Introduction

This chapter focuses on various states of mind, how our memory works, why we forget things, the debate
over intelligence and intelligence testing, and the power of the mind to control states of relaxation and
hypnosis. Obviously there are a lot of things, both internal and external, that can affect our current state.
Emotions, noise, stress, and of course the use of alcohol and drugs all come to mind. All of these things
should be taken into consideration when learning about states of mind and how to control them.
Memory
Human memory, like memory in a computer, allows us to store information for later use. In order to do
this, however, both the computer and we need to master three processes involved in memory. The first is
called encoding; the process we use to transform information so that it can be stores. For a computer
this means transferring data into 1s and 0s. For us, it means transforming the data into a meaningful
form such as an association with an existing memory, an image, or a sound.
Next is the actual storage, which simply means holding onto the information. For this to take place, the
computer must physically write the 1 and 0s onto the hard drive. It is very similar for us because it means
that a physiological change must occur for the memory to be stored. The final process is called retrieval,
which is bringing the memory out of storage and reversing the process of encoding. In other words, return
the information to a form similar to what we stored.
The major difference between humans and computers in terms of memory has to do with how the
information is stored. For the most part, computers have only two types; permanent storage and
permanent deletion. Humans, on the other hand are more complex in that we have three distinct memory
storage capabilities (not including permanent deletion). The first is Sensory memory, referring to the
information we receive through the senses. This memory is very brief lasting only as much as a few
seconds.
Short Term Memory (STM) takes over when the information in our sensory memory is transferred to our
consciousness or our awareness (Engle, Cantor, & Carullo, 1993; Laming, 1992). This is the information
that is currently active such as reading this page, talking to a friend, or writing a paper. Short term
memory can definitely last longer than sensory memory (up to 30 seconds or so), but it still has a very
limited capacity. According to research, we can remember approximately 5 to 9 (7 +/- 2) bits of
information in our short term memory at any given time (Miller, 1956)
If STM lasts only up to 30 seconds, how do we ever get any work done? Wouldn't we start to lose focus
or concentrate about twice every minute? This argument prompted researchers to look at a second
phase of STM that is now referred to as Working Memory. Working Memory is the process that takes
place when we continually focus on material for longer than STM alone will allow (Baddeley, 1992).
What happens when our short term memory is full and another bit of information
enters? Displacement means that the new information will push out part of the old information. Suddenly
some one says the area code for that phone number and almost instantly you forget the last two digits of
the number. We can further sharpen our short term memory skills, however, by mastering chunking and
using rehearsal (which allows us to visualize, hear, say, or even see the information repeatedly and
through different senses).
Finally, there is long term memory (LTM), which is most similar to the permanent storage of a computer.
Unlike the other two types, LTM is relatively permanent and practically unlimited in terms of its storage
capacity. Its been argued that we have enough space in our LTM to memorize every phone number in the
U.S. and still function normally in terms of remembering what we do now. Obviously we dont use even a
fraction of this storage space.
There are several subcategories of LTM. First, memories for facts, life events, and information about our
environment are stored in declarative memory. This includes semantic memory, factual knowledge like
the meaning of words, concepts, and our ability to do math (Lesch & Pollatsek, 1993, Rohrer et al., 1995)
and episodic memory, memories for events and situations (Goldringer, 1996; Kliegel & Lindberger,
1993). The second subcategory is often not thought of as memory because it refers to internal, rather
than external information. When you brush your teeth, write your name, or scratch your eye, you do this
with ease because you previously stored these movements and can recall them with ease. This is
referred to as nondeclarative (or implicit) memory. These are memories we have stored due to
extensive practice, conditioning, or habits.

Why We Remember What We Remember
Short Term Memory. There are typically six reasons why information is stored in our short term
memory.
1. primacy effect - information that occurs first is typically remembered better than information
occurring later. When given a list of words or numbers, the first word or number is usually
remembered due to rehearsing this more than other information.
2. recency effect - often the last bit of information is remembered better because not as much time
has past; time which results in forgetting.
3. distinctiveness - if something stands out from information around it, it is often remembered
better. Any distinctive information is easier to remember than that which is similar, usual, or
mundane.
4. frequency effect - rehearsal, as stated in the first example, results in better memory. Remember
trying to memorize a formula for your math class. The more you went over it, the better you knew
it.
5. associations - when we associate or attach information to other information it becomes easier to
remember. Many of us use this strategy in our professions and everyday life in the form of
acronyms.
6. reconstruction - sometimes we actually fill in the blanks in our memory. In other words, when
trying to get a complete picture in our minds, we will make up the missing parts, often without any
realization that this is occurring.
Long Term Memory. Information that passes from our short term to our long term memory is typically
that which has some significance attached to it. Imagine how difficult it would be to forget the day you
graduated, or your first kiss. Now think about how easy it is to forget information that has no significance;
the color of the car you parked next to at the store or what shirt you wore last Thursday. When we
process information, we attach significance to it and information deemed important is transferred to our
long term memory.
There are other reasons information is transferred. As we all know, sometimes our brains seem full of
insignificant facts. Repetition plays a role in this, as we tend to remember things more the more they are
rehearsed. Other times, information is transferred because it is somehow attached to something
significant. You may remember that it was a warm day when you bought your first car. The temperature
really plays no important role, but is attached to the memory of buying your first car.


Forgetting
You cant talk about remembering without mentioning its counterpart. It seems that as much as we do
remember, we forget even more. Forgetting isnt really all that bad, and is in actuality, a pretty natural
phenomenon. Imagine if you remembered every minute detail of every minute or every hour, of every day
during your entire life, no matter how good, bad, or insignificant. Now imagine trying to sift through it all
for the important stuff like where you left your keys.
There are many reasons we forget things and often these reasons overlap. Like in the example above,
some information never makes it to LTM. Other times, the information gets there, but is lost before it can
attach itself to our LTM. Other reasons include decay, which means that information that is not used for
an extended period of time decays or fades away over time. It is possible that we are physiologically
preprogrammed to eventually erase data that no longer appears pertinent to us.
Failing to remember something doesnt mean the information is gone forever though. Sometimes the
information is there but for various reasons we cant access it. This could be caused by distractions going
on around us or possibly due to an error of association (e.g., believing something about the data which is
not correct causing you to attempt to retrieve information that is not there). There is also the phenomenon
of repression, which means that we purposefully (albeit subconsciously) push a memory out of reach
because we do not want to remember the associated feelings. This is often sited in cases where adults
forget incidences of sexual abuse when they were children. And finally, amnesia, which can be
psychological or physiological in origin.

Intelligence

The assessment of human abilities dates back nearly 4000 years when China used written tests to rate
applicants for civil service. Two-thousand years later, during the Hans Dynasty, civil service type exams
were used in the areas of law, military, agriculture, and geography. In the early 1800s British diplomats
observed the Chinese assessments and modified them for use in Britain and eventually the United States
for use in civil service placement.

Sir Francis Galton is a key figure in modern intelligence testing. As the first cousin of Charles Darwin, he
attempted to apply Darwin's evolutionary theory to the study of human abilities. He postulate that
intelligence was quantifiable and normally distributed. In other words, he believed that we could assign a
score to intelligence where the majority of people fall in the average range and the percentage of the
population decreases the farther from the middle their score gets.

The first workable intelligence test was developed by French psychologist Alfred Binet. He and his
partner, Theodore Simon, were commissioned by the French government to improve the teaching
methods for developmentally disabled children. They believed that intelligence was the key to effective
teaching, and developed a strategy whereby a mental age (MA) was determined and divided by the
child's chronological age (CA). This formula, stated as "MA/CA X 100."

Another theorist, Raymond Cattell, described intelligence as having two distinct factors. The first he
called Crystallized Intelligence, representing acquired knowledge, and second, Fluid Intelligence, or
our ability to use this knowledge.

Sternberg (1988) argued that there are a number of ways to demonstrate intelligence or adaptive
functioning. He proposed a model of intelligence referred to as the triarchic theory. According to this
model there are three types of intelligence: (1) analytical, or the ability to solve a problem by looking at its
components; (2) creative, the ability o use new or ingenious ways to solve problems; and (3) practical,
referring to street smarts or common sense. While most IQ tests measure only analytical intelligence,
they fail to include practical intelligence which is the most understandable to most of us (Sternberg et al.,
1995)

Intelligence is not something we can see or hear, or taste. We can see the results of
intelligence...sometimes. Many argue that quantifying intelligence correctly is impossible and all that
modern IQ tests do is test our knowledge and abilities. While it is true that a person can learn to improve
his or her score, this can only occur if correct responses are taught to the person, which is highly
unethical. We have also found that our individual IQ score remains quite consistent as we get older.
Some argue, however, that modern IQ tests are prejudiced against certain ethnicities and cultures and
tend to result in higher scores for others. Where this leaves us, however, is uncertain. As of today, these
IQ tests are the best we have in our attempt to quantify the construct known as intelligence.
Relaxation and Hypnosis

Many internal and external factors affect how we think, feel, and behave. Although alcohol and drugs
have been studied in great detail and have been shown to have both positive and negative effects on our
state of mind, they will not be discussed in this section. For more information about these, follow the link
above.

In this section, we are going to focus primarily on the internal factors that influence our state of mind,
particularly relaxation and hypnosis. These two terms are not foreign to most of us, but they can be
highly misunderstood. Let's explore the concept of relaxation first.


Relaxation

When studied in psychology, relaxation refers to a focusing on the mind and a relaxing of the body's
muscles. Research has shown that being too tense and/or living with too much stress has a significant
negative impact on our lives. It can lead to physical illnesses such as high blood pressure, ulcers,
fatigue, and headaches and many psychological issues, including inappropriate or misdirected emotions,
confusion, difficulty concentrating, and burn-out. People utilize relaxation, in combination with stress
management, to improve their quality of life, reduce the physical components of stress, and improve their
psychological functioning.

There are different forms of relaxation, including breathing exercises, deep muscle relaxation, progressive
muscle relaxation, imagery, meditation, and yoga. Although each of these has different components, the
main goal in each is to relax the body's muscles and focus the mind. Since the body and the mind cannot
be separated, most agree that both of these components must be present for any relaxation technique to
work.


Hypnosis

Hypnosis is very similar to relaxation in that the same two components of physical and mental must be
addressed together. Most professionals agree that hypnosis is a very deep state of relaxation where your
mind is more focused and the connection between your thoughts, emotions, and behaviors are more
clear. Hypnosis is not magical; it can not cause you to do anything against your judgment or ethical
beliefs; it can not make you 'cluck like a chicken.' What it can do it help you to focus on specific areas of
your life with more clarity and teach you how to do this in a positive manner.

A hypnotherapist is typically a licensed professional who uses hypnosis as part of a treatment regimen
for certain psychological disorders. It is rarely used as the primary treatment, but instead is most
beneficial when used with relaxation and talk-therapy for a more rounded therapeutic approach.
A hypnotist is a non-clinical term usually referring to an unlicensed individual who perform various forms
of hypnosis for entertainment purposes. The two are quite different, the former is therapeutic and the
latter is not designed to be so.

Most people are able to be hypnotized, although many factors play a role in your individual susceptibility.
These factors include your belief in hypnosis, your trust for the therapist, your sense of safety, ability to
concentrate and focus your mind, and the absence of external factors such as noise, uncomfortable
temperature, and physical comfort. The key to successful hypnosis is your ability to focus on your body
and mind and to trust and believe in your therapist. Without these hypnosis will not work, at least not to
the fullest therapeutic value.