer). If This
Conversion Format String Matches With Remaining Argument,I.E, C In This Case, Value Of C Is
Displayed.

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int c;
printf()("enter a number\n");
scanf()("%d",&c);
printf()("number=%d",c);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter A Number
4
Number=4
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The Scanf() Function Is Used To Take Input From User. In This Program, The User Is Asked A
Input And Value Is Stored In Variable C. Note The '&' Sign Before C. &C Denotes The Address
Of C And Value Is Stored In That Address.
I/O Of Floats In C

#Include <Stdio.H>
int main(){
float a;
printf("enter value: ");
scanf("%f",&a);
printf("value=%f",a); //%f is used for floats instead of %d
return 0;
}

Output
Enter Value: 23.45
Value=23.450000
Conversion Format String "%F" Is Used For Floats To Take Input And To Display Floating
Value Of A Variable.
I/O Of Characters And Ascii Code
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char var1;
printf("enter character: ");
scanf("%c",&var1);
printf("you entered %c.",var1);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter Character: G
You Entered G.
Conversion Format String "%C" Is Used In Case Of Characters.
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Ascii Code
When Character Is Typed In The Above Program, The Character Itself Is Not Recorded A
Numeric Value(Ascii Value) Is Stored. And When We Displayed That Value By Using "%C",
That Character Is Displayed.

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char var1;
printf("enter character: ");
scanf("%c",&var1);
printf("you entered %c.\n",var1);
/* \n prints the next line(performs work of enter). */
printf("ascii value of %d",var1);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter Character:
G
103
When, 'G' Is Entered, Ascii Value 103 Is Stored Instead Of G.
You Can Display Character If You Know Ascii Code Only. This Is Shown By Following Example.

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int var1=69;
printf("character of ascii value 69: %c",var1);
return 0;
}
Output
Character Of Ascii Value 69: E
The Ascii Value Of 'A' Is 65, 'B' Is 66 And So On To 'Z' Is 90. Similarly Ascii Value Of 'A' Is 97, 'B'
Is 98 And So On To 'Z' Is 122.
Click Here To Learn About Complete Reference Of Ascii Code.
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More About Input/Output Of Floats And Integer
Variations In Output For Integer An Floats
Integer And Floating-Points Can Be Displayed In Different Formats In C Programming As:
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
printf("case 1:%6d\n",9876);
/* prints the number right justified within 6 columns */
printf("case 2:%3d\n",9876);
/* prints the number to be right justified to 3 columns but, there are 4 digits so number is not
right justified */
printf("case 3:%.2f\n",987.6543);
/* prints the number rounded to two decimal places */
printf("case 4:%.f\n",987.6543);
/* prints the number rounded to 0 decimal place, i.e, rounded to integer */
printf("case 5:%e\n",987.6543);
/* prints the number in exponential notation(scientific notation) */
return 0;
}
Output
Case 1: 9876
Case 2:9876
Case 3:987.65
Case 4:988
Case 5:9.876543e+002
Variations In Input For Integer And Floats
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int a,b;
float c,d;
printf("enter two intgers: ");
/*two integers can be taken from user at once as below*/
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf("enter intger and floating point numbers: ");
/*integer and floating point number can be taken at once from user as below*/
scanf("%d%f",&a,&c);
return 0;
}
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Similarly, Any Number Of Input Can Be Taken At Once From User.

Expressions
An expression is a sequence of operators and operands that specifies computation of a
value. An expression may consist of single entity or some combination of such entities
interconnected by one or more operators. All expression represents a logical connection that's
either true or false. Thus logical type expression actually represents numerical quantities.
In C every expression evaluates to a value i.e., every expression results in some value of
a certain type that can be assigned to a variable. Some examples of expressions are shown in
the table given below.
A+b
3.14*r*r
a*a+2*a*b+b*b
Example:


C Programming Operators:

Operators Are The Symbol Which Operates On Value Or A Variable. For Example: + Is A
Operator To Perform Addition.
C Programming Language Has Wide Range Of Operators To Perform Various Operations. For
Better Understanding Of Operators, These Operators Can Be Classified As:
Operators In C Programming
1st. Arithmetic Operators
2nd. Increment And Decrement Operators
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3rd. Assignment Operators
4th. Relational Operators (comparison)
5th. Logical Operators
6th. Conditional Operators(Ternary)
7th. Bitwise Operators
8th. Special Operators
Arithmetic Operators
Operator Meaning Of Operator
+ Addition Or Unary Plus
- Subtraction Or Unary Minus
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Remainder After Division( Modulo Division)
Example Of Working Of Arithmetic Operators

/* program to demonstrate the working of arithmetic operators in c. */
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int a=9,b=4,c;
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c=a+b;
printf("a+b=%d\n",c);
c=a-b;
printf("a-b=%d\n",c);
c=a*b;
printf("a*b=%d\n",c);
c=a/b;
printf("a/b=%d\n",c);
c=a%b;
printf("remainder when a divided by b=%d\n",c);
return 0;
}
}
A+B=13
A-B=5
A*B=36
A/B=2
Remainder When A Divided By B=1
Explanation
Here, The Operators +, - And * Performed Normally As You Expected. In Normal
Calculation, 9/4 Equals To 2.25. But, The Output Is 2 In This Program. It Is Because, A And B
Are Both Integers. So, The Output Is Also Integer And The Compiler Neglects The Term After
Decimal Point And Shows Answer 2 Instead Of 2.25. And, Finally A%B Is 1,I.E. ,Whena=9 Is
Divided By B=4, Remainder Is 1.
Suppose A=5.0, B=2.0, C=5 And D=2
In C Programming,
A/B=2.5
A/D=2.5
C/B=2.5
C/D=2
Note: % Operator Can Only Be Used With Integers.
Increment And Decrement Operators
In C, ++ And -- Are Called Increment And Decrement Operators Respectively. Both Of These
Operators Are Unary Operators, I.E, Used On Single Operand. ++ Adds 1 To Operand And --
Subtracts 1 To Operand Respectively. For Example:
Let A=5 And B=10
A++; //A Becomes 6
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A--; //A Becomes 5
++A; //A Becomes 6
--A; //A Becomes 5
Difference Between ++ And -- Operator As Postfix And Prefix
When I++ Is Used As Prefix(Like: ++Var), ++Var Will Increment The Value Of Var And Then
Return It But, If ++ Is Used As Postfix(Like: Var++), Operator Will Return The Value Of
Operand First And Then Only Increment It. This Can Be Demonstrated By An Example:

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int c=2,d=2;
printf("%d\n",c++); //this statement displays 2 then, only c incremented by 1 to 3.
printf("%d",++c); //this statement increments 1 to c then, only c is displayed.
return 0;
}

Output
2
4
Assignment Operators
The Most Common Assignment Operator Is =. This Operator Assigns The Value In Right Side
To The Left Side. For Example:
Var=5 //5 Is Assigned To Var
A=C; //Value Of C Is Assigned To A
5=C; // Error! 5 Is A Constant.
Operator Example Same As
= A=B A=B
+= A+=B A=A+B
-= A-=B A=A-B
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Operator Example Same As
*= A*=B A=A*B
/= A/=B A=A/B
%= A%=B A=A%B
Relational Operator:Relational Operators Checks Relationship Between Two Operands. If The
Relation Is True, It Returns Value 1 And If The Relation Is False, It Returns Value 0. For
Example:
A>B
Here, > Is A Relational Operator. If A Is Greater Than B, A>B Returns 1 If Not Then, It Returns
0.
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Relational Operators Are Used In Decision Making And Loops In C Programming.
Operator Meaning Of Operator Example
== Equal To 5==3 Returns False (0)
> Greater Than 5>3 Returns True (1)
< Less Than 5<3 Returns False (0)
!= Not Equal To 5!=3 Returns True(1)
>= Greater Than Or Equal To 5>=3 Returns True (1)
<= Less Than Or Equal To 5<=3 Return False (0)
Logical Operators
Logical Operators Are Used To Combine Expressions Containing Relation Operators. In C,
There Are 3 Logical Operators:
Operator
Meaning Of
Operator
Example
&& Logial And
If C=5 And D=2 Then,((C==5) && (D>5))
Returns False.
|| Logical Or
If C=5 And D=2 Then, ((C==5) || (D>5))
Returns True.
! Logical Not If C=5 Then, !(C==5) Returns False.
Explanation
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For Expression, ((C==5) && (D>5)) To Be True, Both C==5 And D>5 Should Be True But, (D>5)
Is False In The Given Example. So, The Expression Is False. For
Expression ((C==5) || (D>5)) To Be True, Either The Expression Should Be True.
Since, (C==5) Is True. So, The Expression Is True. Since, Expression (C==5) Is True, !(C==5) Is
False.
Conditional Operator
Conditional Operator Takes Three Operands And Consists Of Two Symbols ? And : .
Conditional Operators Are Used For Decision Making In C. For Example:
C=(C>0)?10:-10;
If C Is Greater Than 0, Value Of C Will Be 10 But, If C Is Less Than 0, Value Of C Will Be -10.
Bitwise Operators
A Bitwise Operator Works On Each Bit Of Data. Bitwise Operators Are Used In Bit Level
Programming.
Operators Meaning Of Operators
& Bitwise And
| Bitwise Or
^ Bitwise Exclusive Or
~ Bitwise Complement
<< Shift Left
>> Shift Right
Bitwise Operator Is Advance Topic In Programming . Learn More About Bitwise Operator In C
Programming.
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Other Operators
Comma Operator
Comma Operators Are Used To Link Related Expressions Together. For Example:
Int A,C=5,D;
The Sizeof Operator
It Is A Unary Operator Which Is Used In Finding The Size Of Data Type, Constant, Arrays,
Structure Etc. For Example:

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int a;
float b;
double c;
char d;
printf("size of int=%d bytes\n",sizeof(a));
printf("size of float=%d bytes\n",sizeof(b));
printf("size of double=%d bytes\n",sizeof(c));
printf("size of char=%d byte\n",sizeof(d));
return 0;
}
output
Size Of Int=4 Bytes
Size Of Float=4 Bytes
Size Of Double=8 Bytes
Size Of Char=1 Byte
Conditional Operators (?:)
Conditional Operators Are Used In Decision Making In C Programming, I.E, Executes Different
Statements According To Test Condition Whether It Is Either True Or False.
Syntax Of Conditional Operators
Conditional_Expression?Expression1:Expression2
If The Test Condition Is True, Expression1 Is Returned And If False Expression2 Is Returned.
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Example Of Conditional Operator
#Include <Stdio.H>
Int Main(){
char feb;
int days;
printf("enter l if the year is leap year otherwise enter 0: ");
scanf("%c",&feb);
days=(feb=='l')?29:28;
/*if test condition (feb=='l') is true, days will be equal to 29. */
/*if test condition (feb=='l') is false, days will be equal to 28. */
printf("number of days in february = %d",days);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter L If The Year Is Leap Year Otherwise Enter N: L
Number Of Days In February = 29
Other Operators Such As &(Reference Operator), *(Dereference Operator) And ->(Member
Selection) Operator Will Be
Precedence And Associativity Of Operators
Precedence Of Operators
If More Than One Operators Are Involved In An Expression Then, C Language Has Predefined
Rule Of Priority Of Operators. This Rule Of Priority Of Operators Is Called Operator
Precedence.
In C, Precedence Of Arithmetic Operators(*,%,/,+,-) Is Higher Than Relational
Operators(==,!=,>,<,>=,<=) And Precedence Of Relational Operator Is Higher Than Logical
Operators(&&, || And !). Suppose An Expression:
(A>B+C&&D)
This Expression Is Equivalent To:
((A>(B+C))&&D)
I.E, (B+C) Executes First
Then, (A>(B+C)) Executes
Then, (A>(B+C))&&D) Executes
Associativity Of Operators
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Associativity Indicates In Which Order Two Operators Of Same Precedence(Priority) Executes.
Let Us Suppose An Expression:
A==B!=C
Here, Operators == And != Have Same Precedence. The Associativity Of Both == And != Is Left
To Right, I.E, The Expression In Left Is Executed First And Execution Take Pale Towards Right.
Thus, A==B!=C Equivalent To :
(A==B)!=C
The Table Below Shows All The Operators In C With Precedence And Associatively.
Note: Precedence Of Operators Decreases From Top To Bottom In The Given Table.
Summary Of C Operators With Precedence And Associativity
Operator Meaning Of Operator Associativity
()
[]
->
.
Functional Call
Array Element Reference
Indirect Member Selection
Direct Member Selection
Left To Right
!
~
+
-
++
--
&
*
Sizeof
(Type)
Logical Negation
Bitwise(1 'S) Complement
Unary Plus
Unary Minus
Increment
Decrement
Dereference Operator(Address)
Pointer Reference
Returns The Size Of An Object
Type Cast(Conversion)
Right To Left
*
/
%
Multiply
Divide
Remainder
Left To Right
+
-
Binary Plus(Addition)
Binary Minus(Subtraction)
Left To Right
<<
>>
Left Shift
Right Shift
Left To Right
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Summary Of C Operators With Precedence And Associativity
Operator Meaning Of Operator Associativity
<
<=
>
>=
Less Than
Less Than Or Equal
Greater Than
Greater Than Or Equal
Left To Right
==
!=
Equal To
Not Equal To
Left To Right
& Bitwise And Left To Right
^ Bitwise Exclusive Or Left To Right
| Bitwise Or Left To Right
&& Logical And Left To Right
|| Logical Or Left To Right
?: Conditional Operator Left To Right
=
*=
/=
%=
-=
&=
^=
|=
<<=
>>=
Simple Assignment
Assign Product
Assign Quotient
Assign Remainder
Assign Sum
Assign Difference
Assign Bitwise And
Assign Bitwise Xor
Assign Bitwise Or
Assign Left Shift
Assign Right Shift
Right To Left
, Separator Of Expressions Left To Right


C Program To Print A Sentence
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Source Code

/* c program to print a sentence. */
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("c programming"); /* printf() prints the content inside quotation */
return 0;
}
Output

C Programming

Explanation
Every C Program Starts Executing Code From Main( ) Function. Inside Main( ), There Is
A Printf( ) Function Which Prints The Content Inside The Quotation Mark Which Is "C
Programming" In This Case. Learn More About Output In C Programming Language.


C Program To Display Its Own Source Code

/* the file name of this c program should be sourcecode.c */

#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
file *fp;
char c;
fp = fopen("sourcecode.c","r");
do{
c= getc(fp);
putchar(c);
}
while(c!=eof);
fclose(fp);
return 0;
}
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Source Code To Display Its Own Source Code Using Macro
A Predefined Macro __File__ Contains The Location Of A C Programming File It Is Working On.
For Example:
#Include <Stdio.H>
Int Main(){
Printf("%S",__File__);
}
The Output Of This Program Is The Location Of This C Programming File.
C Program To Display Its Own Source Code Using __File__
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
file *fp;
char c;
fp = fopen(__file__,"r");
do{
c= getc(fp);
putchar(c);
}
while(c!=eof);
fclose(fp);
return 0;
}
This Program Displays The Content Of This Particular C Programming File(Source Code)
Because __File__ Contains The Location Of This C Programming File In A String.

C Programming If, If..Else And Nested If...Else Statement
Decision Making Are Needed When, The Program Encounters The Situation To Choose A
Particular Statement Among Many Statements. In C, Decision Making Can Be Performed With
Following Two Statements.
1. If...Else Statement
2. Switch Statement
If Statement Syntax
If (Test Expression){
Statement/S To Be Executed If Test Expression Is True;
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}
If The Test Expression Is True Then, Statements For The Body If, I.E, Statements Inside
Parenthesis Are Executed. But, If The Test Expression Is False, The Execution Of The
Statements For The Body Of If Statements Are Skipped.
Flowchart Of If Statement


Example Of If Statement
Write A C Program To Print The Number Entered By User Only If The Number Entered
Is Negative.

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int num;
printf("enter a number to check.\n");
scanf("%d",&num);
if(num<0) /* checking whether number is less than 0 or not. */
printf("number=%d\n",num);
/*if test condition is true, statement above will be executed, otherwise it will not be executed
*/
printf("the if statement in c programming is easy.");
return 0;
}
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Output 1
Enter A Number To Check.
-2
Number=-2
The If Statement In C Programming Is Easy.
When User Enters -2 Then, The Test Expression (Num<0) Becomes True. Hence, Number=-2 Is
Displayed In The Screen.
Output 2
Enter A Number To Check.
5
The If Statement In C Programming Is Easy.
When The User Enters 5 Then, The Test Expression (Num<0) Becomes False. So, The
Statement For Body Of If Is Skipped And Only The Statement Below It Is Executed.
If...Else Statement
The If...Else Statement Is Used, If The Programmer Wants To Execute Some Code, If The Test
Expression Is True And Execute Some Other Code If The Test Expression Is False.
Syntax Of If...Else
If (Test Expression)
Statements To Be Executed If Test Expression Is True;
Else
Statements To Be Executed If Test Expression Is False;
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Flowchart Of If...Else Statement

Example Of If...Else Statement
Write A C Program To Check Whether A Number Entered By User Is Even Or Odd
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int num;
printf("enter a number you want to check.\n");
scanf("%d",&num);
if((num%2)==0) //checking whether remainder is 0 or not.
printf("%d is even.",num);
else
printf("%d is odd.",num);
return 0;
}
Output 1
Enter A Number You Want To Check.
25
25 Is Odd.
Output 2
Enter A Number You Want To Check.
2
2 Is Even.
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Nested If...Else Statement (If...Elseif....Else Statement)
The If...Else Statement Can Be Used In Nested Form When A Serious Decision Are Involved.
Syntax Of Nested If...Else Statement.
If (Test Expression)
Statements To Be Executed If Test Expression Is True;
Else
If(Test Expression 1)
Statements To Be Executed If Test Expressions 1 Is True;
Else
If (Test Expression 2)
.
.
.
Else
Statements To Be Executed If All Test Expressions Are False;
How Nested If...Else Works?
If The Test Expression Is True, It Will Execute The Code Before Else Part But, If It Is False, The
Control Of The Program Jumps To The Else Part And Check Test Expression 1 And The Process
Continues. If All The Test Expression Are False Then, The Last Statement Is Executed.
The Ansi Standard Specifies That 15 Levels Of Nesting May Be Continued.
Example Of Nested If Else Statement
Write A C Program To Relate Two Integers Entered By User Using = Or > Or < Sign.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int numb1, numb2;
printf("enter two integers to check".\n);
scanf("%d %d",&numb1,&numb2);
if(numb1==numb2) //checking whether two integers are equal.
printf("result: %d=%d",numb1,numb2);
else
if(numb1>numb2) //checking whether numb1 is greater than numb2.
printf("result: %d>%d",numb1,numb2);
else
printf("result: %d>%d",numb2,numb1);
return 0;
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}
Output 1
Enter Two Integers To Check.
5
3
Result: 5>3
Output 2
Enter Two Integers To Check.
-4
-4
Result: -4=-4
More Examples On If...Else Statement
- Check Whether An Alphabet Is Vowel Or Consonant
- Program To Find Largest Number Among Three Numbers
- Program To Compute Roots Of Quadratic Equation
- Program To Check Leap Year
C Programming Loops
Loops Causes Program To Execute The Certain Block Of Code Repeatedly Until Some
Conditions Are Satisfied, I.E.,Loops Are Used In Performing Repetitive Work In Programming.
Suppose You Want To Execute Some Code/S 100 Times. You Can Perform It By Writing That
Code/S Only One Time And Repeat The Execution 100 Times Using Loop.
There Are 3 Types Of Loops In C Programming:
1. For Loop
2. While Loop
3. Do...While Loop
For Loop Syntax
For(Initial Expression; Test Expression; Update Expression)
{
Code/S To Be Executed;
}
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How For Loop Works In C Programming?
The Initial Expression Is Initialized Only Once At The Beginning Of The For Loop. Then, The
Test Expression Is Checked By The Program. If The Test Expression Is False, For Loop Is
Terminated. But, If Test Expression Is True Then, The Codes Are Executed And Update
Expression Is Updated. Again, The Test Expression Is Checked. If It Is False, Loop Is
Terminated And If It Is True, The Same Process Repeats Until Test Expression Is False.
This Flowchart Describes The Working Of For Loop In C Programming.

For Loop Example
Write A Program To Find The Sum Of First N Natural Numbers Where N Is Entered By
User. Note: 1,2,3... Are Called Natural Numbers.

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
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int n, count, sum=0;
printf("enter the value of n.\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(count=1;count<=n;++count) //for loop terminates if count>n
{
sum+=count; /* this statement is equivalent to sum=sum+count */
}
printf("sum=%d",sum);
return 0;
}

Output
Enter The Value Of N.
19
Sum=190
In This Program, The User Is Asked To Enter The Value Of N. Suppose You Entered 19 Then,
Count Is Inatialized To 1 At First. Then, The Test Expression In The For Loop,I.E., (Count<=
N) Becomes True. So, The Code In The Body Of For Loop Is Executed Which Makes Sum To 1.
Then, The Expression ++Count Is Executed And Again The Test Expression Is Checked, Which
Becomes True. Again, The Body Of For Loop Is Executed Which Makes Sum To 3 And This
Process Continues. When Count Is 20, The Test Condition Becomes False And The For Loop Is
Terminated.
C For Loop Examples
- Program To Generate Multiplication Table
- Program To Display All Factors Of A Number
- Program To Find G.C.D Or H.C.F Of Two Numbers
- Program To Calculate Factorial Of A Number
C Programming Loops
Loops Causes Program To Execute The Certain Block Of Code Repeatedly Until Some
Conditions Are Satisfied, I.E., Loops Are Used In Performing Repetitive Work In Programming.
Suppose You Want To Execute Some Code/S 10 Times. You Can Perform It By Writing That
Code/S Only One Time And Repeat The Execution 10 Times Using Loop.
There Are 3 Types Of Loops In C Programming:
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1. For Loop
2. While Loop
3. Do...While Loop
Syntax Of While Loop
While (Test Expression)
{
Statements To Be Executed.
}
In The Beginning Of While Loop, Test Expression Is Checked. If It Is True, Codes Inside The
Body Of While Loop,I.E, Code/S Inside Parentheses Are Executed And Again The Test
Expression Is Checked And Process Continues Until The Test Expression Becomes False.

Example Of While Loop
Write A C Program To Find The Factorial Of A Number, Where The Number Is Entered
By User. (Hints: Factorial Of N = 1*2*3*...*N

/*c program to demonstrate the working of while loop*/
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int number,factorial;
printf("enter a number.\n");
scanf("%d",&number);
factorial=1;
while (number>0){ /* while loop continues util test condition number>0 is true */
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factorial=factorial*number;
--number;
}
printf("factorial=%d",factorial);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter A Number.
5
Factorial=120
Do...While Loop
In C, Do...While Loop Is Very Similar To While Loop. Only Difference Between These Two
Loops Is That, In While Loops, Test Expression Is Checked At First But, In Do...While Loop
Code Is Executed At First Then The Condition Is Checked. So, The Code Are Executed At Least
Once In Do...While Loops.
Syntax Of Do...While Loops
Do {
Some Code/S;
}
While (Test Expression);
At First Codes Inside Body Of Do Is Executed. Then, The Test Expression Is Checked. If It Is
True, Code/S Inside Body Of Do Are Executed Again And The Process Continues Until Test
Expression Becomes False(Zero).
Notice, There Is Semicolon In The End Of While (); In Do...While Loop.
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Example Of Do...While Loop
Write A C Program To Add All The Numbers Entered By A User Until User Enters 0.

/*c program to demonstrate the working of do...while statement*/
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int sum=0,num;
do /* codes inside the body of do...while loops are at least executed once. */
{
printf("enter a number\n");
scanf("%d",&num);
sum+=num;
}
while(num!=0);
printf("sum=%d",sum);
return 0;
}

Output
Enter A Number
3
Enter A Number
-2
Enter A Number
0
Sum=1
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In This C Program, User Is Asked A Number And It Is Added With Sum. Then, Only The Test
Condition In The Do...While Loop Is Checked. If The Test Condition Is True,I.E, Num Is Not
Equal To 0, The Body Of Do...While Loop Is Again Executed Until Num Equals To Zero.
C While Loops Examples
- Program To Reverse A Integer
- Program To Calculate The Power Of A Number
- Program To Check Armstrong Number
C Programming Break And Continue Statement
There Are Two Statement Built In C, Break; And Continue; To Interrupt The Normal Flow Of
Control Of A Program. Loops Performs A Set Of Operation Repeately Until Certain Condition
Becomes False But, It Is Sometimes Desirable To Skip Some Statements Inside Loop And
Terminate The Loop Immediately Without Checking The Test Expression. In Such Cases, Break
And Continue Statements Are Used.
Break Statement
In C Programming, Break Is Used In Terminating The Loop Immediately After It Is
Encountered. The Break Statement Is Used With Conditional If Statement.
Syntax Of Break Statement
Break;
The Break Statement Can Be Used In Terminating All Three Loops For, While And Do...While
Loops.

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The Figure Below Explains The Working Of Break Statement In All Three Type Of Loops.

Example Of Break Statement
Write A C Program To Find Average Of Maximum Of N Positive Numbers Entered By
User. But, If The Input Is Negative, Display The Average(Excluding The Average Of
Negative Input) And End The Program.

/* c program to demonstrate the working of break statement by terminating a loop, if user
inputs negative number*/
# include <stdio.h>
int main(){
float num,average,sum;
int i,n;
printf("maximum no. of inputs\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;++i){
printf("enter n%d: ",i);
scanf("%f",&num);
if(num<0.0)
break; //for loop breaks if num<0.0
sum=sum+num;
}
average=sum/(i-1);
printf("average=%.2f",average);
return 0;
}
Output
Maximum No. Of Inputs
4
Enter N1: 1.5
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Enter N2: 12.5
Enter N3: 7.2
Enter N4: -1
Average=7.07
In This Program, When The User Inputs Number Less Than Zero, The Loop Is Terminated
Using Break Statement With Executing The Statement Below It I.E., Without
Executing Sum=Sum+Num.
In C, Break Statements Are Also Used In Switch...Case Statement. You Will Study It In C
Switch...Case Statement Chapter.
Continue Statement
It Is Sometimes Desirable To Skip Some Statements Inside The Loop. In Such Cases, Continue
Statements Are Used.
Syntax Of Continue Statement
Continue;
Just Like Break, Continue Is Also Used With Conditional If Statement.

For Better Understanding Of How Continue Statements Works In C Programming. Analyze The
Figure Below Which Bypasses Some Code/S Inside Loops Using Continue Statement.
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Example Of Continue Statement
Write A C Program To Find The Product Of 4 Integers Entered By A User. If User Enters 0
Skip It.

//program to demonstrate the working of continue statement in c programming
# include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int i,num,product;
for(i=1,product=1;i<=4;++i){
printf("enter num%d:",i);
scanf("%d",&num);
if(num==0)
continue; / *in this program, when num equals to zero, it skips the statement
product*=num and continue the loop. */
product*=num;
}
printf("product=%d",product);
return 0;
}

Output
Enter Num1:3
Enter Num2:0
Enter Num3:-5
Enter Num4:2
Product=-30

C Programming Switch....Case Statement
Decision Making Are Needed When, The Program Encounters The Situation To Choose A
Particular Statement Among Many Statements. If A Programmar Has To Choose One Among
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Many Alternatives If...Else Can Be Used But, This Makes Programming Logic Complex. This
Type Of Problem Can Be Handled In C Programming Using Switch...Case Statement.
Syntax Of Switch...Case
Switch (Expression)
{
Case Constant1:
Codes To Be Executed If Expression Equals To Constant1;
Break;
Case Constant2:
Codes To Be Executed If Expression Equals To Constant3;
Break;
.
.
.
Default:
Codes To Be Executed If Expression Doesn't Match To Any Cases;
}
In Switch...Case, Expression Is Either An Integer Or A Character. If The Value Of Switch
Expression Matches Any Of The Constant In Case, The Relevant Codes Are Executed And
Control Moves Out Of The Switch...Case Statement. If The Expression Doesn't Matches Any Of
The Constant In Case, Then The Default Statement Is Executed.
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Example Of Switch...Case Statement
Write A Program That Asks User An Arithmetic Operator('+','-','*' Or '/') And Two
Operands And Perform The Corresponding Calculation On The Operands.

/* C Program To Demonstrate The Working Of Switch...Case Statement */
/* Program To Create A Simple Calculator For Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication And
division */
# include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char operator;
float num1,num2;
printf("enter operator +, - , * or / :\n");
operator=getche();
printf("\nenter two operands:\n");
scanf("%f%f",&num1,&num2);
switch(operator)
{
case '+':
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printf("num1+num2=%.2f",num1+num2);
break;
case '-':
printf("num1-num2=%.2f",num1-num2);
break;
case '*':
printf("num1*num2=%.2f",num1*num2);
break;
case '/':
printf("num2/num1=%.2f",num1/num2);
break;
default:
/* if operator is other than +, -, * or /, error message is shown */
printf(error! operator is not correct");
break;
}
return 0;
}
Output
Enter Operator +, -, * Or / :
/
Enter Two Operators:
34
3
Num2/Num1=11.33
Notice Break Statement At The End Of Each Case, Which Cause Switch...Case Statement To
Exit. If Break Statement Are Not Used, All Statements Below That Case Statement Are Also
Executed.
C Programming Goto Statement
In C Programming, Goto Statement Is Used For Altering The Normal Sequence Of Program
Execution By Transferring Control To Some Other Part Of The Program.
Syntax Of Goto Statement
Goto Label;
.............
.............
.............
Label:
Statement;
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In This Syntax, Label Is An Identifier. When, The Control Of Program Reaches To Goto
Statement, The Control Of The Program Will Jump To The Label: And Executes The Code/S
After It.

Example Of Goto Statement

/* c program to demonstrate the working of goto statement.*/
# include <stdio.h>
int main(){
float num,average,sum;
int i,n;
printf("maximum no. of inputs: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;++i){
printf("enter n%d: ",i);
scanf("%f",&num);
if(num<0.0)
goto jump; /* control of the program jumps to label jump */
sum=sum+num;
}
jump:
average=sum/(i-1);
printf("average: %.2f",average);
return 0;
}
Output
Maximum No. Of Inputs: 4
Enter N1: 1.5
Enter N2: 12.5
Enter N3: 7.2
Enter N4: -1
Average: 7.07
Though Goto Statement Is Included In Ansi Standard Of C, Use Of Goto Statement Should Be
Reduced As Much As Possible In A Program.
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Reasons To Avoid Goto Statement
Though, Using Goto Statement Give Power To Jump To Any Part Of Program, Using Goto
Statement Makes The Logic Of The Program Complex And Tangled. In Modern Programming,
Goto Statement Is Considered A Harmful Construct And A Bad Programming Practice.
The Goto Statement Can Be Replaced In Most Of C Program With The Use Of Break And
Continue Statements. In Fact, Any Program In C Programming Can Be Perfectly Written
Without The Use Of Goto Statement. All Programmer Should Try To Avoid Goto Statement As
Possible As They Can.
Source Code To Check Whether A Number Is Even Or Odd

/*C Program To Check Whether A Number Entered By User Is Even Or Odd. */

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int num;
printf("enter an integer you want to check: ");
scanf("%d",&num);
if((num%2)==0) /* checking whether remainder is 0 or not. */
printf("%d is even.",num);
else
printf("%d is odd.",num);
return 0;
}
Output 1

Enter An Integer You Want To Check: 25
25 Is Odd.
Output 2

Enter An Integer You Want To Check: 12
12 Is Even.
In This Program, User Is Asked To Enter An Integer Which Is Stored In Variable Num. Then,
The Remainder Is Found When That Number Is Divided By 2 And Checked Whether
Remainder Is 0 Or Not. If Remainder Is 0 Then, That Number Is Even Otherwise That Number
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Is Odd. This Task Is Performed Using If...Else Statement In C Programming And The Result Is
Displayed Accordingly.
This Program Also Can Be Solved Using Conditional Operator[ ?: ] Which Is The Shorthand
Notation For If...Else Statement.

/* c program to check whether an integer is odd or even using conditional operator */

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int num;
printf("enter an integer you want to check: ");
scanf("%d",&num);
((num%2)==0) ? printf("%d is even.",num) : printf("%d is odd.",num);
return 0;
}
the output of this program same as above program.
source code to check whether a character is vowel or consonant

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char c;
printf("enter an alphabet: ");
scanf("%c",&c);
if(c=='a'||c=='a'||c=='e'||c=='e'||c=='i'||c=='i'||c=='o'||c=='o'||c=='u'||c=='u')
printf("%c is a vowel.",c);
else
printf("%c is a consonant.",c);
return 0;
}
output 1
Enter An Alphabet: I
I Is A Vowel.
Output 2
Enter An Alphabet: G
G Is A Consonant.
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In This Program, User Is Asked To Enter A Character Which Is Stored In Variable C. Then, This
Character Is Checked, Whether It Is Any One Of These Ten Characters A, A, E, E, I, I, O, O, U And
U Using Logical Or Operator ||. If That Character Is Any One Of These Ten Characters, That
Alphabet Is A Vowel If Not That Alphabet Is A Consonant.
This Program Also Can Be Solved Using Conditional Operator Which Is Shorthand Notation
For If Else Statement.

/* C Program To Check Whether A Character Is Vowel Or Consonant Using Conditional
Operator */

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char c;
printf("enter an alphabet: ");
scanf("%c",&c);
(c=='a'||c=='a'||c=='e'||c=='e'||c=='i'||c=='i'||c=='o'||c=='o'||c=='u'||c=='u') ? printf("%c is a
vowel.",c) : printf("%c is a consonant.",c);
return 0;
}
program to find the Largest Number Among Three Numbers
In This Program, User Is Asked To Enter Three Numbers And This Program Will Find The
Largest Number Among Three Numbers Entered By User. This Program Can Be Solved In
More Than One Way.
Source Code 1

/* c program to find largest number using if statement only */

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
float a, b, c;
printf("enter three numbers: ");
scanf("%f %f %f", &a, &b, &c);
if(a>=b && a>=c)
printf("largest number = %.2f", a);
if(b>=a && b>=c)
printf("largest number = %.2f", b);
if(c>=a && c>=b)
printf("largest number = %.2f", c);
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return 0;
}
source code 2

/* c program to find largest number using if...else statement */

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
float a, b, c;
printf("enter three numbers: ");
scanf("%f %f %f", &a, &b, &c);
if (a>=b)
{
if(a>=c)
printf("largest number = %.2f",a);
else
printf("largest number = %.2f",c);
}
else
{
if(b>=c)
printf("largest number = %.2f",b);
else
printf("largest number = %.2f",c);
}
return 0;
}
Source Code 3

/* C Program To Find Largest Number Using Nested If...Else Statement */

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
float a, b, c;
printf("enter three numbers: ");
scanf("%f %f %f", &a, &b, &c);
if(a>=b && a>=c)
printf("largest number = %.2f", a);
else if(b>=a && b>=c)
printf("largest number = %.2f", b);
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else
printf("largest number = %.2f", c);
return 0;
}

Program To Check Whether A Number Is Positive Or Negative Or Zero.
This Program Takes A Number From User And Checks Whether That Number Is Either
Positive Or Negative Or Zero.
Source Code

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
float num;
printf("enter a number: ");
scanf("%f",&num);
if (num<=0)
{
if (num==0)
printf("you entered zero.");
else
printf("%.2f is negative.",num);
}
else
printf("%.2f is positive.",num);
return 0;
}

This Program Also Can Be Solved Using Nested If Else Statement.

/* C Programming Code To Check Whether A Number Is Negative Or Positive Or Zero Using
Nested If...Else Statement. */

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
float num;
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printf("enter a number: ");
scanf("%f",&num);
if (num<0) /* checking whether num is less than 0*/
printf("%.2f is negative.",num);
else if (num>0) /* checking whether num is greater than zero*/
printf("%.2f is positive.",num);
else
printf("you entered zero.");
return 0;
}
Output 1

Enter A Number: 12.3
12.30 Is Positive.
Output 2

Enter A Number: -12.3
-12.30 Is Negative.
Output 3

Enter A Number: 0
You Entered Zero.

Program To Display Factors Of A Number
This Program Takes A Positive Integer From An User And Displays All The Factors Of That
Number.
Source Code To Display Factors Of A Number

/* C To Find And Display All The Factors Of A Number Entered By An User.. */

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n,i;
printf("enter a positive integer: ");
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scanf("%d",&n);
printf("factors of %d are: ", n);
for(i=1;i<=n;++i)
{
if(n%i==0)
printf("%d ",i);
}
return 0;
}
Output
Enter A Positive Integer: 60
Factors Of 60 Are: 1 2 3 4 5 6 12 15 20 30 60
Explanation
In This Program, An Integer Entered By User Is Stored In Variable N. Then, For Loop Is
Executed With Initial Conditioni=1 And Checked Whether N Is Perfectly Divisible By I Or Not.
If N Is Perfectly Divisible By I Then, I Will Be The Factor Of N. In Each Iteration, The Value
Of I Is Updated(Increased By 1). This Process Goes Not Until Test Condition I<=Nbecomes
False,I.E., This Program Checks Whether Number Entered By User N Is Perfectly Divisible By
All Numbers From 1 To N And All Displays Factors Of That Number.
Program To Check Whether A Character Is An Alphabet Or Not
This Program Takes A Character From User And Checks Whether That Character Is An
Alphabet Or Not.
Source Code To Check Character Is An Alphabet Or Not

/* C Programming Code To Check Whether A Character Is Alphabet Or Not.*/

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char c;
printf("enter a character: ");
scanf("%c",&c);
if( (c>='a'&& c<='z') || (c>='a' && c<='z'))
printf("%c is an alphabet.",c);
else
printf("%c is not an alphabet.",c);
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return 0;
}

Output 1
Enter A Character: *
* Is Not An Alphabet
Output 2
Enter A Character: K
K Is An Alphabet
Explanation
When A Character Is Stored In A Variable, Ascii Value Of That Character Is Stored Instead Of
That Character Itself. For Example: If 'A' Is Stored In A Variable, Ascii Value Of 'A' Which Is 97
Is Stored. If You See The Ascii Table, The Lowercase Alphabets Are From 97 To 122 And
Uppercase Letter Are From 65 To 90. If The Ascii Value Of Number Stored Is Between Any Of
These Two Intervals Then, That Character Will Be An Alphabet. In This Program, Instead Of
Number 97, 122, 65 And 90; We Have Used 'A', 'Z', 'A' And 'Z' Respectively Which Is Basically
The Same Thing.
This Program Also Can Be Performed Using Standard Library Function Isalpha().
Program To Calculate Sum Of Natural Numbers
Positive Integers 1, 2, 3, 4... Are Known As Natural Numbers. This Program Takes A Positive
Integer From User( Suppose User Entered N ) Then, This Program Displays The Value Of
1+2+3+....N.
Source Code To Calculate Sum Of Natural Numbers

/* This Program Is Solved Using While Loop. */

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n, count, sum=0;
printf("enter an integer: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
count=1;
while(count<=n) /* while loop terminates if count>n */
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{
sum+=count; /* sum=sum+count */
++count;
}
printf("sum = %d",sum);
return 0;
}

Source Code To Calculate Sum Using For Loop

/* This Program Is Solve Using For Loop. */

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n, count, sum=0;
printf("enter an integer: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(count=1;count<=n;++count) /* for loop terminates if count>n */
{
sum+=count; /* sum=sum+count */
}
printf("sum = %d",sum);
return 0;
}

output
enter an integer: 100
sum = 5050
Both Program Above Does Exactly The Same Thing. Initially, The Value Of Count Is Set To 1.
Both Program Have Test Condition To Perform Looping Iteration Until
Condition Count<=N Becomes False And In Each Iteration ++Count Is Executed. The Only
Difference Between For Loop And While Loop Is The Way Of Writing Code.
This Program Works Perfectly For Positive Number But, If User Enters Negative Number Or
0, Sum = 0 Is Displayed But, It Is Better Is Display The Error Message In This Case. The Above
Program Can Be Made User-Friendly By Adding If Else Statement As:
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/* This Program Displays Error Message When User Enters Negative Number Or 0 And
Displays The Sum Of Natural Numbers If User Enters Positive Number. */

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n, count, sum=0;
printf("enter an integer: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
if ( n<= 0)
printf("error!!!!");
else
{
for(count=1;count<=n;++count) /* for loop terminates if count>n */
{
sum+=count; /* sum=sum+count */
}
printf("sum = %d",sum);
}
return 0;
}

This Program Also Can Be Solved Using Recursive Function.
Factorial Of A Number
For Any Positive Number N, Its Factorial Is Given By:
Factorial = 1*2*3*4....N

If A Number Is Negative, Factorial Does Not Exist And Factorial Of 0 Is 1.
This Program Takes An Integer From A User. If User Enters Negative Integer, This Program
Will Display Error Message And If User Enters Non-Negative Integer, This Program Will
Display The Factorial Of That Number.
Source Code To Find Factorial Of A Number

/* C Program To Display Factorial Of An Integer If User Enters Non-Negative Integer. */

#include <stdio.h>
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int main()
{
int n, count;
unsigned long long int factorial=1;
printf("enter an integer: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
if ( n< 0)
printf("error!!! factorial of negative number doesn't exist.");
else
{
for(count=1;count<=n;++count) /* for loop terminates if count>n */
{
factorial*=count; /* factorial=factorial*count */
}
printf("factorial = %lu",factorial);
}
return 0;
}
Output 1
Enter An Integer: -5
Error!!! Factorial Of Negative Number Doesn't Exist.
Output 2
Enter An Integer: 10
Factorial = 3628800
Here The Type Of Factorial Variable Is Declared As: Unsigned Long Long. It Is Because, The
Factorial Is Always Positive, So Unsigned Keyword Is Used And The Factorial Of A Number Can
Be Pretty Large. For Example: The Factorial Of 10 Is 3628800 Thus, Long Long Keyword Is
Used. To Solve This Program, We Have Used For Loop But, This Program Also Can Be Solved In
Similar Way Using While Loop.
Program To Generate Multiplication Table
This Program Asks User To Enter An Integer And This Program Will Generate The
Multiplication Table Upto 10.
Source Code To Generate Multiplication Table

/* C Program To Find Multiplication Table Up To 10. */
#include <stdio.h>
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int main()
{
int n, i;
printf("enter an integer to find multiplication table: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=10;++i)
{
printf("%d * %d = %d\n", n, i, n*i);
}
return 0;
}
Output

Enter An Integer To Find Multiplication Table: 9
9 * 1 = 9
9 * 2 = 18
9 * 3 = 27
9 * 4 = 36
9 * 5 = 45
9 * 6 = 54
9 * 7 = 63
9 * 8 = 72
9 * 9 = 81
9 * 10 = 90
This Program Generates Multiplication Table Of An Integer Up 10. But, This Program Can Be
Made More User Friendly By Giving Option To User To Enter Number Up To Which, He/She
Want To Generate Multiplication Table. The Source Code Below Will Perform This Task.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n, range, i;
printf("enter an integer to find multiplication table: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("enter range of multiplication table: ");
scanf("%d",&range);
for(i=1;i<=range;++i)
{
printf("%d * %d = %d\n", n, i, n*i);
}
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return 0;
}
Output

Enter An Integer To Find Multiplication Table: 6
Enter Range Of Multiplication Table: 4
6 * 1 = 6
6 * 2 = 12
6 * 3 = 18
6 * 4 = 24
Program To Find Hcf Of Two Numbers
The Largest Integer Which Is Perfectly Divisible To Two Or More Numbers Is Known
As H.C.F Or G.C.D Of Those Two Numbers.
There Are Many Ways To Find The H.C.F Of Two Numbers Is C Programming. All Codes Below
Will Take Two Integers From User And Displays The H.C.F Of Those Two Integers.
1. Source Code To Find Hcf Or Gcd

/* C Program To Find Highest Common Factor. */
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int num1, num2, i, hcf;
printf("enter two integers: ");
scanf("%d %d", &num1, &num2);
for(i=1; i<=num1 || i<=num2; ++i)
{
if(num1%i==0 && num2%i==0) /* checking whether i is a factor of both number */
hcf=i;
}
printf("h.c.f of %d and %d is %d", num1, num2, hcf);
return 0;
}

In This Program, Two Integers Are Taken From User And Stored In Variable Num1 And Num2.
Then I Is Initialized To 1 And For Loop Is Executed Until I Becomes Equal To Smallest Of Two
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Numbers. In Each Looping Iteration, It Is Checked Whether I Is Factor Of Both Numbers Or
Not. If I Is Factor Of Both Numbers, It Is Stored To Hcf. When For Loop Is Completed, The H.C.F
Of Those Two Numbers Will Be Stored In Variable Hcf.
2. Source Code To Find Hcf Or Gcd

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int num1, num2, min,i;
printf("enter two integers: ");
scanf("%d %d", &num1, &num2);
min=(num1>num2)?num2:num1; /* minimum value is stored in variable min */
for(i=min;i>=1;--i)
{
if(num1%i==0 && num2%i==0)
{
printf("hcf of %d and %d is %d", num1, num2,i);
break;
}
}
return 0;
}

This Program Is Little Optimized Than The Program Above To Find H.C.F. In This Program,
Smallest Of Two Integers Entered By User Is Stored In Variable Min. Then I Is Initialized
To Min And For Loop Is Executed. In Each Looping Iteration, Whether I Is Factor Of These Two
Numbers Is Checked. If I Is A Factor Of These Two Numbers Then, I Will Be The Highest
Common Divisor And Loop Is Terminated Using Break Statement.
3. Source Code To Find Hcf Or Gcd

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int num1,num2;
printf("enter two integers: ");
scanf("%d %d",&num1,&num2);
printf("hcf of %d and %d is ",num1 , num2);
while(num1!=num2)
{
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if(num1>num2)
num1-=num2;
else
num2-=num1;
}
printf("%d",num1);
return 0;
}
This Is The Best Way To Find Hcf Of Two Numbers. In This Method, Smaller Number Is
Subtracted From Larger Number And That Number Is Stored In Place Of Larger Number. This
Process Is Continued Until, Two Numbers Become Equal Which Will Be Hcf.
All Source Codes Above Displays The Same Output.
Output
Enter Two Integers: 14
35
Hcf Or 14 And 35 Is 7

Program To Count Number Of Digits Of An Integer
This Program Takes An Integer From User And Calculates The Number Of Digits In That
Integer. For Example: If User Enters 2319, The Output Of Program Will Be 4 Because It
Contains 4 Digits.
C Program To Find Number Of Digits In A Number

#Include <stdio.h>
Int main()
{
int n,count=0;
printf("enter an integer: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
while(n!=0)
{
n/=10; /* n=n/10 */
++count;
}
printf("number of digits: %d",count);
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}
Output
Enter An Integer: 34523
Number Of Digits: 5
Explanation
This Program Takes An Integer From User And Stores That Number In Variable N. Suppose,
User Entered 34523. Then,While Loop Is Executed Because N!=0 Will Be True In First
Iteration. The Codes Inside While Loop Will Be Executed. After First Iteration, Value Of N Will
Be 3452 And Count Will Be 1. Similarly, In Second Iteration N Will Be Equal To 345
And Count Will Be Equal To 2. This Process Goes On And After Fourth Iteration, N Will Be
Equal To 3 And Count Will Be Equal To 4. Then, In Next Iteration N Will Be Equal To 0
And Count Will Be Equal To 5 And Program Will Be Terminated As N!=0 Becomes False.

Program To Reverse A Number
This Program Takes An Integer Number From User And Reverses That Number.
C Program To Reverse An Integer

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n, reverse=0, rem;
printf("enter an integer: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
while(n!=0)
{
rem=n%10;
reverse=reverse*10+rem;
n/=10;
}
printf("reversed number = %d",reverse);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter An Integer: 2345
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Reversed Number = 5432
Program To Check Whether A Number Is Palindrome Or Not
This Program Takes An Integer From User And That Integer Is Reversed. If The Reversed
Integer Is Equal To The Integer Entered By User Then, That Number Is A Palindrome If Not
That Number Is Not A Palindrome.
C Program To Check Palindrome Number

/* C Program To Check Whether A Number Is Palindrome Or Not */

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n, reverse=0, rem,temp;
printf("enter an integer: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
temp=n;
while(temp!=0)
{
rem=temp%10;
reverse=reverse*10+rem;
temp/=10;
}
/* checking if number entered by user and it's reverse number is equal. */
if(reverse==n)
printf("%d is a palindrome.",n);
else
printf("%d is not a palindrome.",n);
return 0;
}
output
Enter An Integer: 12321
12321 Is A Palindrome.
Program To Check Whether A Number Is Prime Or Not
A Positive Integer Which Is Only Divisible By 1 And Iself Is Known As Prime Number. For
Example: 13 Is A Prime Number Because It Is Only Divisible By 1 And 13 But, 15 Is Not Prime
Number Because It Is Divisible By 1, 3, 5 And 15.
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C Program To Check Prime Number

/* C Program To Check Whether A Number Is Prime Or Not. */

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n, i, flag=0;
printf("enter a positive integer: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=2;i<=;n/2;++i)
{
if(n%i==0)
{
flag=1;
break;
}
}
if (flag==0)
printf("%d is a prime number.",n);
else
printf("%d is not a prime number.",n);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter A Positive Integer: 29
29 Is A Prime Number.
Explanation
This Program Takes A Positive Integer From User And Stores It In Variable N. Then, For
Loop Is Executed Which Checks Whether The Number Entered By User Is Perfectly Divisible
By I Or Not Starting With Initial Value Of I Equals To 2 And Increasing The Value Of I In Each
Iteration. If The Number Entered By User Is Perfectly Divisible By I Then, Flag Is Set To 1 And
That Number Will Not Be A Prime Number But, If The Number Is Not Perfectly Divisible
By I Until Test Condition I<=N/2 Is True Means, It Is Only Divisible By 1 And That Number
Itself And That Number Is A Prime Number
Program To Display Prime Numbers Between Two Intervals
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This Program Asks User To Enter Two Integers And This Program Will Display All Prime
Numbers Between These Intervals. If You Don't Know How To Check Whether A Number Is
Prime Or Not Then, This Program May Seem Little Bit Complex. You Can Visit This Page To
Learn About Prime Numbers And How To Check Whether A Number Is Prime Or Not In C
Programming.
Source Code To Display Prime Numbers Between Two Intervals
/* C Program To Display All Prime Numbers Between Two Interval Entered By User. */
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n1, n2, i, j, flag;
printf("enter two numbers(intevals): ");
scanf("%d %d", &n1, &n2);
printf("prime numbers between %d and %d are: ", n1, n2);
for(i=n1+1; i<n2; ++i)
{
flag=0;
for(j=2; j<=i/2; ++j)
{
if(i%j==0)
{
flag=1;
break;
}
}
if(flag==0)
printf("%d ",i);
}
return 0;
}
Output
Enter Two Numbers(Intervals): 20
50
Prime Numbers Between 20 And 50 Are: 23 29 31 37 41 43 47
In This Program, It Is Assumed That, The User Always Enters Smaller Number First. This
Program Will Not Perform The Task Intended If User Enters Larger Number First. You Can
Add The Code To Swap Two Numbers Entered By User If User Enters Larger Number First To
Make This Program Work Properly.
Program To Check Armstrong Number
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A Positive Integer Is Called An Armstrong Number If The Sum Of Cubes Of Individual Digit Is
Equal To That Number Itself. For Example:
153 = 1*1*1 + 5*5*5 + 3*3*3 // 153 Is An Armstrong Number.
12 Is Not Equal To 1*1*1+2*2*2 // 12 Is Not An Armstrong Number.
Source Code To Check Armstrong Number
/* C Program To Check Whether A Number Entered By User Is Armstrong Or Not. */

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n, n1, rem, num=0;
printf("enter a positive integer: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
n1=n;
while(n1!=0)
{
rem=n1%10;
num+=rem*rem*rem;
n1/=10;
}
if(num==n)
printf("%d is an armstrong number.",n);
else
printf("%d is not an armstrong number.",n);
}
Output
Enter A Positive Integer: 371
371 Is An Armstrong Number.
Program To Display Armstrong Number Between Two Intervals
This Program Asks User To Enter Two Integers And This Program Will Display All Armstrong
Numbers Between These Intervals. If You Don't Know How To Check Whether A Number Is
Armstrong Or Not In Programming Then, This Program May Seem Little Bit Complex. Visit
This Page To Learn About Armstrong Number And How To Check It In C Programming.
C Program To Display Armstrong Number Between Intervals

/* Source Code To Display Armstrong Number Between Two Intervals Entered By User. */
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#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n1, n2, i, temp, num, rem;
printf("enter two numbers(intervals): ");
scanf("%d %d", &n1, &n2);
printf("armstrong numbers between %d an %d are: ", n1, n2);
for(i=n1+1; i<n2; ++i)
{
temp=i;
num=0;
while(temp!=0)
{
rem=(temp%10);
num+=rem*rem*rem;
temp/=10;
}
if(i==num)
{
printf("%d ",i);
}
}
return 0;
}
Output
Enter Two Numbers(Intervals): 100
400
Armstrong Numbers Between 100 And 400 Are: 153 370 371
In This Program, It Is Assumed That, The User Always Enters Smaller Number First. This
Program Will Not Perform The Task Intended If User Enters Larger Number First. You Can
Add The Code To Swap Two Numbers Entered By User If User Enters Larger Number First To
Make This Program Work Properly.
Program To Display The Triangle Using *, Numbers And Character
Write A C Program To Print Half Pyramid As Using * As Shown In Figure Below.
*
* *
* * *
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* * * *
* * * * *
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i,j,rows;
printf("enter the number of rows: ");
scanf("%d",&rows);
for(i=1;i<=rows;++i)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;++j)
{
printf("* ");
}
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}
Write A C Program To Print Half Pyramid As Using Numbers As Shown In Figure Below.
1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i,j,rows;
printf("enter the number of rows: ");
scanf("%d",&rows);
for(i=1;i<=rows;++i)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;++j)
{
printf("%d ",j);
}
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}
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Write A C Program To Print Triangle Of Characters As Below
A
B B
C C C
D D D D
E E E E E

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i,j;
char input,temp='a';
printf("enter uppercase character you want in triangle at last row: ");
scanf("%c",&input);
for(i=1;i<=(input-'a'+1);++i)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;++j)
printf("%c",temp);
++temp;
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}
C Program To Display Inverted Half Pyramid Using * And Numbers
Write A C Program To Print Inverted Half Pyramid Using * As Shown Below.
* * * * *
* * * *
* * *
* *
*
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i,j,rows;
printf("enter the number of rows: ");
scanf("%d",&rows);
for(i=rows;i>=1;--i)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;++j)
{
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printf("* ");
}
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
1 2
1
Write A C Program To Print Inverted Half Pyramid As Using Numbers As Shown Below.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i,j,rows;
printf("enter the number of rows: ");
scanf("%d",&rows);
for(i=rows;i>=1;--i)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;++j)
{
printf("%d ",j);
}
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}
C Program To Display The Pyramid Of * And Digits
Write A C Program To Print Pyramid Using *.

*
* * *
* * * * *
* * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * *

#include <stdio.h>
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int main()
{
int i,space,rows,k=0;
printf("enter the number of rows: ");
scanf("%d",&rows);
for(i=1;i<=rows;++i)
{
for(space=1;space<=rows-i;++space)
{
printf(" ");
}
while(k!=2*i-1)
{
printf("* ");
++k;
}
k=0;
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}
Write A C Program To Print The Pyramid Of Digits In Pattern As Below.
1
2 3 2
3 4 5 4 3
4 5 6 7 6 5 4
5 6 7 8 9 8 7 6 5

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i,space,rows,k=0,count=0,count1=0;
printf("enter the number of rows: ");
scanf("%d",&rows);
for(i=1;i<=rows;++i)
{
for(space=1;space<=rows-i;++space)
{
printf(" ");
++count;
}
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while(k!=2*i-1)
{
if (count<=rows-1)
{
printf("%d ",(i+k));
++count;
}
else
{
++count1;
printf("%d ", (i+k-2*count1));
}
++k;
}
count1=count=k=0;
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}
Write A C Program To Display Reverse Pyramid.

* * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * *
* * * * *
* * *
*

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int rows,i,j,space;
printf("enter number of rows: ");
scanf("%d",&rows);
for(i=rows;i>=1;--i)
{
for(space=0;space<rows-i;++space)
printf(" ");
for(j=i;j<=2*i-1;++j)
printf("* ");
for(j=0;j<i-1;++j)
printf("* ");
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printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}
C Program To Draw Pascal's Triangle

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int rows,coef=1,space,i,j;
printf("enter number of rows: ");
scanf("%d",&rows);
for(i=0;i<rows;i++)
{
for(space=1;space<=rows-i;space++)
printf(" ");
for(j=0;j<=i;j++)
{
if (j==0||i==0)
coef=1;
else
coef=coef*(i-j+1)/j;
printf("%4d",coef);
}
printf("\n");
}
}
,
C Program To Display Floyd's Triangle.
1
2 3
4 5 6
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7 8 9 10
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int rows,i,j,k=0;
printf("enter number of rows: ");
scanf("%d",&rows);
for(i=1;i<=rows;i++)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;++j)
printf("%d ",k+j);
++k;
printf("\n");
}
}

Program To Make A Simple Calculator To Add, Subtract, Multiply Or Divide Using
Switch...Case
This Program Takes An Arithmetic Operator (+, -, *, /) And Two Operands From An User And
Performs The Operation On Those Two Operands Depending Upon The Operator Entered By
User. This Program Can Be Solved Usingswitch....Case Statement As:
Source Code To Make Simple Calculator In C Programming

/* Source Code To Create A Simple Calculator For Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication And
Division Using Switch...Case Statement In C Programming. */

# include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char operator;
float num1,num2;
printf("enter operator either + or - or * or divide : ");
scanf("%c",&operator);
printf("enter two operands: ");
scanf("%f%f",&num1,&num2);
switch(operator)
{
case '+':
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printf("num1+num2=%.2f",num1+num2);
break;
case '-':
printf("num1-num2=%.2f",num1-num2);
break;
case '*':
printf("num1*num2=%.2f",num1*num2);
break;
case '/':
printf("num2/num1 = %.2f",num1/num2);
break;
default:
/* if operator is other than +, -, * or /, error message is shown */
printf("error! operator is not correct");
break;
}
return 0;
}
Output
Enter Operator Either + Or - Or * Or Divide: /
Enter Two Operands: 13.456
4.56
Num2/Num1 = 2.95
Explanation
This Program Takes An Operator And Two Operands From User. The Operator Is Stored In
Variable Operator And Two Operands Are Stored In Num1 And Num2 Respectively. Then,
Switch...Case Statement Is Used For Checking The Operator Entered By User. If User Enters +
Then, Statements For Case: '+' Is Executed And Program Is Terminated. If User Enters - Then,
Statements For Case: '-' Is Executed And Program Is Terminated. This Program Works
Similarly For * And / Operator. But, If The Operator Doesn't Matches Any Of The Four
Character [ +, -, * And / ], Default Statement Is Executed Which Displays Error Message.

C Programming Functions
Function In Programming Is A Segment That Groups A Number Of Program Statements To
Perform Specific Task.
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A C Program Has At Least One Function Main( ). Without Main() Function, There Is Technically
No C Program.
Types Of C Functions
Basically, There Are Two Types Of Functions In C On Basis Of Whether It Is Defined By User Or
Not.
Library Function
User Defined Function
Library Function
Library Functions Are The In-Built Function In C Programming System. For Example:
Main()
- The Execution Of Every C Program Starts From This Main() Function.
Printf()
- Prinf() Is Used For Displaying Output In C.
Scanf()
- Scanf() Is Used For Taking Input In C.
Visit This Page To Learn More About Library Functions In C Programming Language.
User Defined Function
C Provides Programmer To Define Their Own Function According To Their Requirement
Known As User Defined Functions. Suppose, A Programmer Wants To Find Factorial Of A
Number And Check Whether It Is Prime Or Not In Same Program. Then, He/She Can Create
Two Separate User-Defined Functions In That Program: One For Finding Factorial And Other
For Checking Whether It Is Prime Or Not.
How User-Defined Function Works In C Programming?
#Include <Stdio.H>
Void Function_Name(){
................
................
}
Int Main(){
...........
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...........
Function_Name();
...........
...........
}
As Mentioned Earlier, Every C Program Begins From Main() And Program Starts Executing
The Codes Inside Main()Function. When The Control Of Program Reaches
To Function_Name() Inside Main() Function. The Control Of Program Jumps To Void
Function_Name() And Executes The Codes Inside It. When, All The Codes Inside That User-
Defined Function Are Executed, Control Of The Program Jumps To The Statement Just
After Function_Name() From Where It Is Called. Analyze The Figure Below For Understanding
The Concept Of Function In C Programming. Visit This Page To Learn In Detail Aboutuser-
Defined Functions.

Remember, The Function Name Is An Identifier And Should Be Unique.
Advantages Of User Defined Functions
1. User Defined Functions Helps To Decompose The Large Program Into Small Segments
Which Makes Programmar Easy To Understand, Maintain And Debug.
2. If Repeated Code Occurs In A Program. Function Can Be Used To Include Those Codes
And Execute When Needed By Calling That Function.
3. Programmar Working On Large Project Can Divide The Workload By Making Different
Functions.
Example Of User-Defined Function
Write A C Program To Add Two Integers. Make A Function Add To Add Integers And
Display Sum In Main()Function.
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/*Program To Demonstrate The Working Of User Defined Function*/
#include <stdio.h>
int add(int a, int b); //function prototype(declaration)
int main(){
int num1,num2,sum;
printf("enters two number to add\n");
scanf("%d %d",&num1,&num2);
sum=add(num1,num2); //function call
printf("sum=%d",sum);
return 0;
}
int add(int a,int b) //function declarator
{
/* start of function definition. */
int add;
add=a+b;
return add; //return statement of function
/* end of function definition. */
}

Function Prototype(Declaration):
Every Function In C Programming Should Be Declared Before They Are Used. These Type Of
Declaration Are Also Called Function Prototype. Function Prototype Gives Compiler
Information About Function Name, Type Of Arguments To Be Passed And Return Type.
Syntax Of Function Prototype
Return_Type Function_Name(Type(1) Argument(1),....,Type(N) Argument(N));
In The Above Example,Int Add(Int A, Int B); Is A Function Prototype Which Provides Following
Information To The Compiler:
1. Name Of The Function Is Add()
2. Return Type Of The Function Is Int.
3. Two Arguments Of Type Int Are Passed To Function.
Function Prototype Are Not Needed If User-Definition Function Is Written
Before Main() Function.
Function Call
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Control Of The Program Cannot Be Transferred To User-Defined Function Unless It Is Called
Invoked).
Syntax Of Function Call
Function_Name(Argument(1),....Argument(N));
In The Above Example, Function Call Is Made Using
Statement Add(Num1,Num2); From Main(). This Make The Control Of Program Jump From
That Statement To Function Definition And Executes The Codes Inside That Function.
Function Definition
Function Definition Contains Programming Codes To Perform Specific Task.
Syntax Of Function Definition
Return_Type Function_Name(Type(1) Argument(1),..,Type(N) Argument(N))
{
//Body Of Function
}
Function Definition Has Two Major Components:
1. Function Declarator
Function Declarator Is The First Line Of Function Definition. When A Function Is Invoked
From Calling Function, Control Of The Program Is Transferred To Function Declarator Or
Called Function.
Syntax Of Function Declarator
Return_Type Function_Name(Type(1) Argument(1),....,Type(N) Argument(N))
Syntax Of Function Declaration And Declarator Are Almost Same Except, There Is No
Semicolon At The End Of Declarator And Function Declarator Is Followed By Function Body.
In Above Example, Int Add(Int A,Int B) In Line 12 Is A Function Declarator.
2. Function Body
Function Declarator Is Followed By Body Of Function Which Is Composed Of Statements.
Passing Arguments To Functions
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In Programming, Argument/Parameter Is A Piece Of Data(Constant Or Variable) Passed From
A Program To The Function.
In Above Example Two Variable, Num1 And Num2 Are Passed To Function During Function
Call And These Arguments Are Accepted By Arguments A And B In Function Definition.

Arguments That Are Passed In Function Call And Arguments That Are Accepted In Function
Definition Should Have Same Data Type. For Example:
If Argument Num1 Was Of Int Type And Num2 Was Of Float Type Then, Argument
Variable A Should Be Of Type Int And B Should Be Of Type Float,I.E., Type Of Argument During
Function Call And Function Definition Should Be Same.
A Function Can Be Called With Or Without An Argument.
Return Statement
Return Statement Is Used For Returning A Value From Function Definition To Calling
Function.
Syntax Of Return Statement
Return (Expression);
Or
Return;
For Example:
Return;
Return A;
Return (A+B);
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In Above Example, Value Of Variable Add In Add() Function Is Returned And That Value Is
Stored In Variable Sum In Main()Function. The Data Type Of Expression In Return Statement
Should Also Match The Return Type Of Function.

Types Of User-Defined Functions In C Programming
For Better Understanding Of Arguments And Return In Functions, User-Defined Functions Can
Be Categorised As:
1. Function With No Arguments And No Return Value
2. Function With No Arguments And Return Value
3. Function With Arguments But No Return Value
4. Function With Arguments And Return Value.
Let's Take An Example To Find Whether A Number Is Prime Or Not Using Above 4 Cateogories
Of User Defined Functions.
Function With No Arguments And No Return Value.

/*c program to check whether a number entered by user is prime or not using function with
no arguments and no return value*/
#include <stdio.h>
void prime();
int main(){
prime(); //no argument is passed to prime().
return 0;
}
void prime(){
/* there is no return value to calling function main(). hence, return type of prime() is void */
int num,i,flag=0;
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printf("enter positive integer enter to check:\n");
scanf("%d",&num);
for(i=2;i<=num/2;++i){
if(num%i==0){
flag=1;
}
}
if (flag==1)
printf("%d is not prime",num);
else
printf("%d is prime",num);
}
function prime() is used for asking user a input, check for whether it is prime of not and
display it accordingly. no argument is passed and returned form prime() function.
function with no arguments but return value

/*c program to check whether a number entered by user is prime or not using function with
no arguments but having return value */
#include <stdio.h>
int input();
int main(){
int num,i,flag;
num=input(); /* no argument is passed to input() */
for(i=2,flag=i;i<=num/2;++i,flag=i){
if(num%i==0){
printf("%d is not prime",num);
++flag;
break;
}
}
if(flag==i)
printf("%d is prime",num);
return 0;
}
int input(){ /* integer value is returned from input() to calling function */
int n;
printf("enter positive enter to check:\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
return n;
}
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there is no argument passed to input() function but, the value of n is returned
from input() to main() function.
function with arguments and no return value

/*program to check whether a number entered by user is prime or not using function with
arguments and no return value */
#include <stdio.h>
void check_display(int n);
int main(){
int num;
printf("enter positive enter to check:\n");
scanf("%d",&num);
check_display(num); /* argument num is passed to function. */
return 0;
}
void check_display(int n){
/* there is no return value to calling function. hence, return type of function is void. */
int i,flag;
for(i=2,flag=i;i<=n/2;++i,flag=i){
if(n%i==0){
printf("%d is not prime",n);
++flag;
break;
}
}
if(flag==i)
printf("%d is prime",n);
}
here, check_display() function is used for check whether it is prime or not and display it
accordingly. here, argument is passed to user-defined function but, value is not returned from
it to calling function.
function with argument and a return value

/* program to check whether a number entered by user is prime or not using function with
argument and return value */
#include <stdio.h>
int check(int n);
int main(){
int num,num_check=0;
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printf("enter positive enter to check:\n");
scanf("%d",&num);
num_check=check(num); /* argument num is passed to check() function. */
if(num_check==1)
printf("%d in not prime",num);
else
printf("%d is prime",num);
return 0;
}
int check(int n){
/* integer value is returned from function check() */
int i;
for(i=2;i<=n/2;++i){
if(n%i==0)
return 1;
}
return 0;
}

here, check() function is used for checking whether a number is prime or not. in this program,
input from user is passed to function check() and integer value is returned from it. if input the
number is prime, 0 is returned and if number is not prime, 1 is returned.
programming recursion
a function that calls itself is known as recursive function and the process of calling function
itself is known as recursion in c programming.
example of recursion in c programming
write a c program to find sum of first n natural numbers using recursion. note: positive
integers are known as natural number i.e. 1, 2, 3....n

#include <stdio.h>
int sum(int n);
int main(){
int num,add;
printf("enter a positive integer:\n");
scanf("%d",&num);
add=sum(num);
printf("sum=%d",add);
}
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int sum(int n){
if(n==0)
return n;
else
return n+sum(n-1); /*self call to function sum() */
}
output
enter a positive integer:
5
15
In, This Simple C Program, Sum() Function Is Invoked From The Same Function. If N Is Not
Equal To 0 Then, The Function Calls Itself Passing Argument 1 Less Than The Previous
Argument It Was Called With. Suppose, N Is 5 Initially. Then, During Next Function Calls, 4 Is
Passed To Function And The Value Of Argument Decreases By 1 In Each Recursive Call. When,
N Becomes Equal To 0, The Value Of N Is Returned Which Is The Sum Numbers From 5 To 1.
For Better Visualization Of Recursion In This Example:
Sum(5)
=5+Sum(4)
=5+4+Sum(3)
=5+4+3+Sum(2)
=5+4+3+2+Sum(1)
=5+4+3+2+1+Sum(0)
=5+4+3+2+1+0
=5+4+3+2+1
=5+4+3+3
=5+4+6
=5+10
=15
Every Recursive Function Must Be Provided With A Way To End The Recursion. In This
Example When, N Is Equal To 0, There Is No Recursive Call And Recursion Ends.
Advantages And Disadvantages Of Recursion
Recursion Is More Elegant And Requires Few Variables Which Make Program Clean. Recursion
Can Be Used To Replace Complex Nesting Code By Dividing The Problem Into Same Problem
Of Its Sub-Type.
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In Other Hand, It Is Hard To Think The Logic Of A Recursive Function. It Is Also Difficult To
Debug The Code Containing Recursion.
Program To Calculate Factorial Of A Number Using Recursion
This Program Takes A Positive Integer From User And Calculates The Factorial Of That
Number. Instead Of Loops To Calculate Factorial, This Program Uses Recursive Function To
Calculate The Factorial Of A Number.
Source Code To Calculate Factorial Using Recursion

/* Source Code To Find Factorial Of A Number. */

#include<stdio.h>
int factorial(int n);
int main()
{
int n;
printf("enter an positive integer: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("factorial of %d = %ld", n, factorial(n));
return 0;
}
int factorial(int n)
{
if(n!=1)
return n*factorial(N-1);
}
Output
Enter An Positive Integer: 6
Factorial Of 6 = 720

Programming Storage Class
Every Variable And Function In C Programming Has Two Properties: Type And Storage Class.
Type Refers To The Data Type Of Variable Whether It Is Character Or Integer Or Floating-
Point Value Etc.
There Are 4 Types Of Storage Class:
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1. Automatic
2. External
3. Static
4. Register
Automatic Storage Class
Keyword For Automatic Variable
Auto
Variables Declared Inside The Function Body Are Automatic By Default. These Variable Are
Also Known As Local Variables As They Are Local To The Function And Doesn't Have Meaning
Outside That Function
Since, Variable Inside A Function Is Automatic By Default, Keyword Auto Are Rarely Used.
External Storage Class
External Variable Can Be Accessed By Any Function. They Are Also Known As Global Variables.
Variables Declared Outside Every Function Are External Variables.
In Case Of Large Program, Containing More Than One File, If The Global Variable Is Declared In
File 1 And That Variable Is Used In File 2 Then, Compiler Will Show Error. To Solve This
Problem, Keyword Extern Is Used In File 2 To Indicate That, The Variable Specified Is Global
Variable And Declared In Another File.
Example To Demonstrate Working Of External Variable

#include
void check();
int a=5;
/* a is global variable because it is outside every function */
int main(){
a+=4;
check();
return 0;
}

void check(){
++a;
/* ----- variable a is not declared in this function but, works in any function as they are global
variable ------- */
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printf("a=%d\n",a);
}
Output
A=10
Register Storage Class
Keyword To Declare Register Variable
Register
Example Of Register Variable
Register Int A;
Register Variables Are Similar To Automatic Variable And Exists Inside That Particular
Function Only.
If The Compiler Encounters Register Variable, It Tries To Store Variable In Microprocessor's
Register Rather Than Memory. Value Stored In Register Are Much Faster Than That Of
Memory.
In Case Of Larger Program, Variables That Are Used In Loops And Function Parameters Are
Declared Register Variables.
Since, There Are Limited Number Of Register In Processor And If It Couldn't Store The
Variable In Register, It Will Automatically Store It In Memory.
Static Storage Class
The Value Of Static Variable Persists Until The End Of The Program. A Variable Can Be
Declared Static Using Keyword:Static. For Example:
Static Int I;
Here, I Is A Static Variable.
Example To Demonstrate The Static Variable
#include <stdio.h>
void check();
int main(){
check();
check();
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check();
}
void check(){
static int c=0;
printf("%d\t",c);
c+=5;
}
Output
0 5 10
During First Function Call, It Will Display 0. Then, During Second Function Call, Variable C Will
Not Be Initialized To 0 Again, As It Is Static Variable. So, 5 Is Displayed In Second Function Call
And 10 In Third Call.
If Variable C Had Been Automatic Variable, The Output Would Have Been:
0 0 0

Programming Arrays
In C Programming, One Of The Frequently Arising Problem Is To Handle Similar Types Of Data.
For Example: If The User Want To Store Marks Of 100 Students. This Can Be Done By Creating
100 Variable Individually But, This Process Is Rather Tedious And Impracticable. These Type
Of Problem Can Be Handled In C Programming Using Arrays.
An Array Is A Sequence Of Data Item Of Homogeneous Value(Same Type).
Arrays Are Of Two Types:
1. One-Dimensional Arrays
2. Multidimensional Arrays( Will Be Discussed In Next Chapter )
Declaration Of One-Dimensional Array
Data_Type Array_Name[Array_Size];

For Example:
Int Age[5];
Here, The Name Of Array Is Age. The Size Of Array Is 5,I.E., There Are 5 Items(Elements) Of
Array Age. All Element In An Array Are Of The Same Type (Int, In This Case).
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Array Elements
Size Of Array Defines The Number Of Elements In An Array. Each Element Of Array Can Be
Accessed And Used By User According To The Need Of Program. For Example:
Int Age[5];

Note That, The First Element Is Numbered 0 And So On.
Here, The Size Of Array Age Is 5 Times The Size Of Int Because There Are 5 Elements.
Suppose, The Starting Addres Of Age[0] Is 2120d And The Size Of Int Be 4 Bytes. Then, The
Next Address (Address Ofa[1]) Will Be 2124d, Address Of A[2] Will Be 2128d And So On.
Initialization Of One-Dimensional Array:
Arrays Can Be Initialized At Declaration Time In This Source Code As:
Int Age[5]={2,4,34,3,4};
It Is Not Necessary To Define The Size Of Arrays During Initialization.
Int Age[]={2,4,34,3,4};
In This Case, The Compiler Determines The Size Of Array By Calculating The Number Of
Elements Of An Array.

Accessing Array Elements
In C Programming, Arrays Can Be Accessed And Treated Like Variables In C.
For Example:
Scanf("%D",&Age[2]);
/* Statement To Insert Value In The Third Element Of Array Age[]. */

Scanf("%D",&Age[I]);
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/* Statement To Insert Value In (I+1)Th Element Of Array Age[]. */
/* Because, The First Element Of Array Is Age[0], Second Is Age[1], Ith Is Age[I-1] And (I+1)Th
Is Age[I]. */

Printf("%D",Age[0]);
/* Statement To Print First Element Of An Array. */

Printf("%D",Age[I]);
/* Statement To Print (I+1)Th Element Of An Array. */
Example Of Array In C Programming

/* C Program To Find The Sum Marks Of N Students Using Arrays */

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int marks[10],i,n,sum=0;
printf("enter number of students: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;++i){
printf("enter marks of student%d: ",i+1);
scanf("%d",&marks[i]);
sum+=marks[i];
}
printf("sum= %d",sum);
return 0;
}

Output
Enter Number Of Students: 3
Enter Marks Of Student1: 12
Enter Marks Of Student2: 31
Enter Marks Of Student3: 2
Sum=45

Programming Multidimensional Arrays
C Programming Language Allows To Create Arrays Of Arrays Known As Multidimensional
Arrays. For Example:
Float A[2][6];
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Here, A Is An Array Of Two Dimension, Which Is An Example Of Multidimensional Array. This
Array Has 2 Rows And 6 Columns
For Better Understanding Of Multidimensional Arrays, Array Elements Of Above Example Can
Be Thinked Of As Below:


Initialization Of Multidimensional Arrays
In C, Multidimensional Arrays Can Be Initialized In Different Number Of Ways.
Int C[2][3]={{1,3,0}, {-1,5,9}};
Or
Int C[][3]={{1,3,0}, {-1,5,9}};
Or
Int C[2][3]={1,3,0,-1,5,9};
Initialization Of Three-Dimensional Array
Double Cprogram[3][2][4]={
{{-0.1, 0.22, 0.3, 4.3}, {2.3, 4.7, -0.9, 2}},
{{0.9, 3.6, 4.5, 4}, {1.2, 2.4, 0.22, -1}},
{{8.2, 3.12, 34.2, 0.1}, {2.1, 3.2, 4.3, -2.0}}
};
Suppose There Is A Multidimensional Array Arr[I][J][K][M]. Then This Array Can Hold I*J*K*M
Numbers Of Data.
Similarly, The Array Of Any Dimension Can Be Initialized In C Programming.
Example Of Multidimensional Array In C
Write A C Program To Find Sum Of Two Matrix Of Order 2*2 Using Multidimensional
Arrays Where, Elements Of Matrix Are Entered By User.

#include <stdio.h>
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int main(){
float a[2][2], b[2][2], c[2][2];
int i,j;
printf("enter the elements of 1st matrix\n");
/* reading two dimensional array with the help of two for loop. if there was an array of 'n'
dimension, 'n' numbers of loops are needed for inserting data to array.*/
for(i=0;i<2;++i)
for(j=0;j<2;++j){
printf("enter a%d%d: ",i+1,j+1);
scanf("%f",&a[i][j]);
}
printf("enter the elements of 2nd matrix\n");
for(i=0;i<2;++i)
for(j=0;j<2;++j){
printf("enter b%d%d: ",i+1,j+1);
scanf("%f",&b[i][j]);
}
for(i=0;i<2;++i)
for(j=0;j<2;++j){
/* writing the elements of multidimensional array using loop. */
c[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j]; /* sum of corresponding elements of two arrays. */
}
printf("\nsum of matrix:");
for(i=0;i<2;++i)
for(j=0;j<2;++j){
printf("%.1f\t",c[i][j]);
if(j==1) /* to display matrix sum in order. */
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}

Ouput
Enter The Elements Of 1st Matrix
Enter A11: 2;
Enter A12: 0.5;
Enter A21: -1.1;
Enter A22: 2;
Enter The Elements Of 2nd Matrix
Enter B11: 0.2;
Enter B12: 0;
Enter B21: 0.23;
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Enter B22: 23;

Sum Of Matrix:
2.2 0.5
-0.9 25.0

Programming Arrays And Functions

In C Programming, A Single Array Element Or An Entire Array Can Be Passed To A Function.
Also, Both One-Dimensional And Multi-Dimensional Array Can Be Passed To Function As
Argument.
Passing One-Dimensional Array In Function
C Program To Pass A Single Element Of An Array To Function

#include <stdio.h>
void display(int a)
{
printf("%d",a);
}
int main(){
int c[]={2,3,4};
display(c[2]); //passing array element c[2] only.
return 0;
}
Output
4
Single Element Of An Array Can Be Passed In Similar Manner As Passing Variable To A
Function.
Passing Entire One-Dimensional Array To A Function
While Passing Arrays To The Argument, The Name Of The Array Is Passed As An
Argument(,I.E, Starting Address Of Memory Area Is Passed As Argument).
Write A C Program To Pass An Array Containing Age Of Person To A Function. This
Function Should Find Average Age And Display The Average Age In Main Function.
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#include <stdio.h>
float average(float a[]);
int main(){
float avg, c[]={23.4, 55, 22.6, 3, 40.5, 18};
avg=average(c); /* only name of array is passed as argument. */
printf("average age=%.2f",avg);
return 0;
}
float average(float a[]){
int i;
float avg, sum=0.0;
for(i=0;i<6;++i){
sum+=a[i];
}
avg =(sum/6);
return avg;
}
Output
Average Age=27.08
Passing Multi-Dimensional Arrays To Function
To Pass Two-Dimensional Array To A Function As An Argument, Starting Address Of Memory
Area Reserved Is Passed As In One Dimensional Array
Example To Pass Two-Dimensional Arrays To Function

#include
void function(int c[2][2]);
int main(){
int c[2][2],i,j;
printf("enter 4 numbers:\n");
for(i=0;i<2;++i)
for(j=0;j<2;++j){
scanf("%d",&c[i][j]);
}
function(c); /* passing multi-dimensional array to function */
return 0;
}
void function(int c[2][2]){
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/* instead to above line, void function(int c[][2]){ is also valid */
int i,j;
printf("displaying:\n");
for(i=0;i<2;++i)
for(j=0;j<2;++j)
printf("%d\n",c[i][j]);
}
Output
Enter 4 Numbers:
2
3
4
5
Displaying:
2
3
4
5

Program To Calculate Average Using Arrays
This Program Takes N Number Of Element From User(Where, N Is Specified By User), Stores
Data In An Array And Calculates The Average Of Those Numbers.
Source Code To Calculate Average Using Arrays

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int n, i;
float num[100], sum=0.0, average;
printf("enter the numbers of data: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
while (n>100 || n<=0)
{
printf("error! number should in range of (1 to 100).\n");
printf("enter the number again: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
}
for(i=0; i<n; ++i)
{
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printf("%d. enter number: ",i+1);
scanf("%f",&num[i]);
sum+=num[i];
}
average=sum/n;
printf("average = %.2f",average);
return 0;
}
Output

This Program Calculates The Average If The Number Of Data Are From 1 To 100. If User
Enters Value Of N Above 100 Or Below 100 Then, While Loop Is Executed Which Asks User To
Enter Value Of N Until It Is Between 1 And 100.

Program To Find Largest Element Of An Array
This Program Takes N Number Of Element From User(Where, N Is Specified By User) And
Stores Data In An Array. Then, This Program Displays The Largest Element Of That Array
Using Loops.
Source Code To Display Largest Element Of An Array

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int i,n;
float arr[100];
printf("enter total number of elements(1 to 100): ");
scanf("%d",&n);
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printf("\n");
for(i=0;i<n;++i) /* stores number entered by user. */
{
printf("enter number %d: ",i+1);
scanf("%f",&arr[i]);
}
for(i=1;i<n;++i) /* loop to store largest number to arr[0] */
{
if(arr[0]<arr[i]) /* change < to > if you want to find smallest element*/
arr[0]=arr[i];
}
printf("largest element = %.2f",arr[0]);
return 0;
}
output

Explanation
This Program Takes N Number Of Elements From User And Stores It In Array Arr[]. To Find
The Largest Element, The First Two Elements Of Array Are Checked And Largest Of These Two
Element Is Placed In Arr[0]. Then, The First And Third Elements Are Checked And Largest Of
These Two Element Is Placed In Arr[0]. This Process Continues Until And First And Last
Elements Are Checked. After This Process, The Largest Element Of An Array Will Be
In Arr[0] Position.

Program To Add Two Matrix Using Multi-Dimensional Arryas
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This Program Asks User To Enter The Size Of The Matrix (Rows And Column) Then, It Asks
The User To Enter The Elements Of Two Matrices And Finally It Adds Two Matrix And
Displays The Result.
Source Code To Add Two Matrix In C Programming

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int r,c,a[100][100],b[100][100],sum[100][100],i,j;
printf("enter number of rows (between 1 and 100): ");
scanf("%d",&r);
printf("enter number of columns (between 1 and 100): ");
scanf("%d",&c);
printf("\nenter elements of 1st matrix:\n");

/* storing elements of first matrix entered by user. */

for(i=0;i<r;++i)
for(j=0;j<c;++j)
{
printf("enter element a%d%d: ",i+1,j+1);
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
}

/* storing elements of second matrix entered by user. */

printf("enter elements of 2nd matrix:\n");
for(i=0;i<r;++i)
for(j=0;j<c;++j)
{
printf("enter element a%d%d: ",i+1,j+1);
scanf("%d",&b[i][j]);
}

/*adding two matrices */

for(i=0;i<r;++i)
for(j=0;j<c;++j)
sum[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j];

/* displaying the resultant sum matrix. */

printf("\nsum of two matrix is: \n\n");
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for(i=0;i<r;++i)
for(j=0;j<c;++j)
{
printf("%d ",sum[i][j]);
if(j==c-1)
printf("\n\n");
}

return 0;
}
Output



Program To Find Transpose Of A Matrix
This Program Asks User To Enter A Matrix (Size Of Matrix Is Specified By User) And This
Program Finds The Transpose Of That Matrix And Displays It.
Source Code To Find Transpose Of A Matrix
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
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{
int a[10][10], trans[10][10], r, c, i, j;
printf("enter rows and column of matrix: ");
scanf("%d %d", &r, &c);

/* storing element of matrix entered by user in array a[][]. */
printf("\nenter elements of matrix:\n");
for(i=0; i<r; ++i)
for(j=0; j<c; ++j)
{
printf("enter elements a%d%d: ",i+1,j+1);
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
}
/* displaying the matrix a[][] */
printf("\nentered matrix: \n");
for(i=0; i<r; ++i)
for(j=0; j<c; ++j)
{
printf("%d ",a[i][j]);
if(j==c-1)
printf("\n\n");
}

/* finding transpose of matrix a[][] and storing it in array trans[][]. */
for(i=0; i<r; ++i)
for(j=0; j<c; ++j)
{
trans[j][i]=a[i][j];
}

/* displaying the transpose,i.e, displaying array trans[][]. */
printf("\ntranspose of matrix:\n");
for(i=0; i<c; ++i)
for(j=0; j<r; ++j)
{
printf("%d ",trans[i][j]);
if(j==r-1)
printf("\n\n");
}
return 0;
}
Output
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Bubble Sort Algorithm In Programming
Among Variaous Other Sorting Algorithm, Bubble Sort Algorithm Is One Of The Popular And
Frequently Used Algorithm To Sort Elements Either In Ascending Or Descending Order.
Bubble Sort Algorithm Starts By Comparing The First Two Elements Of An Array And
Swapping If Necessary, I.E., If You Want To Sort The Elements Of Array In Ascending Order
And If The First Element Is Greater Than Second Then, You Need To Swap The Elements But, If
The First Element Is Smaller Than Second, You Mustn't Swap The Element. Then, Again Second
And Third Elements Are Compared And Swapped If It Is Necessary And This Process Go On
Until Last And Second Last Element Is Compared And Swapped. This Completes The First Step
Of Bubble Sort.
If There Are N Elements To Be Sorted Then, The Process Mentioned Above Should Be
Repeated N-1 Times To Get Required Result. But, For Better Performance, In Second Step, Last
And Second Last Elements Are Not Compared Becuase, The Proper Element Is Automatically
Placed At Last After First Step. Similarly, In Third Step, Last And Second Last And Second Last
And Third Last Elements Are Not Compared And So On.
A Figure Is Worth A Thousand Words So, Acknowledge This Figure For Better Understanding
Of Bubble Sort.
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Here, There Are 5 Elements To The Sorted. So, There Are 4 Steps.
Program To Sort Elements Using Bubble Sort Algorithm

/*C Program To Sort Data In Ascending Order Using Bubble Sort.*/
#Include <Stdio.H>
int main()
{
int data[100],i,n,step,temp;
printf("enter the number of elements to be sorted: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
printf("%d. enter element: ",i+1);
scanf("%d",&data[i]);
}

for(step=0;step<n-1;++step)
for(i=0;i<n-step+1;++i)
{
if(data[i]>data[i+1]) /* to sort in descending order, change > to < in this line. */
{
temp=data[i];
data[i]=data[i+1];
data[i+1]=temp;
}
}
printf("in ascending order: ");
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for(i=0;i<n;++i)
printf("%d ",data[i]);
return 0;
}



Enter The Number Of Elements To Be Sorted: 6
1. Enter Element: 12
2. Enter Element: 3
3. Enter Element: 0
4. Enter Element: -3
5. Enter Element: 1
6. Enter Element: -9
In Ascending Order: -9 -3 0 1 3 13
Note: Though This Code Is In C Programming, This Technique Can Be Applied In Any
Programming To Sort Elements Of An Array.
Though Bubble Sort Algorithm Is Quite Popular, There Are Many Other Better Algorithm Than
Bubble Sort. Specially, Bubble Sort Should Be Used To Sort Large Data If Performance Matters
In That Program.
Program To Access Elements Of An Array Using Pointer
This Program Declares The Array Of Five Element And The Elements Of That Array Are
Accessed Using Pointer.
Source Code To Access Array Elements Using Pointer

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int data[5], i;
printf("enter elements: ");
for(i=0;i<5;++i)
scanf("%d",data+i);
printf("you entered: ");
for(i=0;i<5;++i)
printf("%d\n",*(data+i));
return 0;
}
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Output
Enter Elements: 1
2
3
5
4
You Entered: 1
2
3
5
4
Visit This Page To Learn About Relationship Between Pointer And Arrays.
Program Swap Numbers In Cyclic Order Using Call By Reference
This Program Takes Three Enters From User Which Is Stored In Variable A, B And C
Respectively. Then, These Variables Are Passed To Function Using Call By Reference. This
Function Swaps The Value Of These Elements In Cyclic Order.
C Program To Swap Elements Using Call By Reference
#include<stdio.h>
void cycle(int *a,int *b,int *c);
int main(){
int a,b,c;
printf("enter value of a, b and c respectively: ");
scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c);
printf("value before swapping:\n");
printf("a=%d\nb=%d\nc=%d\n",a,b,c);
cycle(&a,&b,&c);
printf("value after swapping numbers in cycle:\n");
printf("a=%d\nb=%d\nc=%d\n",a,b,c);
return 0;
}
void cycle(int *a,int *b,int *c){
int temp;
temp=*b;
*b=*a;
*a=*c;
*c=temp;
}
Output
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Enter Value Of A, B And C Respectively: 1
2
3
Value Before Swapping:
A=1
B=2
C=3
Value After Swapping Numbers In Cycle:
A=3
B=1
C=2

Program To Find Largest Number Using Dynamic Memory Allocation
In This Program, Calloc() Function Is Used To Allocate The Memory Dynamically. Depending
Upon The Number Of Elements, The Required Size Is Allocated Which Prevents The Wastage
Of Memory. If No Memory Is Allocated, Error Is Displayed And The Program Is Terminated.
Source Code To Find Largest Element Using Dynamic Memory Allocation

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(){
int i,n;
float *data;
printf("enter total number of elements(1 to 100): ");
scanf("%d",&n);
data=(float*)calloc(n,sizeof(float)); /* allocates the memory for 'n' elements */
if(data==null)
{
printf("error!!! memory not allocated.");
exit(0);
}
printf("\n");
for(i=0;i<n;++i) /* stores number entered by user. */
{
printf("enter number %d: ",i+1);
scanf("%f",data+i);
}
for(i=1;i<n;++i) /* loop to store largest number at address data */
{
if(*data<*(data+i)) /* change < to > if you want to find smallest number */
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*data=*(data+i);
}
printf("largest element = %.2f",*data);
return 0;
}

Output

Programming Pointers
Pointers Are The Powerful Feature Of C And (C++) Programming, Which Differs It From Other
Popular Programming Languages Like: Java And Visual Basic.
Pointers Are Used In C Program To Access The Memory And Manipulate The Address.
Reference Operator(&)
If Var Is A Variable Then, &Var Is The Address In Memory.

/* example to demonstrate use of reference operator in c programming. */
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int var=5;
printf("value: %d\n",var);
printf("address: %d",&var); //notice, the ampersand(&) before var.
return 0;
}
Output
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Value: 5
Address: 2686778
Note: You May Obtain Different Value Of Address While Using This Code.
In Above Source Code, Value 5 Is Stored In The Memory Location 2686778. Var Is Just The
Name Given To That Location.
You, Have Already Used Reference Operator In C Program While Using Scanf() Function.
Scanf("%D",&Var);
Reference Operator(*) And Pointer Variables
Pointers Variables Are Used For Taking Addresses As Values, I.E., A Variable That Holds
Address Value Is Called A Pointer Variable Or Simply A Pointer.
Declaration Of Pointer
Dereference Operator(*) Are Used To Identify An Operator As A Pointer.
Data_Type * Pointer_Variable_Name;
Int *P;
Above Statement Defines, P As Pointer Variable Of Type Int.
Example To Demonstrate Working Of Pointers

/* Source Code To Demonstrate, Handling Of Pointers In C Program */
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int *pc,c;
c=22;
printf("address of c:%d\n",&c);
printf("value of c:%d\n\n",c);
pc=&c;
printf("address of pointer pc:%d\n",pc);
printf("content of pointer pc:%d\n\n",*pc);
c=11;
printf("address of pointer pc:%d\n",pc);
printf("content of pointer pc:%d\n\n",*pc);
*pc=2;
printf("address of c:%d\n",&c);
printf("value of c:%d\n\n",c);
return 0;
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}

Output
Address Of C: 2686784
Value Of C: 22

Address Of Pointer Pc: 2686784
Content Of Pointer Pc: 22

Address Of Pointer Pc: 2686784
Content Of Pointer Pc: 11

Address Of C: 2686784
Value Of C: 2

Explanation Of Program And Figure
1. Code Int *Pc, P; Creates A Pointer Pc And A Variable C. Pointer Pc Points To Some
Address And That Address Has Garbage Value. Similarly, Variable C Also Has Garbage
Value At This Point.
2. Code C=22; Makes The Value Of C Equal To 22, I.E.,22 Is Stored In The Memory
Location Of Variable C.
3. Code Pc=&C; Makes Pointer, Point To Address Of C. Note That, &C Is The Address Of
Variable C (Because C Is Normal Variable) And Pc Is The Address Of Pc (Because Pc Is
The Pointer Variable). Since The Address Of Pc And Address Of C Is Same, *Pc (Value Of
Pointer Pc) Will Be Equal To The Value Of C.
4. Code C=11; Makes The Value Of C, 11. Since, Pointer Pc Is Pointing To Address Of C.
Value Of *Pc Will Also Be 11.
5. Code *Pc=2; Change The Address Pointed By Pointer Pc To Change To 2. Since, Address
Of Pointer Pc Is Same As Address Of C, Value Of C Also Changes To 2.

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Commonly Done Mistakes In Pointers
Suppose, The Programmar Want Pointer Pc To Point To The Address Of C. Then,
Int C, *Pc;
Pc=C; /* Pc Is Address Whereas, C Is Not An Address. */
*Pc=&C; /* &C Is Address Whereas, *Pc Is Not An Address. */
In Both Cases, Pointer Pc Is Not Pointing To The Address Of C.
Pointers And Arrays
Arrays Are Closely Related To Pointers In C Programming. Arrays And Pointers Are
Synonymous In Terms Of How They Use To Access Memory. But, The Important Difference
Between Them Is That, A Pointer Variable Can Take Different Addresses As Value Whereas, In
Case Of Array It Is Fixed. This Can Be Demonstrated By An Example:

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char c[4];
int i;
for(i=0;i<4;++i){
printf("address of c[%d]=%x\n",i,&c[i]);
}
return 0;
}
Address Of C[0]=28ff44
Address Of C[1]=28ff45
Address Of C[2]=28ff46
Address Of C[3]=28ff47
Notice, That There Is Equal Difference (Difference Of 1 Byte) Between Any Two Consecutive
Elements Of Array.
Note: You May Get Different Address Of An Array.
Relation Between Arrays And Pointers
Consider And Array:
Int Arr[4];
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In Arrays Of C Programming, Name Of The Array Always Points To The First Element Of An
Array. Here, Address Of First Element Of An Array Is &Arr[0]. Also, Arr Represents The
Address Of The Pointer Where It Is Pointing. Hence, &Arr[0] Is Equivalent To Arr.
Also, Value Inside The Address &Arr[0] And Address Arr Are Equal. Value In
Address &Arr[0] Is Arr[0] And Value In Addressarr Is *Arr. Hence, Arr[0] Is Equivalent To
*Arr.
Similarly,
&A[1] Is Equivalent To (A+1) And, A[1] Is Equivalent To *(A+1).
&A[2] Is Equivalent To (A+2) And, A[2] Is Equivalent To *(A+2).
&A[3] Is Equivalent To (A+1) And, A[3] Is Equivalent To *(A+3).
.
.
&A[I] Is Equivalent To (A+I) And, A[I] Is Equivalent To *(A+I).
In C, You Can Declare An Array And Can Use Pointer To Alter The Data Of An Array.
//Program To Find The Sum Of Six Numbers With Arrays And Pointers.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int i,class[6],sum=0;
printf("enter 6 numbers:\n");
for(i=0;i<6;++i){
scanf("%d",(class+i)); // (class+i) is equivalent to &class[i]
sum += *(class+i); // *(class+i) is equivalent to class[i]
}
printf("sum=%d",sum);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter 6 Numbers:
2
3
4
5
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3
4
Sum=21
Programming Pointers And Functions - Call By Reference
When, Argument Is Passed Using Pointer, Address Of The Memory Location Is Passed Instead
Of Value.
Example Of Pointer And Functions
Program To Swap Two Number Using Call By Reference.
/* c program to swap two numbers using pointers and function. */
#include <stdio.h>
void swap(int *a,int *b);
int main(){
int num1=5,num2=10;
swap(&num1,&num2); /* address of num1 and num2 is passed to swap function */
printf("number1 = %d\n",num1);
printf("number2 = %d",num2);
return 0;
}
void swap(int *a,int *b){ /* pointer a and b points to address of num1 and num2 respectively
*/
int temp;
temp=*a;
*a=*b;
*b=temp;
}
Output
Number1 = 10
Number2 = 5
Explanation
The Address Of Memory Location Num1 And Num2 Are Passed To Function And The
Pointers *A And *B Accept Those Values. So, The Pointer A And B Points To Address
Of Num1 And Num2 Respectively. When, The Value Of Pointer Are Changed, The Value In
Memory Location Also Changed Correspondingly. Hence, Change Made To *A And *B Was
Reflected In Num1 And Num2 In Main Function.
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This Technique Is Known As Call By Reference In C Programming.
Programming Dynamic Memory Allocation
The Exact Size Of Array Is Unknown Untill The Compile Time,I.E., Time When A Compier
Compiles Code Written In A Programming Language Into A Executable Form. The Size Of
Array You Have Declared Initially Can Be Sometimes Insufficient And Sometimes More Than
Required. Dynamic Memory Allocation Allows A Program To Obtain More Memory Space,
While Running Or To Release Space When No Space Is Required.
Although, C Language Inherently Does Not Has Any Technique To Allocated Memory
Dynamically, There Are 4 Library Functions Under "Stdlib.H" For Dynamic Memory Allocation.
Function Use Of Function
Malloc()
Allocates Requested Size Of Bytes And Returns A Pointer
First Byte Of Allocated Space
Calloc()
Allocates Space For An Array Elements, Initializes To Zero
And Then Returns A Pointer To Memory
Free() Dellocate The Previously Allocated Space
Realloc() Change The Size Of Previously Allocated Space
Malloc()
The Name Malloc Stands For "Memory Allocation". The Function Malloc() Reserves A Block Of
Memory Of Specified Size And Return A Pointer Of Type Void Which Can Be Casted Into
Pointer Of Any Form.
Syntax Of Malloc()
Ptr=(Cast-Type*)Malloc(Byte-Size)
Here, Ptr Is Pointer Of Cast-Type. The Malloc() Function Returns A Pointer To An Area Of
Memory With Size Of Byte Size. If The Space Is Insufficient, Allocation Fails And Returns Null
Pointer.
Ptr=(Int*)Malloc(100*Sizeof(Int));
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This Statement Will Allocate Either 200 Or 400 According To Size Of Int 2 Or 4 Bytes
Respectively And The Pointer Points To The Address Of First Byte Of Memory.
Calloc()
The Name Calloc Stands For "Contiguous Allocation". The Only Difference Between Malloc()
And Calloc() Is That, Malloc() Allocates Single Block Of Memory Whereas Calloc() Allocates
Multiple Blocks Of Memory Each Of Same Size And Sets All Bytes To Zero.
Syntax Of Calloc()
Ptr=(Cast-Type*)Calloc(N,Element-Size);
This Statement Will Allocate Contiguous Space In Memory For An Array Of N Elements. For
Example:
Ptr=(Float*)Calloc(25,Sizeof(Float));
This Statement Allocates Contiguous Space In Memory For An Array Of 25 Elements Each Of
Size Of Float, I.E, 4 Bytes.
Free()
Dynamically Allocated Memory With Either Calloc() Or Malloc() Does Not Get Return On Its
Own. The Programmer Must Use Free() Explicitly To Release Space.
Syntax Of Free()
Free(Ptr);
This Statement Cause The Space In Memory Pointer By Ptr To Be Deallocated.
Examples Of Calloc() And Malloc()
Write A C Program To Find Sum Of N Elements Entered By User. To Perform This
Program, Allocate Memory Dynamically Using Malloc() Function.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(){
int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;
printf("enter number of elements: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
ptr=(int*)malloc(n*sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using malloc
if(ptr==null)
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{
printf("error! memory not allocated.");
exit(0);
}
printf("enter elements of array: ");
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
scanf("%d",ptr+i);
sum+=*(ptr+i);
}
printf("sum=%d",sum);
free(ptr);
return 0;
}

write a c program to find sum of n elements entered by user. to perform this program,
allocate memory dynamically using calloc() function.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(){
int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;
printf("enter number of elements: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
ptr=(int*)calloc(n,sizeof(int));
if(ptr==null)
{
printf("error! memory not allocated.");
exit(0);
}
printf("enter elements of array: ");
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
scanf("%d",ptr+i);
sum+=*(ptr+i);
}
printf("sum=%d",sum);
free(ptr);
return 0;
}
realloc()
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if the previously allocated memory is insufficient or more than sufficient. then, you can change
memory size previously allocated using realloc().
syntax of realloc()
ptr=realloc(ptr,newsize);
here, ptr is reallocated with size of newsize.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(){
int *ptr,i,n1,n2;
printf("enter size of array: ");
scanf("%d",&n1);
ptr=(int*)malloc(n1*sizeof(int));
printf("address of previously allocated memory: ");
for(i=0;i<n1;++i)
printf("%u\t",ptr+i);
printf("\nenter new size of array: ");
scanf("%d",&n2);
ptr=realloc(ptr,n2);
for(i=0;i<n2;++i)
printf("%u\t",ptr+i);
return 0;
}
C Programming String
In C Programming, Array Of Character Are Called Strings. A String Is Terminated By Null
Character /0. For Example:
"C String Tutorial"
Here, "C String Tutorial" Is A String. When, Compiler Encounters Strings, It Appends Null
Character At The End Of String.

Declaration Of Strings
Strings Are Declared In C In Similar Manner As Arrays. Only Difference Is That, Strings Are
Of Char Type.
Char S[5];
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Strings Can Also Be Declared Using Pointer.
Char *P
Initialization Of Strings
In C, String Can Be Initialized In Different Number Of Ways.
Char C[]="Abcd";
Or,
Char C[5]="Abcd";
Or,
Char C[]={'A','B','C','D','\0'};
Or;
Char C[5]={'A','B','C','D','\0'};

String Can Also Be Initialized Using Pointers
Char *C="Abcd";
Reading Strings From User.
Reading Words From User.
Char C[20];
Scanf("%S",C);
String Variable C Can Only Take A Word. It Is Beacause When White Space Is Encountered,
The Scanf() Function Terminates.
Write A C Program To Illustrate How To Read String From Terminal.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char name[20];
printf("enter name: ");
scanf("%s",name);
printf("your name is %s.",name);
return 0;
}
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Output
Enter Name: Dennis Ritchie
Your Name Is Dennis.
Here, Program Will Ignore Ritchie Because, Scanf() Function Takes Only String Before The
White Space.
Reading A Line Of Text
C Program To Read Line Of Text Manually.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char name[30],ch;
int i=0;
printf("enter name: ");
while(ch!='\n') // terminates if user hit enter
{
ch=getchar();
name[i]=ch;
i++;
}
name[i]='\0'; // inserting null character at end
printf("name: %s",name);
return 0;
}
This Process To Take String Is Tedious. There Are Predefined Functions Gets() And Puts In C
language to read and display string respectively.
int main(){
char name[30];
printf("enter name: ");
gets(name); //function to read string from user.
printf("name: ");
puts(name); //function to display string.
return 0;
}
Both, The Above Program Has Same Output Below:
Output
Enter Name: Tom Hanks
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Name: Tom Hanks
Passing Strings To Functions
String Can Be Passed To Function In Similar Manner As Arrays As, String Is Also An Array.
Learn More About Passing Array To A Function.
#include <stdio.h>
void display(char ch[]);
int main(){
char c[50];
printf("enter string: ");
gets(c);
display(c); // passing string c to function.
return 0;
}
void display(char ch[]){
printf("string output: ");
puts(ch);
}
Here, String C Is Passed From Main() Function To User-Defined Function Display(). In
Function Declaration, Ch[] Is The Formal Argument.
String Handling Functions
You Can Perform Different Type Of String Operations Manually Like: Finding Length Of String,
Concatenating(Joining) Two Strings Etc. But, For Programmers Ease, Many Library Function
Are Defined Under Header File <String.H> To Handle These Commonly Used Talk In C
Programming. You Will Learn More About String Hadling Function In Next Chapter.
String Manipulations In C Programming Using Library Functions
Strings Are Often Needed To Be Manipulated By Programmer According To The Need Of A
Problem. All String Manipulation Can Be Done Manually By The Programmer But, This Makes
Programming Complex And Large. To Solve This, The C Supports A Large Number Of String
Handling Functions.
There Are Numerous Functions Defined In "String.H" Header File. Few Commonly Used String
Handling Functions Are Discussed Below:
Function Work Of Function
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Function Work Of Function
Strlen() Calculates The Length Of String
Strcpy() Copies A String To Another String
Strcat() Concatenates(Joins) Two Strings
Strcmp() Compares Two String
Strlwr() Converts String To Lowercase
Strupr() Converts String To Uppercase
Strings Handling Functions Are Defined Under "String.H" Header File, I.E, You Have To Include
The Code Below To Run String Handling Functions.
#Include <String.H>
Gets() And Puts()
Functions Gets() And Puts() Are Two String Functions To Take String Input From User And
Display String Respectively As Mentioned In Previous Chapter.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
char name[30];
printf("enter name: ");
gets(name); //function to read string from user.
printf("name: ");
puts(name); //function to display string.
return 0;
}
Though, Gets() And Puts() Function Handle String, Both These Functions Are Defined
In "Stdio.H" Header File.
Program To Find The Frequency Of Characters In A String
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This Program Asks User To Enter A String And A Character And This Program Checks How
Many Times That Character Is Repeated In The String Entered By User.
Source Code To Find The Frequency Of Characters

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char c[1000],ch;
int i,count=0;
printf("enter a string: ");
gets(c);
printf("enter a characeter to find frequency: ");
scanf("%c",&ch);
for(i=0;c[i]!='\0';++i)
{
if(ch==c[i])
++count;
}
printf("frequency of %c = %d", ch, count);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter A String: This Website Is Awesome.
Enter A Frequency To Find Frequency: E
Frequency Of E = 4
Program To Find The Number Of Vowels, Consonants, Digits And White Space In A String
This Program Takes A String From User And Finds The Total Number Of Vowels, Consonants,
Digits And White Space Present In That String.
Source Code To Find Number Of Vowels, Consonants, Digits And White Space Character

#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
char line[150];
int i,v,c,ch,d,s,o;
o=v=c=ch=d=s=0;
printf("enter a line of string:\n");
gets(line);
for(i=0;line[i]!='\0';++i)
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{
if(line[i]=='a' || line[i]=='e' || line[i]=='i' || line[i]=='o' || line[i]=='u' || line[i]=='a' ||
line[i]=='e' || line[i]=='i' || line[i]=='o' || line[i]=='u')
++v;
else if((line[i]>='a'&& line[i]<='z') || (line[i]>='a'&& line[i]<='z'))
++c;
else if(line[i]>='0'&&c<='9')
++d;
else if (line[i]==' ')
++s;
}
printf("vowels: %d",v);
printf("\nconsonants: %d",c);
printf("\ndigits: %d",d);
printf("\nwhite spaces: %d",s);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter A Line Of String:
This Program Is Easy 2 Understand
Vowels: 9
Consonants: 18
Digits: 1
White Spaces: 5
Program To Reverse A String By Passing It To Function
This Program Asks User To Enter A String. Then, That String Is Passed To A Function Which
Reverses The String And Finally The Reversed String Is Displayed In The Main( ) Function.
Source Code To Reverse String

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void reverse(char str[]);
int main(){
char str[100];
printf("enter a string to reverse: ");
gets(str);
reverse(str);
printf("reversed string: ");
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puts(str);
return 0;
}
void reverse(char str[]){
int i,j;
char temp[100];
for(i=strlen(str)-1,j=0; i+1!=0; --i,++j)
{
temp[j]=str[i];
}
temp[j]='\0';
strcpy(str,temp);
}
Output
Enter A String To Reverse: Zimargorp
Reversed String: Programiz
C Program To Concatenate Two Strings
You Can Concatenate Two Strings Easily Using Standard Library Function Strcat( ) But, This
Program Concatenates Two Strings Manually Without Using Strcat( ) Function.
Source Code To Concatenate Two Strings Manually
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char s1[100], s2[100], i, j;
printf("enter first string: ");
scanf("%s",s1);
printf("enter second string: ");
scanf("%s",s2);
for(i=0; s1[i]!='\0'; ++i); /* i contains length of string s1. */
for(j=0; s2[j]!='\0'; ++j, ++i)
{
s1[i]=s2[j];
}
s1[i]='\0';
printf("after concatenation: %s",s1);
return 0;
}
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Output
Enter First String: Lol
Enter Second String: :)
After Concatenation: Lol:)
Program To Remove All Characters In A String Except Alphabet
This Program Takes A Strings From User And Removes All Characters In That String Except
Alphabets.
Source Code To Remove Characters In String Except Alphabets

#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
char line[150];
int i,j;
printf("enter a string: ");
gets(line);
for(i=0; line[i]!='\0'; ++i)
{
while (!((line[i]>='a'&&line[i]<='z') || (line[i]>='a'&&line[i]<='z' || line[i]=='\0')))
{
for(j=i;line[j]!='\0';++j)
{
line[j]=line[j+1];
}
line[j]='\0';
}
}
printf("output string: ");
puts(line);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter A String: P2'r"O@Gram84iz./
Output String: Programiz
This Program Takes A String From User And For Loop Executed Until All Characters Of String
Is Checked. If Any Character Inside A String Is Not A Alphabet, All Characters After It Including
Null Character Is Shifted By 1 Position Backwards.
C Programming Structure
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Structure Is The Collection Of Variables Of Different Types Under A Single Name For Better
Handling. For Example: You Want To Store The Information About Person About His/Her
Name, Citizenship Number And Salary. You Can Create These Information Separately But,
Better Approach Will Be Collection Of These Information Under Single Name Because All
These Information Are Related To Person.
Structure Definition In C
Keyword Struct Is Used For Creating A Structure.
Syntax Of Structure
Struct Structure_Name
{
Data_Type Member1;
Data_Type Member2;
.
.
Data_Type Memeber;
};
We Can Create The Structure For A Person As Mentioned Above As:
Struct Person
{
Char Name[50];
Int Cit_No;
Float Salary;
};
This Declaration Above Creates The Derived Data Type Struct Person.
Structure Variable Declaration
When A Structure Is Defined, It Creates A User-Defined Type But, No Storage Is Allocated. For
The Above Structure Of Person, Variable Can Be Declared As:
Struct Person
{
Char Name[50];
Int Cit_No;
Float Salary;
};

Inside Main Function:
Struct Person P1, P2, P[20];
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Another Way Of Creating Sturcture Variable Is:
Struct Person
{
Char Name[50];
Int Cit_No;
Float Salary;
}P1 ,P2 ,P[20];
In Both Cases, 2 Variables P1, P2 And Array P Having 20 Elements Of Type Struct Person Are
Created.
Accessing Members Of A Structure
There Are Two Types Of Operators Used For Accessing Members Of A Structure.
1. Member Operator(.)
2. Structure Pointer Operator(->) (Will Be Discussed In Structure And Pointers Chapter)
Any Member Of A Structure Can Be Accessed As: Structure_Variable_Name.Member_Name
Suppose, We Want To Access Salary For Variable P2. Then, It Can Be Accessed As:
P2.Salary
Example Of Structure
Write A C Program To Add Two Distances Entered By User. Measurement Of Distance
Should Be In Inch And Feet.(Note: 12 Inches = 1 Foot)

#include <stdio.h>
struct distance{
int feet;
float inch;
}d1,d2,sum;
int main(){
printf("1st distance\n");
printf("enter feet: ");
scanf("%d",&d1.feet); /* input of feet for structure variable d1 */
printf("enter inch: ");
scanf("%f",&d1.inch); /* input of inch for structure variable d1 */
printf("2nd distance\n");
printf("enter feet: ");
scanf("%d",&d2.feet); /* input of feet for structure variable d2 */
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printf("enter inch: ");
scanf("%f",&d2.inch); /* input of inch for structure variable d2 */
sum.feet=d1.feet+d2.feet;
sum.inch=d1.inch+d2.inch;
if (sum.inch>12){ //if inch is greater than 12, changing it to feet.
++sum.feet;
sum.inch=sum.inch-12;
}
printf("sum of distances=%d\'-%.1f\"",sum.feet,sum.inch);
/* printing sum of distance d1 and d2 */
return 0;
}
Output
1st Distance
Enter Feet: 12
Enter Inch: 7.9
2nd Distance
Enter Feet: 2
Enter Inch: 9.8
Sum Of Distances= 15'-5.7"
Keyword Typedef While Using Structure
Programmer Generally Use Typedef While Using Structure In C Language. For Example:
Typedef Struct Complex{
Int Imag;
Float Real;
}Comp;

Inside Main:
Comp C1,C2;
Here, Typedef Keyword Is Used In Creating A Type Comp(Which Is Of Type As Struct
Complex). Then, Two Structure Variables C1 And C2 Are Created By This Comp Type.
Structures Within Structures
Structures Can Be Nested Within Other Structures In C Programming.
Struct Complex
{
Int Imag_Value;
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Float Real_Value;
};
Struct Number{
Struct Complex C1;
Int Real;
}N1,N2;
Suppose You Want To Access Imag_Value For N2 Structure Variable Then, Structure
Member N1.C1.Imag_Value Is Used.
C Programming Structure And Pointer
Pointers Can Be Accessed Along With Structures. A Pointer Variable Of Structure Can Be
Created As Below:
Struct Name {
Member1;
Member2;
.
.
};
-------- Inside Function -------
Struct Name *Ptr;
Here, The Pointer Variable Of Type Struct Name Is Created.
Structure's Member Through Pointer Can Be Used In Two Ways:
1. Referencing Pointer To Another Address To Access Memory
2. Using Dynamic Memory Allocation
Consider An Example To Access Structure's Member Through Pointer.
#include <stdio.h>
struct name{
int a;
float b;
};
int main(){
struct name *ptr,p;
ptr=&p; /* referencing pointer to memory address of p */
printf("enter integer: ");
scanf("%d",&(*ptr).a);
printf("enter number: ");
scanf("%f",&(*ptr).b);
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printf("displaying: ");
printf("%d%f",(*ptr).a,(*ptr).b);
return 0;
}
In This Example, The Pointer Variable Of Type Struct Name Is Referenced To The Address
Of P. Then, Only The Structure Member Through Pointer Can Can Accessed.
Structure Pointer Member Can Also Be Accessed Using -> Operator.
(*Ptr).A Is Same As Ptr->A
(*Ptr).B Is Same As Ptr->B
Accessing Structure Member Through Pointer Using Dynamic Memory Allocation
To Access Structure Member Using Pointers, Memory Can Be Allocated Dynamically
Using Malloc() Function Defined Under "Stdlib.H" Header File.
Syntax To Use Malloc()
Ptr=(Cast-Type*)Malloc(Byte-Size)
Example To Use Structure's Member Through Pointer Using Malloc() Function.
#include <stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
struct name {
int a;
float b;
char c[30];
};
int main(){
struct name *ptr;
int i,n;
printf("enter n: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
ptr=(struct name*)malloc(n*sizeof(struct name));
/* above statement allocates the memory for n structures with pointer ptr pointing to base
address */
for(i=0;i<n;++i){
printf("enter string, integer and floating number respectively:\n");
scanf("%s%d%f",&(ptr+i)->c,&(ptr+i)->a,&(ptr+i)->b);
}
printf("displaying infromation:\n");
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
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printf("%s\t%d\t%.2f\n",(ptr+i)->c,(ptr+i)->a,(ptr+i)->b);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter N: 2
Enter String, Integer And Floating Number Respectively:
Programming
2
3.2
Enter String, Integer And Floating Number Respectively:
Structure
6
2.3
Displaying Information
Programming 2 3.20
Structure 6 2.30
C Programming Structure And Function
In C, Structure Can Be Passed To Functions By Two Methods:
1. Passing By Value (Passing Actual Value As Argument)
2. Passing By Reference (Passing Address Of An Argument)
Passing Structure By Value
A Structure Variable Can Be Passed To The Function As An Argument As Normal Variable. If
Structure Is Passed By Value, Change Made In Structure Variable In Function Definition Does
Not Reflect In Original Structure Variable In Calling Function.
Write A C Program To Create A Structure Student, Containing Name And Roll. Ask User The
Name And Roll Of A Student In Main Function. Pass This Structure To A Function And Display
The Information In That Function.
#INCLUDE <STDIO.H>
STRUCT STUDENT{
CHAR NAME[50];
INT ROLL;
};
VOID DISPLAY(STRUCT STUDENT STU);
/* FUNCTION PROTOTYPE SHOULD BE BELOW TO THE STRUCTURE DECLARATION
OTHERWISE COMPILER SHOWS ERROR */
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INT MAIN(){
STRUCT STUDENT S1;
PRINTF("ENTER STUDENT'S NAME: ");
SCANF("%S",&S1.NAME);
PRINTF("ENTER ROLL NUMBER:");
SCANF("%D",&S1.ROLL);
DISPLAY(S1); // PASSING STRUCTURE VARIABLE S1 AS ARGUMENT
RETURN 0;
}
VOID DISPLAY(STRUCT STUDENT STU){
PRINTF("OUTPUT\NNAME: %S",STU.NAME);
PRINTF("\NROLL: %D",STU.ROLL);
}
Output
Enter Student's Name: Kevin Amla
Enter Roll Number: 149
Output
Name: Kevin Amla
Roll: 149
Passing Structure By Reference
The Address Location Of Structure Variable Is Passed To Function While Passing It By
Reference. If Structure Is Passed By Reference, Change Made In Structure Variable In Function
Definition Reflects In Original Structure Variable In The Calling Function.
Write A C Program To Add Two Distances(Feet-Inch System) Entered By User. To Solve
This Program, Make A Structure. Pass Two Structure Variable (Containing Distance In
Feet And Inch) To Add Function By Reference And Display The Result In Main Function
Without Returning It.
#include <stdio.h>
struct distance{
int feet;
float inch;
};
void add(struct distance d1,struct distance d2, struct distance *d3);
int main()
{
struct distance dist1, dist2, dist3;
printf("first distance\n");
printf("enter feet: ");
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scanf("%d",&dist1.feet);
printf("enter inch: ");
scanf("%f",&dist1.inch);
printf("second distance\n");
printf("enter feet: ");
scanf("%d",&dist2.feet);
printf("enter inch: ");
scanf("%f",&dist2.inch);
add(dist1, dist2, &dist3);

/*passing structure variables dist1 and dist2 by value whereas passing structure variable
dist3 by reference */
printf("\nsum of distances = %d\'-%.1f\"",dist3.feet, dist3.inch);
return 0;
}
void add(struct distance d1,struct distance d2, struct distance *d3)
{
/* adding distances d1 and d2 and storing it in d3 */
d3->feet=d1.feet+d2.feet;
d3->inch=d1.inch+d2.inch;
if (d3->inch>=12) { /* if inch is greater or equal to 12, converting it to feet. */
d3->inch-=12;
++d3->feet;
}
}
Output
First Distance
Enter Feet: 12
Enter Inch: 6.8
Second Distance
Enter Feet: 5
Enter Inch: 7.5

Sum Of Distances = 18'-2.3"
Explaination
In This Program, Structure Variables Dist1 And Dist2 Are Passed By Value (Because Value
Of Dist1 And Dist2 Does Not Need To Be Displayed In Main Function) And Dist3 Is Passed By
Reference ,I.E, Address Of Dist3 (&Dist3) Is Passed As An Argument. Thus, The Structure
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Pointer Variable D3 Points To The Address Of Dist3. If Any Change Is Made In D3variable,
Effect Of It Is Seed In Dist3 Variable In Main Function.
C Programming Unions
Unions Are Quite Similar To The Structures In C. Union Is Also A Derived Type As Structure.
Union Can Be Defined In Same Manner As Structures Just The Keyword Used In Defining
Union In Union Where Keyword Used In Defining Structure Was Struct.
Union Car{
Char Name[50];
Int Price;
};
Union Variables Can Be Created In Similar Manner As Structure Variable.
Union Car{
Char Name[50];
Int Price;
}C1, C2, *C3;

Or;

Union Car{
Char Name[50];
Int Price;
};
-------Inside Function-----------
Union Car C1, C2, *C3;
In Both Cases, Union Variables C1, C2 And Union Pointer Variable C3 Of Type Union Car Is
Created.
Accessing Members Of An Union
The Member Of Unions Can Be Accessed In Similar Manner As That Structure. Suppose, We
You Want To Access Price For Union Variable C1 In Above Example, It Can Be Accessed
As C1.Price. If You Want To Access Price For Union Pointer Variable C3, It Can Be Accessed
As (*C3).Price Or As C3->Price.
Difference Between Union And Structure
Though Unions Are Similar To Structure In So Many Ways, The Difference Between Them Is
Crucial To Understand. This Can Be Demonstrated By This Example:
#include <stdio.h>
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union job { //defining a union
char name[32];
float salary;
int worker_no;
}u;
struct job1 {
char name[32];
float salary;
int worker_no;
}s;
int main(){
printf("size of union = %d",sizeof(u));
printf("\nsize of structure = %d", sizeof(s));
return 0;
}
Output
Size Of Union = 32
Size Of Structure = 40
There Is Difference In Memory Allocation Between Union And Structure As Suggested In
Above Example. The Amount Of Memory Required To Store A Structure Variables Is The Sum
Of Memory Size Of All Members.

But, The Memory Required To Store A Union Variable Is The Memory Required For Largest
Element Of An Union.

What Difference Does It Make Between Structure And Union?
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As You Know, All Members Of Structure Can Be Accessed At Any Time. But, Only One Member
Of Union Can Be Accessed At A Time In Case Of Union And Other Members Will Contain
Garbage Value.
#include <stdio.h>
union job {
char name[32];
float salary;
int worker_no;
}u;
int main(){
printf("enter name:\n");
scanf("%s",&u.name);
printf("enter salary: \n");
scanf("%f",&u.salary);
printf("displaying\nname :%s\n",u.name);
printf("salary: %.1f",u.salary);
return 0;
}
output
Enter Name
Hillary
Enter Salary
1234.23
Displaying
Name: F%Bary
Salary: 1234.2
Note: You May Get Different Garbage Value Of Name.
Why This Output?
Initially, Hillary Will Be Stored In U.Name And Other Members Of Union Will Contain Garbage
Value. But When User Enters Value Of Salary, 1234.23 Will Be Stored In U.Salary And Other
Members Will Contain Garbage Value. Thus In Output, Salary Is Printed Accurately But, Name
Displays Some Random String.
Passing Union To A Function
Union Can Be Passed In Similar Manner As Structures In C Programming. Visit This Page To
Learn More About: How Structure Can Be Passed To Function In C Programming?
C Program To Store Information(Name, Roll And Marks) Of A Student Using Structure
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In This Program, A Structure(Student) Is Created Which Contains Name, Roll And Marks As Its
Data Member. Then, A Structure Variable( S ) Is Created. Then, Data (Name, Roll And Marks) Is
Taken From User And Stored In Data Members Of Structure Variable S. Finally, The Data
Entered By User Is Displayed.
C Program To Store Information Of Single Variable
#include <stdio.h>
struct student{
char name[50];
int roll;
float marks;
};
int main(){
struct student s;
printf("enter information of students:\n\n");
printf("enter name: ");
scanf("%s",s.name);
printf("enter roll number: ");
scanf("%d",&s.roll);
printf("enter marks: ");
scanf("%f",&s.marks);
printf("\ndisplaying information\n");
printf("name: %s\n",s.name);
printf("roll: %d\n",s.roll);
printf("marks: %.2f\n",s.marks);
return 0;
}
Output

C Program To Store Information Of 10 Students Using Structure
In This Program, A Structure(Student) Is Created Which Contains Name, Roll And Marks As Its
Data Member. Then, An Array Of Structure Of 10 Elements Is Created. Then, Data(Name, Roll
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And Marks) For 10 Elements Is Asked To User And Stored In Array Of Structure. Finally, The
Data Entered By User Is Displayed.
Source Code To Store Information Of 10 Students Using Structure
#include <stdio.h>
struct student{
char name[50];
int roll;
float marks;
};
int main(){
struct student s[10];
int i;
printf("enter information of students:\n");
for(i=0;i<10;++i)
{
s[i].roll=i+1;
printf("\nfor roll number %d\n",s[i].roll);
printf("enter name: ");
scanf("%s",s[i].name);
printf("enter marks: ");
scanf("%f",&s[i].marks);
printf("\n");
}
printf("displaying information of students:\n\n");
for(i=0;i<10;++i)
{
printf("\ninformation for roll number %d:\n",i+1);
printf("name: ");
puts(s[i].name);
printf("marks: %.1f",s[i].marks);
}
return 0;
}
Output
Enter Information Of Students:

For Roll Number 1
Enter Name: Tom
Enter Marks: 98

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For Roll Number 2
Enter Name: Jerry
Enter Marks: 89
.
.
.
Displaying Information Of Students:

Information For Roll Number 1:
Name: Tom
Marks: 98
.
.
.
C Program To Store Information Using Structures For N Elements Dynamically
This Program Asks User To Store The Value Of N And Allocates The Memory For
The N Structure Variable Dynamically Using Malloc() Function.
Source Code Demonstrate The Dynamic Memory Allocation For Structure
#include <stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
struct name {
int a;
char c[30];
};
int main(){
struct name *ptr;
int i,n;
printf("enter n: ");
scanf("%d",&n);

/* allocates the memory for n structures with pointer ptr pointing to the base address. */
ptr=(struct name*)malloc(n*sizeof(struct name));
for(i=0;i<n;++i){
printf("enter string and integer respectively:\n");
scanf("%s%d",&(ptr+i)->c, &(ptr+i)->a);
}
printf("displaying infromation:\n");
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
printf("%s\t%d\t\n",(ptr+i)->c,(ptr+i)->a);
return 0;
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}
Output
Enter N: 2
Enter String And Integer Respectively:
Programming
22
Enter String, Integer And Floating Number Respectively:
Structure
33

Displaying Information:
Programming 22
Structure 33
C Programming Files
In C Programming, File Is A Place On Disk Where A Group Of Related Data Is Stored.
Why Files Are Needed?
When The Program Is Terminated, The Entire Data Is Lost In C Programming. If You Want To
Keep Large Volume Of Data, It Is Time Consuming To Enter The Entire Data. But, If File Is
Created, These Information Can Be Accessed Using Few Commands.
There Are Large Numbers Of Functions To Handle File I/O In C Language. In This Tutorial, You
Will Learn To Handle Standard I/O(High Level File I/O Functions) In C.
High Level File I/O Functions Can Be Categorized As:
1. Text File
2. Binary File
File Operations
1. Creating A New File
2. Opening An Existing File
3. Reading From And Writing Information To A File
4. Closing A File
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Working With File
While Working With File, You Need To Declare A Pointer Of Type File. This Declaration Is
Needed For Communication Between File And Program.
File *Ptr;
Opening A File
Opening A File Is Performed Using Library Function Fopen(). The Syntax For Opening A File In
Standard I/O Is:
Ptr=Fopen("Fileopen","Mode")

For Example:
Fopen("E:\\Cprogram\Program.Txt","W");

/* --------------------------------------------------------- */
E:\\Cprogram\Program.Txt Is The Location To Create File.
"W" Represents The Mode For Writing.
/* --------------------------------------------------------- */
Here, The Program.Txt File Is Opened For Writing Mode.
Opening Modes In Standard I/O
File Mode Meaning Of Mode During Inexistence Of File
R Open For Reading.
If The File Does Not Exist, Fopen() Returns
Null.
W Open For Writing.
If The File Exists, Its Contents Are
Overwritten. If The File Does Not Exist, It
Will Be Created.
A
Open For Append. I.E, Data
Is Added To End Of File.
If The File Does Not Exists, It Will Be
Created.
R+
Open For Both Reading If The File Does Not Exist, Fopen() Returns
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Opening Modes In Standard I/O
File Mode Meaning Of Mode During Inexistence Of File
And Writing. Null.
W+
Open For Both Reading
And Writing.
If The File Exists, Its Contents Are
Overwritten. If The File Does Not Exist, It
Will Be Created.
A+
Open For Both Reading
And Appending.
If The File Does Not Exists, It Will Be
Created.

Closing A File
The File Should Be Closed After Reading/Writing Of A File. Closing A File Is Performed Using
Library Function Fclose().
Fclose(Ptr); //Ptr Is The File Pointer Associated With File To Be Closed.
The Functions Fprintf() And Fscanf() Functions.
The Functions Fprintf() And Fscanf() Are The File Version Of Printf() And Fscanf(). The Only
Difference While Using Fprintf()And Fscanf() Is That, The First Argument Is A Pointer To The
Structure File
Writing To A File

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n;
file *fptr;
fptr=fopen("c:\\program.txt","w");
if(fptr==null){
printf("error!");
exit(1);
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}
printf("enter n: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
fprintf(fptr,"%d",n);
fclose(fptr);
return 0;
}
This Program Takes The Number From User And Stores In File. After You Compile And Run
This Program, You Can See A Text File Program.Txt Created In C Drive Of Your Computer.
When You Open That File, You Can See The Integer You Entered.
Similarly, Fscanf() Can Be Used To Read Data From File.
Reading From File

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n;
file *fptr;
if ((fptr=fopen("c:\\program.txt","r"))==null){
printf("error! opening file");
exit(1); /* program exits if file pointer returns null. */
}
fscanf(fptr,"%d",&n);
printf("value of n=%d",n);
fclose(fptr);
return 0;
}
If You Have Run Program Above To Write In File Successfully, You Can Get The Integer Back
Entered In That Program Using This Program.
Other Functions Like Fgetchar(), Fputc() Etc. Can Be Used In Similar Way.
Binary Files
Depending Upon The Way File Is Opened For Processing, A File Is Classified Into Text File And
Binary File.
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If A Large Amount Of Numerical Data It To Be Stored, Text Mode Will Be Insufficient. In Such
Case Binary File Is Used.
Working Of Binary Files Is Similar To Text Files With Few Differences In Opening Modes,
Reading From File And Writing To File.
Opening Modes Of Binary Files
Opening Modes Of Binary Files Are Rb, Rb+, Wb, Wb+,Ab And Ab+. The Only Difference
Between Opening Modes Of Text And Binary Files Is That, B Is Appended To Indicate That, It Is
Binary File.
Reading And Writing Of A Binary File.
Functions Fread() And Fwrite() Are Used For Reading From And Writing To A File On The
Disk Respectively In Case Of Binary Files.
Function Fwrite() Takes Four Arguments, Address Of Data To Be Written In Disk, Size Of Data
To Be Written In Disk, Number Of Such Type Of Data And Pointer To The File Where You Want
To Write.
Fwrite(Address_Data,Size_Data,Numbers_Data,Pointer_To_File);
Function Fread() Also Take 4 Arguments Similar To Fwrite() Function As Above.
Write A C Program To Read Name And Marks Of N Number Of Students From User And
Store Them In A File
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char name[50];
int marks,i,n;
printf("enter number of students: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
file *fptr;
fptr=(fopen("c:\\student.txt","w"));
if(fptr==null){
printf("error!");
exit(1);
}
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
printf("for student%d\nenter name: ",i+1);
scanf("%s",name);
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printf("enter marks: ");
scanf("%d",&marks);
fprintf(fptr,"\nname: %s \nmarks=%d \n",name,marks);
}
fclose(fptr);
return 0;
}
Write A C Program To Read Name And Marks Of N Number Of Students From User And
Store Them In A File. If The File Previously Exits, Add The Information Of N Students.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char name[50];
int marks,i,n;
printf("enter number of students: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
file *fptr;
fptr=(fopen("c:\\student.txt","a"));
if(fptr==null){
printf("error!");
exit(1);
}
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
printf("for student%d\nenter name: ",i+1);
scanf("%s",name);
printf("enter marks: ");
scanf("%d",&marks);
fprintf(fptr,"\nname: %s \nmarks=%d \n",name,marks);
}
fclose(fptr);
return 0;
}
write a c program to write all the members of an array of strcures to a file using
fwrite(). read the array from the file and display on the screen.
#include <stdio.h>
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struct s
{
char name[50];
int height;
};
int main(){
struct s a[5],b[5];
file *fptr;
int i;
fptr=fopen("file.txt","wb");
for(i=0;i<5;++i)
{
fflush(stdin);
printf("enter name: ");
gets(a[i].name);
printf("enter height: ");
scanf("%d",&a[i].height);
}
fwrite(a,sizeof(a),1,fptr);
fclose(fptr);
fptr=fopen("file.txt","rb");
fread(b,sizeof(b),1,fptr);
for(i=0;i<5;++i)
{
printf("name: %s\nheight: %d",b[i].name,b[i].height);
}
fclose(fptr);
}
c programming enumeration
enumeration type allows programmer to define their own data type . keyword enum is used to
defined enumerated data type.
enum type_name{ value1, value2,...,valuen };
here, type_name is the name of enumerated data type or tag. and value1, value2,....,valuen are
values of typetype_name.
by default, value1 will be equal to 0, value2 will be 1 and so on but, the programmer can
change the default value as below:
enum suit{
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club=0;
diamonds=10;
hearts=20;
spades=3;
};
declaration of enumerated variable
above code defines the type of the data but, no any variable is created. variable of
type enum can be created as:
enum boolean{
false;
true;
};
enum boolean check;
here, a variable check is declared which is of type enum boolean.
example of enumerated type
#include <stdio.h>
enum week{ sunday, monday, tuesday, wednesday, thursday, friday, saturday};
int main(){
enum week today;
today=wednesday;
printf("%d day",today+1);
return 0;
}
Output
4 Day
You Can Write Any Program In C Language Without The Help Of Enumerations But,
Enumerations Helps In Writing Clear Codes And Simplify Programming.
C Programming Preprocessor And Macros
Preprocessor Extends The Power Of C Programming Language. Line That Begin With # Are
Called Preprocessing Directives.
Use Of #Include
Let Us Consider Very Common Preprocessing Directive As Below:
#Include <Stdio.H>
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Here, "Stdio.H" Is A Header File And The Preprocessor Replace The Above Line With The
Contents Of Header File.
Use Of #Define
Preprocessing Directive #Define Has Two Forms. The First Form Is:
#Define Identifier Token_String
Token_String Part Is Optional But, Are Used Almost Every Time In Program.
Example Of #Define
#Define C 299792458 /*Speed Of Light In M/S */
The Token String In Above Line 2299792458 Is Replaced In Every Occurance Of Symbolic
Constant C.
C Program To Find Area Of A Cricle. [Area Of Circle=r
2]

#include <stdio.h>
#define pi 3.1415
int main(){
int radius;
float area;
printf("enter the radius: ");
scanf("%d",&radius);
area=pi*radius*radius;
printf("area=%.2f",area);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter The Radius: 3
Area=28.27
Syntactic Sugar
Syntactic Sugar Is The Alteration Of Programming Syntax According To The Will Of
Programmer. For Example:
#Define Lt <
Every Time The Program Encounters Lt, It Will Be Replaced By <.
Second Form Of Preprocessing Directive With #Define Is:
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Macros With Argument
Preprocessing Directive #Define Can Be Used To Write Macro Definitions With Parameters As
Well In The Form Below:
#Define Identifier(Identifier 1,.....Identifier N) Token_String
Again, The Token String Is Optional But, Are Used In Almost Every Case. Let Us Consider An
Example Of Macro Definition With Argument.
#Define Area(R) (3.1415*R*R)
Here, The Argument Passed Is R. Every Time The Program Encounters Area(Argument), It
Will Be Replace By(3.1415*Argument*Argument). Suppose, We Passed (R1+5) As Argument
Then, It Expands As Below:
Area(R1+5) Expands To (3.1415*(R1+5)(R1+5))
C Program To Find Area Of A Circle, Passing Arguments To Macros. [Area Of Circle=r
2
]
#Include <Stdio.H>
#define pi 3.1415
#define area(r) (pi*r*r)
int main(){
int radius;
float area;
printf("enter the radius: ");
scanf("%d",&radius);
area=area(radius);
printf("area=%.2f",area);
return 0;
}
Predefined Macros In C Language
Predefined
Macro
Value
__Date__ String Containing The Current Date
__File__ String Containing The File Name
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Predefined
Macro
Value
__Line__ Integer Representing The Current Line Number
__Stdc__
If Follows Ansi Standard C, Then Value Is A Nonzero
Integer
__Time__ String Containing The Current Date.
How To Use Predefined Macros?
C Program To Find The Current Time
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
printf("current time: %s",__time__); //calculate the current time
}
output
Current Time: 19:54:39
C Program To Demonstrate The Working Of Keyword Long
Keyword Long Is Used For Altering The Size Of Data Type. For Example: The Size Of Int Is
Either 2 Bytes Or 4 Bytes But, When Long Keyword Is Used, The Size Of Long Int Will Be Either
4 Bytes Or 8 Bytes. Also, You Can Use Long Long Int. The Size Of Long Long Int Is Generally 8
Bytes. This Program Will Demonstrate The Size Of Keyword Long For My System. It May Be
Different In Your System.
Source Code

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int a;
long int b; /* int is optional. */
long long int c; /* int is optional. */
printf("size of int = %d bytes\n",sizeof(a));
printf("size of long int = %ld bytes\n",sizeof(b));
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printf("size of long long int = %ld bytes",sizeof(c));
return 0;
}
Output
Size Of Int = 4 Bytes
Size Of Long Int = 4 Bytes
Size Of Long Long Int = 8 Bytes
In This Program, The Sizeof Operator Is Used For Finding The Size Of Int, Long Int And Long
Long Int.
Thus, Int And Long Int For My System Can Hold Values From -2
31
To 2
31
-1. If I Have To Work
On Data Outside This Range, I Have To Use Long Long Int, Which Can Hold Values From -
2
63
To 2
63
-1 .
Similarly, The Long Keyword Can Be Used Double And Floats Types.

Command Line Arguments : - C Programming Tutorial


Command-line arguments are basically arguments sent to the program being called & are
given after the name of a program in command-line operating systems and are basically
passed in to the program from the operating system.
When the function main() is called then
arc :gives number of command line arguments
argv: full list of command line arguments, or array of arguments
Input file for command line argument
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After writing the c program above save the file as CLA.C .
Now go to command prompt and type
CLA arg1 arg2
Output file for command line arguments
Here i entered my name and it prints in this way i.e to the next line.

Similarly, you can enter other arguments as shown below.
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A program can take any number of command line arguments, which may be required for the
program to run.

The Standard Library Functions
Some of the "commands" in C are not really "commands" at all but are functions. For example,
we have been using printf and scanf to do input and output, and we have used rand to
generate random numbers - all three are functions.
There are a great many standard functions that are included with C compilers and while these
are not really part of the language, in the sense that you can re-write them if you really want
to, most C programmers think of them as fixtures and fittings. Later in the course we will look
into the mysteries of how C gains access to these standard functions and how we can extend
the range of the standard library. But for now a list of the most common libraries and a brief
description of the most useful functions they contain follows:
1. stdio.h: I/O functions:
a. getchar() returns the next character typed on the keyboard.
b. putchar() outputs a single character to the screen.
c. printf() as previously described
d. scanf() as previously described
2. string.h: String functions
a. strcat() concatenates a copy of str2 to str1
b. strcmp() compares two strings
c. strcpy() copys contents of str2 to str1
3. ctype.h: Character functions
a. isdigit() returns non-0 if arg is digit 0 to 9
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b. isalpha() returns non-0 if arg is a letter of the alphabet
c. isalnum() returns non-0 if arg is a letter or digit
d. islower() returns non-0 if arg is lowercase letter
e. isupper() returns non-0 if arg is uppercase letter
4. math.h: Mathematics functions
a. acos() returns arc cosine of arg
b. asin() returns arc sine of arg
c. atan() returns arc tangent of arg
d. cos() returns cosine of arg
e. exp() returns natural logarithim e
f. fabs() returns absolute value of num
g. sqrt() returns square root of num
5. time.h: Time and Date functions
a. time() returns current calender time of system
b. difftime() returns difference in secs between two times
c. clock() returns number of system clock cycles since program execution
6. stdlib.h:Miscellaneous functions
a. malloc() provides dynamic memory allocation, covered in future sections
b. rand() as already described previously
c. srand() used to set the starting point for rand()
7.
8. Write a c program without using any semicolon which output will : Hello word.

9. Solution: 1
void main(){
if(printf("Hello world")){
}
}
Solution: 2
void main(){
while(!printf("Hello world")){
}
}
Solution: 3
void main(){
switch(printf("Hello world")){
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}
}
10.
11. 1.
12. main()
13. {
14.
15. }
16. ========================
17. 2.
18. void main()
19. {
20.
21. }
22. ========================
23. 3.
24. int main()
25. {
26.
27. return 0;
28. }
29. ========================
30. 4.
31.
32. int main ()
33. {
34. printf ("Welcome to C language");
35. return 0;
36. }
37. ========================
38. 5.
39. #include <stdio.h>
40. #include <conio.h>
41. int main ()
42. {
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43. clrscr();
44. printf (Welcome to C language);
45. return 0;
46. }
47. ========================
48. 6.
49. #include <stdio.h>
50. #include <conio.h>
51. int main ()
52. {
53. clrscr();
54. printf (Welcome to C language);
55. getch();
56. retun 0;
57. }
58. ========================
59. String: strlen()
60. #include <stdio.h>
61. #include <conio.h>
62. int main()
63. {
64. char str[30]="C PROGRAMMING";
65. clrscr();
66. printf("\n\nstr : %s\n\n",str);
67. printf("\nLength of the string, strlen(str) is %d\n",strlen(str));
68. getch();
69. return 0;
70. }
71. ========================
72. String: strlwr()
73. #include <stdio.h>
74. #include <conio.h>
75. int main()
76. {
77. char str[30]="C PROGRAMMING";
78. clrscr();
79. printf("\n\nstr : %s\n\n",str);
80. printf("strlwr(str) : %s\n",strlwr(str));
81. getch();
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82. return 0;
83. }
84. ========================
85. String: strupr()
86. #include <stdio.h>
87. #include <conio.h>
88. int main()
89. {
90. char str[30]="C Programming";
91. clrscr();
92. printf("\n\nstr : %s\n\n",str);
93. printf("strupr(str) : %s\n",strupr(str));
94. getch();
95. return 0;
96. }
97. ========================
98. String: strcat()
99. #include <stdio.h>
100. #include <conio.h>
101. int main()
102. {
103. char str1[25]="I LIKE ";
104. char str2[15]="C PROGRAMMIG";
105. clrscr();
106. printf("\n\nstr1 : %s\t\t\tstr2 : %s\n\n",str1,str2);
107. printf("\n\nstrcat(str1,str2) : %s\n\n",strcat(str1,str2));
108. printf("\n\nstr1 : %s\t\tstr2 : %s\n\n",str1,str2);
109. getch();
110. return 0;
111. }
112. ========================
113. String: strncat()
114. #include <stdio.h>
115. #include <conio.h>
116. int main()
117. {
118. char str1[25]="I LIKE ";
119. char str2[13]="C PROGRAMMIG";
120. clrscr();
121. printf("\n\nBEFORE:\n\nstr1 : %s\t\t\tstr2 : %s\n\n",str1,str2);
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122. printf("\n\nstrncat(str1,str2,5) : %s\n\n",strncat(str1,str2,5));
123. printf("\n\nAFTER:\n\nstr1 : %s\t\tstr2 : %s\n\n",str1,str2);
124. getch();
125. return 0;
126. }
127. ========================
128. String: strcpy()
129. #include <stdio.h>
130. #include <conio.h>
131. int main()
132. {
133. char str1[15]="I LIKE ";
134. char str2[15]="C PROGRAMMIG";
135. clrscr();
136. printf("\n\nBEFORE:\n\nstr1 : %s\t\t\tstr2 : %s\n\n",str1,str2);
137. strcpy(str1,str2);
138. printf("\n\nAFTER:\n\nstr1 : %s\t\tstr2 : %s\n\n",str1,str2);
139. getch();
140. return 0;
141. }
142. ========================
143. String: strncpy()
144. #include <stdio.h>
145. #include <conio.h>
146. int main()
147. {
148. char str1[25]="I LIKE ";
149. char str2[15]="C PROGRAMMIG";
150. clrscr();
151. printf("\n\nBEFORE:\n\nstr1 : %s\t\t\tstr2 : %s\n\n",str1,str2);
152. strncpy(str1,str2,4);
153. printf("\n\nAFTER:\n\nstr1 : %s\t\tstr2 : %s\n\n",str1,str2);
154. getch();
155. return 0;
156. }
157.
158.
159.
160. ========================
161. String: strcmp()
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162. #include <stdio.h>
163. #include <conio.h>
164. int main()
165. {
166. char str1[]="I LIKE";
167. char str2[]="C Expert";
168. int i;
169. clrscr();
170. i=strcmp(str1,str2);
171. if(i==0)
172. printf("\n\nstr1 and str2 are identical");
173. else if(i<0)
174. printf("\n\nstr1< str2");
175. else
176. printf("\n\nstr1< str2");
177. getch();
178. return 0;
179. }
180. ========================
Ref: http://www.programmingsimplified.com/c/source-code/c-program-find-maximum-element-in-
array