Solutions Final

S.C.F. 23 & 29 (Top Floor), Phase -7, Mohali. Ph.
9417009068

FUSION: S.C.F. 23 & 29, Phase -7, Mohali. Ph. 9417009068, 9888667891
Solution (Theory) (1 )
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more
pure substances whose composition may be altered
within certain limits. Though the solution is
homogeneous in nature, yet it retains the properties
of its constituents.
TABLES TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Nature of
solution
Solute Solvent Examples
Gas Solid
Gases dissolved
in minerals
Liquid Solid
Mercury in an
amalgam,
Hydrated salts
Solid
solutions
Solid Solid Alloys of metals
Gas Liquid Aerated drinks
Liquid Liquid
Mixture of
miscible liquids
Liquid
solutions
Solid Liquid
Salts dissolved
in water
Gas Gas Air
Liquid Gas Humidity in air Gaseous
solutions
Solid Gas
Iodine vapours
in air

1. Mass percentage may be defined as the number of
parts by mass of solute per hundred parts by mass of
solution.
For example, a 5% (by mass) solution of sugar in
water means that 100g of solution contain 5g of
sugar.
If W
A
be the mass of solute (A) and W
B
be the mass
of solvent (B), then
Mass percentage of A = % 100
W W
W
B A
A

+

2. Volume Percentage
Volume percentage may be defined as the
number of parts by volume of solute per
hundred parts by volume of solution.
If V
A
and V
B
be volumes of component A and B,
then
Volume percentage of A =
B A
A
V V
V
+
100%
3.Weight by Volume Percentage:- It also known as
mass by volume percentage (w/v). It is mainly used
in medicine and pharmacy.
For example:- 10% w/v of NaCl means 10gm of
NaCl dissolved in 100 ml of solution.
4. Molarity
Molarity of a solution is defined as the number
of moles of the solute dissolved per litre of the
solution. It is represented by M.
Mathematically,
Molarity (M) =
Gram moles of solute
Volume of solutioninlitres

( )
( ) ( ( ))
Given weight of solute gm
Molecular weight of solute Voloume of soloution Lt

=
( ) ( ) 1000
( ) ( )
B B
B A B A
W g W g
or
GMM Volume Lt GMM Volume Lt

5. Normality
Normality of a solution is defined as the number
of gram equivalents of the solute dissolved per
litre of the solution. It is represented by N.
Mathematically,
Normality =n x Molarity or
( )
( ) ( ( ))
Equivelent weight of solute Voloume of soloution Lt

6.Molality:- The number of moles of solutes
dissolved per kg of solvent.
Molality=
Gram moles of solute
Number of Kg of solvent

( )
( ) ( ( ))
Molecular weight of solute Weight of solvent Kg

7.Mole Fraction
Mole fraction may be defined as the ratio of number
of moles of one component to the total number of
moles of all the components (solvent and solute)
present in the solution. It is denoted by the letter X.
Let us suppose that a solution contains the
components A and B suppose that W
A
of A and W
B

of B are present in it.
Number of moles of A is given by, n
A
=
A
A
M
W

and the number of moles of B is given by, n
B
=
B
B
M
W

where M
a
and M
B
are molecular masses of A and B
respectively.
Total number of moles of A and B =n
A
+n
B

Mole fraction of A, X
A
=
B A
A
n n
n
+

S.C.F. 23 & 29 (Top Floor), Phase -7, Mohali. Ph. 9417009068

Mole fraction of B, X
B
=
B A
B
n n
n
+

It may be noted that the mole fraction is independent
of the temperature.
6.Parts per million (ppm)
When a solute is present in very minute amount,
its concentration is expressed in parts per
million. It may be defined as the number of
parts by mass of solute per million parts by
mass of the solution. It is abbreviated as ppm.
Parts per million (ppm) =
6
10
solution of Mass
solute of Mass

ppm =
6
B A
B
10
W W
W

+

This mode of concentration is generally used to
express very low concentrations such as hardness of
water or concentration of Cl
2
in public supply of
potable water.

Vapour Pressure of Solutions
The pressure exerted by the vapours above the liquid
surface in equilibrium with the liquid at a given
temperature is called vapour pressure of the liquid.
The vapour pressure of a liquid depends on
(i) Nature of liquid
(ii) Temperature
(i) Nature of liquid:- The vapour pressure of
liquid depends upon nature of the liquid, some
liquid has less force of attraction between their
molecules, so they are easily converted into
vapours and exerts more vapour pressure.
Example:- Petrol has quite less force of attraction
so more vapours will be formed and as
comparison to water, water molecules has quite
large force of attraction so their vapours will be
quite less as comparison to Petrol, so as the vapour
pressure.
(ii) Temperature:- Vapours pressure
directly depends upon temperature. If temperature
is large, large number of molecules of liquid are
converted in vapours so as the vapour pressure.

Henry's law
At a constant temperature, the amount of a given gas
dissolved in a given type and volume of liquid is
directly proportional to the partial pressure of that
gas in equilibrium with that liquid.
Or
The law states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid
is proportional to the pressure of that gas above the
liquid
Example of Henry's law:- is given by carbonated
soft drinks such as colas. Before the bottle is
opened, the gas above the drink is slightly higher
pressure than atmospheric pressure. The drink itself
contains dissolved carbon dioxide. When the bottle is
opened, some of this gas escapes, giving the
characteristic hiss. Because the pressure above the
liquid is now lower, some of the dissolved carbon
dioxide comes out of solution as bubbles. If a glass of
the drink is left in the open, the concentration of
carbon dioxide in solution will come into equilibrium
with the carbon dioxide in the air, and the drink will
go nearly "flat" which means the presence of CO
2

become negligible

where:
c -: amount concentration of gas in sol
n
(in mol/L)
p:- partial pressure of gas above the sol
n
(in atm)
x =mole fraction of gas in solution
The constant depends on the solute, the solvent and
the temperature.
Raoults Law for ideal soloution : -Two liquids, A
and B, the total vapor pressure p of the solution is
equal to the sum of the "pure" vapor pressures of the
two components, p*
A
and p*
B
. multiplied by its mole
fraction. Thus the total pressure above solution of A
and B would be
Raoults Law Non-volatile Solute:-
Raoults law which states that, the vapour pressure of
a solution containing non-volatile solute is directly
proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent.
In case of solution containing two components A
(volatile solvent) and B (non-volatile solute) the
vapour pressure of solution is given as
P
T
=P
A
+P
B
P
T
=P
A
+ 0 (P
B
=0,non volatile
soloute)
P
T
=
( )
o
A
Vapour pressure
of solvent in pure
form solution P
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
) X (
solvent of
fraction Mole
A

P
T
=P
A
X
A
+ P
B
X
B


P
T
=P
A
X
A
+ 0

This causes Lowering in Vapour Pressure of the
Solution.

Ideal Solutions
An ideal solution may be defined as the solution
which obeys Raoults law over the entire range
of concentration and temperature:
Conditions for obeying Ideal solution
(i) It should obey Raoults law, i.e.,
P
T
=P
A

0
X
A
+ P
B

0
X
B
(ii) A H
mixing
=0
(iii) AV
mixing
=0
(iv) The force of attraction between the molecules
of A-A and B-B molecules should be equal to
A-B molecules.
There is no solution which behaves strictly as an
ideal solution. However, the solutions in which
solvent-solvent and solute-solute interactions are
almost of the same type as solvent-solute
interactions, behave nearly as ideal solutions.The
total vapour pressure, P
T
exerted by the solution is
the sum of P
A
and P
B
as required by Daltons law of
partial pressure.

For example, solutions of following pairs almost
behave as ideal solutions:
(a) n-Heptane and n-hexane
(b) Chlorobenzene and bromobenzene
(c) Benzene and toluene
In such solutions, the interactions between molecules
of solute and solvent remain almost of the same as
that of solution. They are not accompanied by any
change in enthalpy or volume, i.e., AH
mixing
=0 &
AV
mixing
=0
It may be noted that although most of the solutions
show deviation from ideal behavior, yet they behave
as ideal solutions when concentration of the solute is
very low. In other words, most of the dilute solutions
behave as ideal solutions.

Non-Ideal Solutions
The solutions which do not obey Raults law
and are accompanied by change in enthalpy and
change in volume during their formation are
called non-ideal solutions. So, for non-ideal
solutions the conditions are:
i) P
T
= P
A
+P
B
(P
A
= P
A

0
X
A
; P
B
= P
B

0
X
B
)

ii) AH
mixing
=0
iii)AV
mixing
= 0.
iv)The force of attraction between the
molecules of A-A and B-B molecules should not
be equal to A-B molecules.
NOTE:-Non-ideal binary solution, none of the
components follows Raoults law.

Types Non-Ideal solutions:
a) Positive Deviations Solution.
b) Negative Deviations Solution.
a) Positive Deviations Solution:-
In positive deviations, the partial vapour
pressure of each component (say A and B)
of solution is greater than the vapour
pressure as expected according to Raoults
law. P
T
> P
A
X
A
+ P
B
X
B

This type of deviations are shown by the
solutions in which solvent-solvent and
solute-solute interactions are stronger than
solvent-solute interactions. Since in
solution, the interactions among
molecules becomes weaker, therefore
more molecules will escape the solution
and Vapour pressure become more than
the expected.



So, for Positive Deviation solutions the
conditions are:
i) P
T
>P
A
+P
B
(P
A
>P
A

0
X
A
; P
B
>P
B

0
X
B
)

ii)

AH
mixing
=+ve
iii) AV
mixing
=+ve
iv) The force of attraction between the molecules of
A-A and B-B molecules should more than A-B
molecules.
Examples:- H
2
O and methyl alcohol
H
2
O and Ethyl alcohols
b) Negative Deviations Solution :- In Negative
Deviations Solution partial vapour pressure of
each component of solution is less than the
vapour pressure as expected according to
Raoults law.P
T
<P
A
+ P
B
(P
A
< P
A

0
X
A
; P
B

<P
B

0
X
B
)

Negative Deviations Solution shown by the
solutions in which solvent-solvent &
interactions and solute-solute are weaker than
solvent-solute interactions. Since in solution the
interactions among molecules become stronger,
their escaping tendency decreases which results
in the decrease in their partial vapour
pressure(P
T
.) In such solutions total vapour
pressure of the solution is also less than the
vapour pressure expected according To Raoults
law.
A vapour pressure curve showing negative
deviations.
An example of a solution with negative
deviation is a solution of acetone and
chloroform. In these components there is no
hydrogen bond when they are separate, however,
on mixing, hydrogen bonds are formed between
acetone and chloroform molecules as shown
below:
Cl CH
3

|
Cl C H . . . . . O = C
|
Cl CH
3

So, for Nagative deviation solutions the
conditions are:
i) P
T
<P
A
+P
B
(P
A
<P
A

0
X
A
; P
B
<P
B

0
X
B
)

ii) AH
mixing
=- ve
iii) AV
mixing
=- ve
ii) The force of attraction between the
molecules of A-A and B-B molecules should less
than A-B molecules.
Examples:- H
2
O and HCl
H
2
O and HNO
3

chloroform & acetone
Note:-The azeotrope in solutions with negative
deviation is called maximum boiling azeotrope.
Diffrenece between +ve and ve devition sol
n
Solution with +ve
deviations
Solutions with ve
deviations
1. AB interactions
are less than
A.A and B B
interactions.
2. P
A
> P
A
x
A
and P
B

> P
A
x
B

3. AV
mi xi ng
is
positive
4. AH
mi xing
is
positive
AB interaction
are more than
AA and BB
interactions.
P
A
< P
A
x
A
and P
B

< P
A
x
B
AV
mi xing
is
negative
AH
mixi ng
is
negative
V
A
P
O
U
R

P
R
E
S
S
U
R
E

MOLE FRACTION
XA = 1
XB = 0
XA = 1
XB = 0
P
A

P
B

P = P
A
+ P
B

P
B

P
P = P
A
+ P
B

V
A
P
O
U
R

P
R
E
S
S
U
R
E

MOLE FRACTION
x
A
=1
x
B
=0
x
A
=1
x
B
=0


5. Process of
dissolution is
endothermic
6. Solubility of solute
(if solid) will
increase with rise
in temperature

Process of
dissociation is
exothermic.
Solubility of solute
(if solid) will
decrease with rise
in temperature
Azeotropic Mixture
The mixture of liquids which boils at constant
temperature like a pure liquid and possess
same composition of components in liquid as
well as in vapour phase. Azeotropes are also
called constant boiling mixtures because
whole of the mixture changes in vapour state at
constant temperature and their components
compostion will remain same . They can not
even seprated by fractional distillation.
Types of Azeotropic Mixture
i) Maximum boiling azeotropes
ii) Minimum boiling azeotropes
i) Maximum boiling azeotropes:-These
azeotropes are formed by those liquid
Mixture which show negative deviations
from the ideal solution behavior. Such
azeotropes have boiling points higher than
either of the components. Example:-
Let A be solvent and boling point 100K, Let
B be soloute with boling point 105K the
Boling point of maximum boling azotroprs will
be more than 105K it can 110K.
ii) Minimum boiling azeotropes. These
azeotropes are formed by those liquid
mixture which show Positive deviations
from the ideal solution behavior. Such
azeotropes have boiling points lower than either
of the components.
Example:-
Let A be solvent and boling point 100K, Let
B be soloute with boling point 105K the
Boling point of maximum boling azotroprs will
be less than 100 it can 95K.
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Colligative properties which depend upon
relative number of solute particles but do not
depend upon their nature of solute particles are
called colligative properties.
Types of colligative properties are:
(i) Relative lowering of vapour pressure
(ii) Elevation of boiling point
(iii) Depression of freezing point
(iv) Osmotic pressure.
i)Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
The relative lowering of vapour pressure can
derived as
P
0
A
= vapour pressure of pure solvent.
X
B
= mole fraction of solute.
P
T=
Total vapour pressure
P
A
=Vapour pressure of Solvent
P
B
=Vapour pressure of Solute
X
A
= mole fraction of solvent
X
B
= mole fraction of solute
P
T
=P
A
+P
B
(Acc to Raoults Law)
P
T
=P
A
X
A
+P
B
X
B

P
T
=P
A
X
A
+ 0
P
T
=P
A
(X
B
-1) { X
A
+X
B
=1, X
B
=1-X
A
}
P
T
=P
A
X
B
+ P
A

P
T
- P
A
=P
A
X
B

o
A
o
A
P P
P P P
P
T
B o
A
T
B o
A
X
P
LET
X
P
=
A =
A
=

Relative lowering of vapour pressure depends
upon relative number of solute and solvent
molecules but does not depend upon their
nature and hence, it is a colligative property.

Calculation of molecular mass of solute from
relative lowering of vapour pressure.
Molecular mass of non-volatile substance can be
determined from relative lowering of vapour
pressure.
W
A=

Weight of solvent
W
B
=Weight of solute dissolved
M
A
= Molecular Mass of Solvent
M
B
=Molecular Mass of Solute
Number of moles =
GivenWeight
MolecularWeight


n
A
= ;
A B
B
A B
W W
n
M M
=
Mole Fraction =
( )
( )
A
A B
Mole of A n
Total Moles of Aand B n n +

So, X
B
=
B B A A
B B
B A
B
M / W M / W
M / W
n n
n
+
=
+

Relative lowering of vapour pressure is given by

B B A A
B B
B
o
A
A
o
A
o
A
M / W M / W
M / W
X
P
P P
P
P
+
= =
=
A

For dilute solutions W
B
/M
B
<< W
A
/M
A
and
hence in the above expression W
B
/M
B
may be
neglected in the denominator as compared with
W
A
/M
A
.

A
A
B
B
A A
B B
o
A
A
o
A
W
M
.
M
W
M / W
M / W
P
P P
= =

or M
B
=
0
0
.
B A A
A A A
W M P
W P P
| |
|
\ .

In this equation, all the parameters except M
B

can be calculated.

ii) Elevation of boiling points:-
Boiling point of a liquid may be defined as the
temperature at which its vapour pressure liquid
becomes equal to atmospheric pressure.
Lowering of vapour pressure take place when a
non-volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent.
This causes Decrees in the surface area so to
achieve the same vapour pressure high
temperature is required, which is known as
elevation in the boiling point .
T
0
is the boiling point of the pure solvent.
The vapour pressure of the solution at T
0
is
much less than the atmospheric pressure on
adding non volatile solute
So, it is necessary to heat the solution to a
higher temperature, say T
1
at which Solution
start boiling
A T
b
=T
1
T
0
(Elevation in boiling
point) A T
b
proportional to the solute
concentration, So
AT
b
Ap X
B

AT
b
= kX
B
= k
B B A A
B B
B A
B
M / W M / W
M / W
k
n n
n
+
=
+

For dilute solutions
A
A
B
B
M
W
M
W
<< and hence,
B
B
M
W

may be neglected in denominator as compared
to W
A
/M
A
.
AT
b
= k
/
/
B B B
A
A A A
W M n
k M
W M W
=
B
B
B
n
M
W
=
If W
A
is the mass of solvent in kg, then
A
B
W
n
is
equal to molality (m) of the solution
AT
b
= kM
A
m
Here k and M
A
are constants and hence their
product, i.e., kM
A
is replaced by another
constant k
b
.
AT
b
= k
b
. m (1)
where k
b
is molal elevation constant or molal
ebullioscopic constant.
Elevation in boiling point depends upon the
relative number of moles of solute and solvent
but does not depend upon nature of solute, so it
is a colligative property. When molality (m) of
the solution is one, eq. (1) becomesA T
b
= k
b

Molal Elevation Constant:- of the solvent may
be defined as the elevation in its boiling point
when one mole of non-volatile solute is
dissolved per kilogram (1000g) of solvent.
The units of k
b
are K. kgmol
-1
.
Note:-The value of k
b
depends only upon the
solvent but independent of the nature of solute
and concentration of the solution.
Special Note for Numerical :- Sometimes, the
value of k
b
is given for 100g of the solvent. In
such an event this constant is ten times the value
of the molal elevation constant.
K
b
=
1000 H
RT M
. vap
2
b A
A

Where, M
A
= Molecular mass of
solvent
R = Universal gas constant
T
b
= Boiling point of pure solvent
AH
vap.
= Enthalpy of vaporisation of
solvent.
Calculation of molecular mass of an unknown
non-volatile compound from elevation of
boiling point.


molecular mass of an unknown non-volatile
can be calculated as
AT
b
= k
b
m (m is molality)
m =
A B
B
W
1000
M
W
.
= k
b
.
B A
B
M
1000
.
W
W

M
B
=
b A
B b
T W
1000 W k
A

k
b
:- Molal elevation constant
W
B
:- Weight of non volatile solute is added
W
A
:- Weight of solvent
AT
b
:-

Elevation in boiling point

The method of determining molecular mass by
the study of elevation in boiling point is known
as ebullioscopic method.
iii)Depression in Freezing point
Defined as the temperature at which its solid
and liquid phases have the same vapour
pressure.
The freezing point of a pure liquid is fixed till it
pure. Now if a non-volatile solute is dissolved
in the pure liquid to constitute a solution, there
occurs a lowering in the freezing point. Which
is known as depression in freezing point
Now, for the solution the freezing point shall
refer to that temperature at which the vapour
pressure of the solvent in two phase, i.e. liquid
solution and solid solvent is the same. Since the
solvent vapour pressure in solution is depressed,
its vapour pressure will become equal to that of
the solid solvent at a lower temperature.
AT
f
AP X
B

AT
f
= kX
B
= k
B B A A
B B
B A
B
M / W M / W
M / W
k
n n
n
+
=
+

For dilute solution,
B A
B A
W W
M M
<<
B A A
B A A
W W W
M M M
So
+

f
T
/
B
A A
n
k
W M
A =
If W
A
is the mass of solvent in kg, then
A
B
W
n
is
equal to molality (m) of the solution
AT
f
= kM
A
m (Let k.M
A
=k
f
)
AT
f
= k
f
m
where k
f
is molal depression constant.
Depression in freezing point depends upon
a) Relative number of moles of solute
b) Solvent but does not depend upon nature
of solute,
So, it is a colligative property.
When molality (m) of the solution is one,
The equation becomes AT
f
= k
f
Molal depression constant(molal cryoscopic
const
n
) Defined as the depression in freezing
point when one mole of non-volatile solute is
dissolved per kilogram (1000g) of solvent.
The units of k
f
are K kg mol
-1

Note
k
f
=
1000 H
RT M
fusion
2
f A
A

where, M
A
= Molecular mass of solvent
T
f
= Freezing point of pure solvent
AH
fusi on
= Enthalpy of fusion of solid
solvent.
Calculation of molecular mass of an unknown
non-volatile compound from depression in
freezing point. m =
A B
B
W
1000
M
W

We know AT
f
= k
f
m = k
f
.
B A
B
M
1000
W
W

f A
B f
B
T W
1000 W k
M
A

=
iV) Osmosis and osmotic pressure
Defined as The excess hydrostatic pressure that
builds up when the solution is separated from
the solvent by a semi-permeable membrane. It is
denoted by t.
The osmotic pressure is a colligative property
PV=nRT
(P is the pressure of gas, t is osmotic pressure

tV = nRT or t = RT
V
n
t = CRT


C = concentration of solution in moles per
litre(
n
V
)
R = gas constant
T = Temperature
n = number of moles of solute
V = volume of solution
Osmotic pressure is related to relative lowering
of vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point
and depression freezing point according to the
following relations.
(i) t = CRT
(ii) t =
B
o
A
A
o
A
M
dRT
P
P P

|
|
.
|
\
|

(iii) t = AT
b

b
K 1000
dRT

(iv) t = AT
f

f
K 1000
dRT

In the above relations,
t = Osmotic pressure
d = Density of solution at temperature T
M
B
= Mol. mass of solute
K
b
= Molal elevation constant of solvent
K
f
= Molal depression constant of solvent
Determination of Molecular Mass from
Osmotic Pressure
According to Vant Hoff equation, t =
RT
V
n
B

Where n
B
is the number of moles of the solute
and is given by
B
B
M
W
.Here, W
B
is the mass of the
solute and M
b
is the molecular mass of the
solute.
V
RT W
M
B
B
t
=
Note:- The relation between colligative property
and molecular mass of the solute is based on the
following assumptions:
(i) The solution is dilute, so that Raoults Law
is obeyed.
(ii) The solution neither undergoes dissociation
nor association in solution.

Abnormal Molecular Masses
The molecular mass can be un-expected due to
following
(i) Association of solute molecules and
(ii) Dissociation of the solute particles.
For explaining Association or Dissociation
Vont Hoff Got first noble price of Chemistry
Acc to him if value of
i<1 asscocition
i>1 dissocation
i=1 nither Association nor Dissociation
Degree of Dissociation:
Vant Hoffs factor =

n dissocatio no g min assu property e colligativ of value Calculated
property e colligativ of value Observed
or
on dissociati before particles of . No
on dissociati after particles of . No
i =
Am ---- mA
1 o
1-m
i =
o + =
o + o
= ) 1 m ( 1
1
m ) 1 (
i or o =
1
1
i
m

Since i = M
n
/M
0

o =
1 m
1 M / M
0 n

or
) 1 m ( M
M M
0
0 n

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
mass . mol observed M
mass . mol normal M
0
n

The expressions can be put together as
) 1 m ( M
M M
or
1 m
1 i
0
0 n
= o
= o
Degree of Association:
Vant Hoff factor, i,
property e colligativ Normal
property e colligativ Observed
i =
=
n associatio before particles of . No
n associatio after particles of . No

mA ---- Am
1 0
1-/m
i =


i=
1
m
1
o
+ o
=1 + o |
.
|
\
|
1
m
1

or o |
.
|
\
|
1
m
1
= i 1 or o =
m 1
) 1 i ( m
1 m / 1
1 i

Putting the value of i = have we
M
M
0
n

o =
1 m
m
M
M M
1 m
m
1
M
M
0
0 n
0
n
= |
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|

N.C.E.R.T. Assignment
1. Define the term solution. How many types of
solutions are formed? Write briefly about
each type with an example.
2. Give an example of a solid solution in which
the solute is a gas.
3. Define the following terms: (i) Mole fraction
(ii) Molality (iii) Molarity (iv) Mass
percentage
4. A solution of glucose in water is labeled as
10%w/w. what would be the molality and
mole fraction of each component in the
solution? If the density of solution is 1.2 g
mL
-1
, then what shall be the molarity of the
solution?
5. How many mL of 0.1 M HCl are required to
react completely with 1 g mixture of Na
2
CO
3

and NaHCO
3
containing equimolar amounts
of both?
6. A solution is obtained by mixing 300 g of
25% solution and 400 g of 40% solution by
mass. Calculate the mass percentage of the
resulting solution.
7. An antifreeze solution is prepared from
222.6g of ethylene glycol (C
2
H
6
O
2
) and 200 g
of water. Calculate the molality of solution. If
the density of the solution is 1.072 g mL
-1
,
then what shall be the molarity of the
solution?
8. A sample of drinking water was found to be
severely contaminated with chloroform
(CHCl
3
) supposed to be a carcinogen. The
level of contamination was 15 ppm (by mass): [289.5 bar]
i) express thin in percent by mass
ii) determine the molality of chloroform in the
water sample.
9. What role does the molecular interaction play
in a solution of alcohol and water?
10. Why do gases always tend to be less soluble
in liquids as the temperature is raised?
11. State Henrys law and mention some
important applications?
12. The partial pressure of ethane over a solution
containing 6.56 10
-3
g of ethane is 1 bar. If
the solution contains 5.00 10
-2
g of ethane,
then what shall be the partial pressure of the
gas?
13. What is meant by positive and negative
deviations from Raoults law and how is the
sign of
mix
H related to positive and negative
deviations from Raoults law?
14. An aqueous solution of 2% non-volatile
solute exerts a pressure of 1.004 bar at the
normal boiling point of the solvent. What is
the molar mass of the solute?
15. Heptane and octane form an ideal solution. At
373 K, the vapour pressures of the two liquid
components are 105.2 kPa and 46.8 kPa
respectively. What will be the vapour
pressure of a mixture of 26.0 g of heptane and
35 g of octane?
16. Calculate the mass of a non-volatile solute
(molar mass 40 g mol
-1
) which should be
dissolved in 114 g of octane to reduce its
vapour pressure to 80%.
17. A solution containing 30 g of non-volatile
solute exactly in 90g of water has a vapour
pressure of 2.8 kPa at 298 K. Further, 18 g of
water is then added to the solution and the
new vapour pressure becomes 2.9 kPa at 298
K. Calculate (i) molar mass of the solute (ii)
vapour pressure of water at 298 K.
18. A 5% solution (by mass) of cane sugar in
water has freezing point of 271 K. Calcualte
the freezing point of 5% glucose in water if
freezing point of pure water is 273.15 K.
19. Two elements A and B form compounds
having formula AB
2
and AB
4
. When
dissolved in 20 g of benzene (C
6
H
6
), 1 g of
AB
2
lowers the freezing point by 2.3 K
whereas 1.0 g of AB
4
lowers it by 1.3 K. The
molar depression constant for benzene is 5.1


Solution (Theory) (1 0 )
K kg mol
-1
. Calculate atomic masses of A and
B.
20. At 300 K, 36g of glucose present in a litre of
its solution has an osmotic pressure of 4.98
bar. If the osmotic pressure of the solution is
1.52 bars at the same temperature, what
would be its concentration?
21. Suggest the most important type of
intermolecular attractive interaction in the
following pairs.
i) n-hexane and n-octane
ii) I
2
and CCl
4

iii) NaClO
4
and water
iv) methanol and acetone
v) acetonitrile (CH
3
CN) and acetone
(C
3
H
6
O).
22. Based on solute-solvent interactions, arrange
the following in order of increasing solubility
in n-octane and explain. Cyclohexane, KCl,
CH
3
OH, CH
3
CN.
23. Amongst the following compounds, identify
which are insoluble, partially soluble and
highly soluble in water?
i) phenol ii) toluene
iii) formic acid iv) ethylene glycol
v) chloroform vi) pentanol
24. If the density of some lake water is 1.25g mL
-
1
and contains 92 g of Na
+
ions per kg of
water, calculate the molality of Na
+
ions in
the lake.
25. If the solubility product of CuS is 6 10
-16
,
calculate the maximum molarity of CuS in
aqueous solution.
26. Calculate the mass percentage of aspirin
(C
9
H
8
O
4
) in Acetonitrile (CH
3
CN) when 6.5 g
of C
9
H
8
O
4
is dissolved in 450 g of CH
3
CN.
27. Nalorphene (C
19
H
21
NO
3
), similar to
morphine, is used to combat withdrawl
symptoms in narcotic users. Does of
nalorphene generally given is 1.5 mg.
Calculate the mass of 1.5 10
-3
m aqueous
solution required for the above does.
28. Calculate the amount of benzoic acid
(C
6
H
5
COOH) required for preparing 250 mL
of 0.15 M solution in methanol.
29. The depression in freezing point of water
observed for the same amount of acetic acid,
trichloroacetic acid and trifluoroacetic acid
increases in the order given above. Explain
briefly.
30. Calcualte the depression in the freezing point
of water when 10 g of CH
3
CH
2
CHClCOOH
is added to 250 g of water. K
a
=1.4 10
-3
, K
f

=1.86 K kg mol
-1
.
31. 19.5 g of CH
2
FCOOH is dissolved in 500g of
water. The depression in the freezing point of
water observed is 1.0C. Calcualte the vant
Hoff factor and dissociation constant of
fluoroacetic acid.
32. Vapour pressure of water at 293 K is 17.535
mm Hg. Calculate the vapour pressure of
water of 293 K when 25 g of glucose is
dissolved in 450 g of water.
33. Henrys law constant for the molality of
methane in benzene at 298 K is 4.27 10
5

mm Hg. Calcualte the solubility of methane
in benzene at 298 K is 4.27 10
5
mm Hg.
Calculate the solubility of methane in
benzene at 298 K under 760 mm Hg.
34. 100 g of liquid A (molar mass 140 g mol
-1
)
was dissolved in 1000 g of liquid B
(molar mass 180 g mol
-1
). The vapour
pressure of pure liquid B was found to be 500
torr. Calculate the vapour pressure of pure
liquid A and its vapour pressure in the
solution if the total vapour pressure of the
solution is 475 Torr.
35. Benzene and toluene form ideal solution over
the entire range of composition. The vapour
pressure of pure benzene and naphthalene at
300 K are 50.71 mm Hg and 32.06 mm Hg
respectively. Calculate the mole fraction of
benzene in vapour phase if 80 g of benzene is
mixed with 100 g of naphthalene.
36. The air is a mixture of a number of gases. The
major components are oxygen and nitrogen
with approximate proportion of 20% is to
79% by volume at 298 K. The water is in
equilibrium with air at a pressure of 10 atm.
At 298 K if the Henrys law constants for
oxygen and nitrogen at 298 K are 3.30 10
7

mm and 6.51 10
7
mm respectively,
calculate the composition of these gases in
water.


37. Determine the amount of CaCl
2
(i =2.47)
dissolved in 2.5 litre of water such that its
osmotic pressure is 0.75 atm at 27C.
38. Determine the osmotic pressure of a solution
prepared by dissolving 25 mg of K
2
SO
4
in 2
litre of water at 25C, assuming that it is
completely dissociated.
Previous Years Questions
2004
1. Define mole fraction of a component in a
solution. [1]
2. How is molality of a solution different from
its molarity? [1]
3. Explain with a suitable diagram and
appropriate example, why some non-ideal
solution shows positive deviation from
Raoults law. [5]
4. i) What is osmotic pressure and how is it
related to the molecular mass of a non-
volatile substance?
ii) What advantage of osmotic pressure
method has over the elevation of boiling point
method for determining molecular masses?[5]
2005
1. What would be the value of Vant Hoff factor
for a dilute solution of K
2
SO
4
in water? [1]
2. 10 ml of liquid A was mixed with 10 ml of
liquid B. The volume of the resulting solution
was found to be 19.9 ml. What do you
conclude? [1]
3. Define Henrys law about solubility of a gas
in a liquid? [1]
4. What are azeotropes? Give an example? [1]
5. Urea forms an ideal solution in water.
Determine the vapour pressure of an aqueous
solution containing 10% by mass of urea at
40C. (Vapour pressure of water, at 40C =
55.3 mm Hg). [2]
6. State Henrys law for solubility of a gas in a
liquid. Explain the significant of Henrys law
constant (K
H
). At the same temperature,
hydrogen is more soluble in water than
helium. Which of them will have a higher
value of K
H
and why? [2]
7. What do you mean by azeotropic mixture?[2]
8. * a) A 4% solution of sucrose is isotonic with
3% solution of an unknown organic
substance. Calculate the molecular mass of
unknown substance. [2]
2006
1. Two liquids A and B boil at 145C and 190C
respectively. Which of them has a higher
vapour pressure at 80C? [1]
2. a) Why is the vapour pressure of a solution of
glucose in water lower than that of water?
b) A 6.90 M solution of KOH in water
contains 30% by mass of KOH. Calculate the
density of the KOH solution? [Molar mass of
KOH =56 g mol
-1
] [2]
3. State Raoults law for solution containing
volatile liquids. [3]
4. State Raoults law for solution of nonvolatile
solutes. [1]
5. Calculate the freezing point of a solution
containing 0.520 g glucose (C
6
H
12
O
6
)
dissolved in 80.20 g of water. For water K
f
=
1.86 K kg mol
-1
. [3]
2007
1. State the condition resulting in reverse
osmosis. [1]
2. A 0.1539 molal aqueous solution of cane
sugar (mol. Mass =342 g mol
-1
)has a freezing
point of 271 K while the freezing point of
pure water is 273.15 K. What will be the
freezing point of an aqueous solution
containing 5 g of glucose (mol. Mass=180 g
mol
-1
) per 100 g of solution. [2]
2008
1. State Raoults law for solutions of volatile
liquids. Taking suitable examples explain the
meaning of positive and negative deviations
from Raoults law. [2]
2. State the law co-relating the pressure of a gas
and its solubility of a liquid. State an
application of this law. [2]
3. A solution containing 8 g of a substance in
100 g of diethyl ether boils at 36.86 C,
whereas pure ether boils at 35.60 C.
Determine the molecular mass of the solute.
(For ether K
b
=2.02 K kg mol
-1
) [3]


4. Calculate the temperature at which a solution
containing 54 g of glucose, C
6
H
12
O
6
, in 250 g
of water will freeze. [K
f
for water =1.86 K kg
mol
-1
] [3]
5. The boiling point elevation of 0.30 g acetic
acid in 100 g benzene is 0.0633 K. Calculate
the molar mass of acetic acid from this data.
What conclusion can you draw about the
molecular state of the solute in the solution?
[Given K
b
for Benzene =2.53 K kg mol
-1
][3]
2009
1. a) Define the following terms:
i) Mole fraction
ii) Vont Hoff factor
b) 100 mg of a protein is dissolved in enough
water to make 10.0 mL of a solution. If this
solution has an osmotic pressure of 13.3 mm
Hg at 25C, what is the molar mass of
protein? (R =0.0821 L atm mol
-1
K
-1
and 760
mm Hg =1 atm). [5]
2. a) What is meant by
i) Colligative properties
ii) Molality of a solution
b) What concentration of nitrogen should be
present in a glass of water at room
temperature? Assume a temperature of 25C,
a total pressure of 1 atmosphere and mole
fraction of nitrogen in air of 0.78. [K
H
for
nitrogen =8.42 10
-7
M/mm Hg] [5]
2010
Non-ideal solutions exhibit either positive or
negative deviations from Raoults law. What
are these deviations and why are they caused?
Explain with one example for each type. [2]
A solution prepared by dissolving 1.25 g of
oil of winter green (methyl salicylate) in 99.0
g of benzene has a boiling point of 80.31 C.
Determine the molar mass of this compound.
(B.P. of pure benzene =80.1
0
C and Kb for
benzene =2.53 C kg mol1) [3]

2011
1(a) The depression in freezing point of water
observed for the same molar concentrations
of acetic acid, trichloroacetic acid and
trifluoroacetic acid increases in the order as
stated above. Explain.
(b) Calculate the depression in freezing point
of water when 20.0 g of CH
3
CH
2
CHClCOOH
is added to 500 g of water. [Given: K
a
=1.4
10
-3
, K
f
=1.86 K kg mol
-1
] [5]
2012
1. (a) Define the following terms:
(i) Mole fraction
(ii) Ideal solution
(b) 15.0 g of an unknown molecular material
is dissolved in 450 g of water. The resulting
solution freezes at 0.34C. What is the
molar mass of the material? (K
f
for water =
1.86 K kg mol
-1
) [5]
2. (a) Explain the following :
(i) Henrys law about dissolution of a gas in a
liquid
(ii) Boiling point elevation constant for a
solvent
(b) A solution of glycerol (C
3
H
8
O
3
) in water
was prepared by dissolving some glycerol in
500 g of water. This solution has a boiling
point of 100.42 C. What mass of glycerol
was dissolved to make this solution? (K
b
for
water =0.512 K kg mol
-1
) [5]

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