This document summarizes various ectoparasites that can infest fish, including copepods, branchiurans, isopods, mites, and bivalves from the phyla Arthropoda and Mollusca. It focuses on the parasitic copepod Salmincola, which infects salmonids. Salmincola has 17 described species that attach to fish gills and mouth, feeding on blood and epithelium and potentially causing respiratory issues. The document also discusses the salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis, a serious pest in marine aquaculture that feeds on skin and blood of farmed salmon. Sea lice infestations can damage, weaken and kill salmon
This document summarizes various ectoparasites that can infest fish, including copepods, branchiurans, isopods, mites, and bivalves from the phyla Arthropoda and Mollusca. It focuses on the parasitic copepod Salmincola, which infects salmonids. Salmincola has 17 described species that attach to fish gills and mouth, feeding on blood and epithelium and potentially causing respiratory issues. The document also discusses the salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis, a serious pest in marine aquaculture that feeds on skin and blood of farmed salmon. Sea lice infestations can damage, weaken and kill salmon
This document summarizes various ectoparasites that can infest fish, including copepods, branchiurans, isopods, mites, and bivalves from the phyla Arthropoda and Mollusca. It focuses on the parasitic copepod Salmincola, which infects salmonids. Salmincola has 17 described species that attach to fish gills and mouth, feeding on blood and epithelium and potentially causing respiratory issues. The document also discusses the salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis, a serious pest in marine aquaculture that feeds on skin and blood of farmed salmon. Sea lice infestations can damage, weaken and kill salmon
This document summarizes various ectoparasites that can infest fish, including copepods, branchiurans, isopods, mites, and bivalves from the phyla Arthropoda and Mollusca. It focuses on the parasitic copepod Salmincola, which infects salmonids. Salmincola has 17 described species that attach to fish gills and mouth, feeding on blood and epithelium and potentially causing respiratory issues. The document also discusses the salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis, a serious pest in marine aquaculture that feeds on skin and blood of farmed salmon. Sea lice infestations can damage, weaken and kill salmon
COPEPODS, BRANCHIURANS, ISOPODS, MITES AND BIVALVES RICHARD HECKMANN I remember one of my first fishing trips to Yellowstone Lake, Yellowstone National Park seeing white threadlike organisms attached to the cutthroat trout we had caught. My fishing friend told me the fish had lice. I thought lice existed on land creatures not fish. The fish did not appear to be damaged by the ectoparasite. Three years ago, a research colleague brought some small cyprinid fishes back from Brazil that had isopods attached. In both cases the parasites were visible without magnification. Copepods, isopods and acarine mites, ectoparasites of fish, belong to the Phylum Arthropoda, the jointed appendage group with a chitinous exoskeleton. The other major group included in this article are the bivalves, Phylum Mollusca. The Phylum Arthropoda contains most of the known animals in the world and many are very abundant as individuals. They are highly adapted to their habitat and many are successful as symbiotic organisms living at the expense of their hosts. There are three parasitic groups for fish in the Class Crustacea part of the Phylum Arthropoda: the Branchiura (fish lice), parasitic copepods (Entomostraca), and parasitic isopods. Males of the parasitic Entomostraca disappear after copulation in the preadult stages, so identification is usually based on females only. Both sexes of the Branchiura and Isopoda are parasitic and have been described. The copepods in general are small to microscopic with both free living and parasitic forms. There are numerous examples of ectoparasites on fish for the true copepods and Branchiura. Certain copepod species of the genera Argulus, Lernaea, Ergasilus and salmon lice have been considered serious pests for fish culture and have become increasingly important in recent years. Control of dangerous crustaceans has been difficult. One unique observation is that parasitic copepods are not found in acidic seepage waters, and Ergasilus sieboldi is highly sensitive to hydrogen sulfide. With the exception of salmon lice, parasitic crustaceans, when present in small numbers, usually cause only minor harm to their hosts. In the case of heavy infections severe damage to skin, muscle, and gill tissues can occur. Secondary infections (other parasites, bacteria, fungi, and viruses), anemia, emaciation, mortality, and sometimes severe epizootics have been reported. Parasitic crustaceans sometimes undergo marked modifications in external and internal morphology, including partial or complete fusion of body segments, reduction and change of function of appendages, and reduction or disappearance of body cavity organs. Most of these changes enhance the parasitic mode of life. Sensory organs and the reproductive system are usually well-developed. Sexes are usually separate for this parasitic group (dioecious), and sexual dimorphism often is presentespecially dwarfism among males. For the bivalve parasites, the mollusks have soft unsegmented bodies with a larval stage (glochidia) that can infest fish. Before the use of plastic for buttons, freshwater bivalves represented the main source for this product. The Upper Mississippi was the main area for this industry until overfishing depleted the number of hosts (fish) for the glochidia. The glochidia attach to the gill filaments of the host and depend on the fish for their nutrient needs. Many of the freshwater bivalves require fish to complete their life cycle. The larvae became encysted in the epithelium of the gill filament of the host and when initially observed resemble metacercariae cysts of trematode. Examples of these ectoparasites will be listed and summarized starting with the copepods. Salmincola is considered a copepod or fish louse belonging to the family Lernacopodidae. This copepod is highly modified for its parasitic mode of life and is a major problem to salmonids in certain areas of North America. Recently the author received specimens of Salmincola infecting rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus clarki) in Colorado, which have had a devastating effect on the fish. Records show that during the past 40 years this ectoparasite native to the western United States has spread via fish shipments to as far east as New Jersey. It has become a major problem in commercial salmon operations. It has a typical life cycle with the characteristic nauplius and copepodid stages. Salmincola attaches to the gill filaments, opercula, mouth cavity and the tongue. Like other ergasilids, Salmincola feeds on blood and epithelium. Heavy infections may result in respiratory problems due to parasite location and, secondary infections, similar to what happens for the copepod, Ergasilus. Aquaculture Magazine November/December 2003 2 For Salmincola there are at least 17 species described to date. For the female, the cephalothorax is short, stout, and inclining to the body axis. The trunk is short and stout, often flattened dorsoventrally. An example of one of the 17 species is Salmincola edwardsii which has been reported from the gill filaments, gill arches and fins of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and other salmonids. Reports indicate that the parasite can cause disease and losses in all stages of cultured fish. Severe infestation brings about blood loss and the proliferation of branchial mucous membrane, whereby respiration is obstructed. The fish become sluggish and discolored. The reproduction of this parasite takes place primarily during the hot summer season. Older fish suffer the most severe attack. The intensity of infestation has been found to be not less than 500 per fish. The measures recommended for the prevention of copepod infestations including Salmincola which have had some success include: a) separating fish of different age groups; b) arranging intense sources of electric light on the pond and capturing the larval parasites attracted by positive phototaxis; c) biological control by introducing cleaning-fish such as the genus Notropis which consume the larvae of the copepods through a process of cleaning symbiosis. It is well known that the salmon louse, Lepeophtheirus salmonis, is parasitic on marine salmon, Salmo salar, Oncorhynchus and sea trout, Oncorhynchus trutta. With the increase in farming both atlantic (Salmo) and pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus) there is renewed interest in alleviating the infestation by lice. Salmon lice occur on wild marine and farmed salmon and have become a serious problem to the salmon industry. There are other genera and species of fish lice that can infest the organism. It was common knowledge in the northern European countries that the lice will leave the fish in fresh water and survive only a few days in brackish or fresh water. Salmon are also host to another caligid, Caligus elongatus, a copepod it shares with many other teleosts such as tilapia. From a modest start at the end of the 1960s, the marine salmon aquaculture program has grown immensely in several countries such as Chile, Norway, England and Canada. The major country producing salmon is Norway. Scotland, Iceland and the Faroes also have many salmon farms. More and more coastal countries with suitable water have become interested in salmon production. Lepeophtheirus salmonis has become a serious pest in marine aquaculture. Feeding on the fishs skin, mucus and blood, these lice can cause small haemorrhages and sores, and may erode the skin and expose the underlying tissue to secondary infection. It has been reported that 400-500 lice on a single cultured salmon is not exceptional, and that close to 2000 lice have been recorded from a single host. Lice on wild salmon can be the source of the infestation in farmed marine salmon. Sea lice such as Lepeophtheirus salmonis and Caligus elongatus have the potential to damage, weaken and kill salmon. These ectoparasites may transmit microbial pathogens, and farm infestations may have impact upon wild salmonids. Infestations between wild and farmed fish shows a usually higher prevalence and abundance for the latter, indicating enhanced transmission of sea lice in farm conditions. Farmed or cultured salmon are usually isolated and packed in smaller areas, which enhances parasite transmission. Aquaculture Magazine November/December 2003 3 For management and control of the parasites, the choice of a control method depends upon its efficacy, stress to the fish, environmental effects, cost, hazard to staff, marketing implications and ease of application. Each method of control will vary in adaptability to different farm conditions. Alternative methods need to be planed to enable control under different farming conditions and prevent development of resistance by lice, if pharmaceuticals are used. Adult females of L. salmonis infesting wild salmon are mainly attached at the sides of, and behind, the dorsal and adipose fins where, being dark brown, they do not show well against the dark color of the fish. Single adult females may attach anywhere on the fishs body, but few are found on top of the head, where they seem to aggregate in farmed salmon. For L. salmonis on cultured salmon, preference is the summer season, even though the lice can reproduce during the entire year. Enormous quantities of nauplii must be produced since these larvae can be a food source for other animals. The nauplii develop into copepodids. For those readers primarily interested in the ectoparasitic crustacea of sea water reared salmon, Johnson, Kent and Margolis wrote an excellent review article for Aquaculture Magazine Vol 23 (2). There has been increased interest pertaining to these parasites with the accelerated farming of Atlantic and Pacific salmon. Currently there is considerable interest in the problem of sea lice control for farm-raised salmon. In an issue of Fish Farming News (vol. 9. May/June. 2001) a summary of a conference for pest management for sea lice infesting trout was held at the University of Aberdeen (England). At the conference three main sessions were held; (a) the science base of sea lice control, (b) epidemiology and modeling, and (c) management systems. In an email to all members of the Fish Health section, American Fisheries Society a news release from Canada June 29, 2001 cited a main problem of sea lice in the Brought Archipelalgo near Vancouver Island , Canada. It was noted that salmon farmers watch very closely for sea lice on fish. CALIGUS Besides the species that infest salmon, another example of the copepod Caligus is C. epidemicus, which has been reported infesting fingerling tilapia. It is a common parasite of low-salinity water in the coastal and estuarine zones of the Western Pacific. It has been reported from both wild and cultured fishes. Recently it was reported on the cultured tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon Fabricius) from Chantaburi Province, Thailand, which is most unusual, not only for this species but for the entire family of sea lice. In Taiwan C. epidemicus was first noticed in March 1990 on the Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) being reared in the salt-water ponds at the Tainan branch of the Fisheries Research Institute. The infestation was so severe that many fish died from the infestation. With the increased interest in production of tilapia, fish farmers need to be aware of this ectoparasite. Ergasilus Another common ectoparasitic crustacean on fish is the Argulus, branchiuran parasite of fish. Note highly modified maxillae for attachment (arrows) and other parasitic modifications. (View 1) Argulus, branchiuran parasite of fish. Note highly modified maxillae for attachment (arrows) and other parasitic modifications. (View 2) genus Ergasilus. This organism has evolved into a very effective parasite modified for its mode of life. The body attaches to a fish host with prominent clawlike second antenae. The cephalothorax or body is highly modified and the body is narrowed posteriorly. Females (1.5 to 2.5 mm) are larger than males (1.0 mm). The highly visible egg sacs for the female are long and often cigar-shaped. There are many described species in the world that infest fish. Ergasilus attaches to the gill filaments, where it feeds on blood and epithelium. Heavy infestations can result in mechanical damage, petechial hemorrhaging, impaired respiration, epithelial hyperplasia, anemia and retarded Aquaculture Magazine November/December 2003 4 growth. When the parasite attach, the piscine host becomes more susceptible to secondary infections. Adult parasites occasionally infest gill rakers or other external locations. For the life cycle, which is similar to other copepods, mature eggs are released from egg sacs. After the eggs are released, embryonic development takes place and a free- swimming nauplius hatches from each egg. Larvae pass through four copepodid stages, each accompanied by molting. Copulation occurs when an individual is free- swimming, after which the male dies. The female copepod enters the gill cavity, where she is retained by gillrakers, creeps to the gills, and attaches with highly modified appendages. Ergasilosis is of c o n s i d e r a b l e importance in fishery m a n a g e m e n t , especially for fish inhabiting lakes. Among ergasilids, Ergasilus sieboldii. lives as a parasite on the gills of various freshwater fish, and has become common for fishes in central Europe. Its wide geographical distribution and the high incidence of its infestation have caused quite a serious problem for those managing lake fisheries. The practical consequences of heavy attacks have been fairly enormous in the fishery economy of lakes and probably surpass the losses known from many of the other fish parasites. Both small fish and large fish may be severly impacted by the copepod. A common observation for the severity of attack on different freshwater fish, by adult and copulated females, can be attributed to the differences in the species- characteristic movements (speed of swimming) and shape of fishes. More swift movements and greater swimming activity do not favor the attachment of parasites. Lernaea Anchor worm, Thread worm The freshwater fish tanks at my university annually offer examples of fish infested with this copepod. Characteristics of this Lernaeidid copepod include the long filamentous nature of the female, which averages 5-22mm in length with trailing egg sacs attached. Modifications include the head which is a rounded knob inserted into the musculature of its host with one or two pair of anchors to hold it in position. It has a typical life cycle with eggs released by the female hatching in one to three days with subsequent nauplia larvae. The nauplius metamorphoses into first or second copepodid stage in 4 to 16 days. No further development occurs unless it attaches to a host. Larvae pass through five successive copepodid stages before attachment; copulation occurs during the fourth coepodid stage and the male disappears similar to the Ergasilus species. In the temperate zone, the female overwinters as a larva or juvenile adult attached to a fish. The copepodid stages will feed on fish mucus. Following infestation, damage to the fish host includes; hemorrhagic and ulcerated lesions, anemia, retardation of growth, loss of weight, and loss of equilibrium. The potential for secondary infections by other parasites, including Saprolegnia, Trichodina Ichthyobodo; and bacteria, and viruses has been reported. Massive mortalities have occurred and fish kills due to heavy Lernaea infections have been reported in lakes and streams. Many species of Lernaea have been reported in the USA (see references). Clinical Signs: Lernaea The first reactions to the irritation from a parasite attack by Lernaea are aberrant swimming, flashy, scouring or gliding movements against the bottom or on submerged objects (similar to those fish infested with Costia, T r i c h o d i n a , Ichthophthirius and other ectoparasites (See articles on parasitic protozoa). The infestation is accompanied by marked emaciation and loss of weight. This parasitic copepod is readily visible without the use of magnification. Anchor worm is a general term for species of highly modified copepods that possess anchor-like processes for securing themselves to the host. Anchor worms may be introduced into an aquarium from wild or pond-raised fish (parasitic reservoir). Goldfish, koi, or wild native fish are most commonly affected. Lernaea and related genera infest freshwater fish. Lernaea is most likely to be seen in F or management and control of the parasites, the choice of a control method depends upon its efficacy, stress to the fish, environmental effects, cost, hazard to staff, marketing implications and ease of application. Aquaculture Magazine November/December 2003 5 summer, when copepod reproduction is at a peak. Treatment: Management of Lernaea infestations. For lernaeid infestations in aquarium fish, individual parasites can be removed with forceps. Wounds should be watched closely for secondary infections. Be sure to isolate infected fish from the other stock. Organophosphate is usually effective; prolonged immersion treatment should be repeated every 7 days for 28 days. Remember only a limited number of pharmaceuticals are approved for aquaculture. Among the pathogenic crustaceans, members of the family Argulidae represent some of the most widespread and dangerous ectoparasites of freshwater and marine fish. These organisms damage the fish directly by extracting blood and vital tissue fluids from the host with their modified mouth parts. Secondarily, they can initiate access for other disease organisms (virus, bacteria, etc) by breaking down the first line of defense for the fish, the integument. The genus Argulus constitutes the greatest number of known species of branchiuran fish parasites and the widest distribution through out the world. Not all species of Argulus have been described. Species of Argulus are characterized by a depressed, ovoid and broad body. The head is fused with the thoracic segment forming a cephalothorax covered by a dorsal, broad, flat shield (carapace) with posterolateral lobes. Two pair of maxillae are present, the first maxillae in the genus Argulus is highly modified to form cup-like suckers with strongly reinforced walls. Argulus, commonly called fish-lice, crustacean ectoparasites of fish, are large (4-20 mm long) ectoparasites, which move freely over the body (and sometimes gills) of fishes. Thus they can readily be observed without magnification. They puncture the hosts skin, inject a cytolytic toxin through the oral sting, and feed on blood. Feeding sites often become hemorrhagic and ulcerated, and provide access to secondary infections by other parasites, fungi, bacteria, or viruses. Heavy infestations can cause emaciation, loss of equilibrium, and on occasion high mortality for both cultured and free-ranging fishes. Argulus is an ectoparasite from the subclass Branchiura, Phylum Arthropoda belonging to a taxonomic group separate from other copepods. They are considered modified copepods, and are parasites of both freshwater and marine fish. Argulids have long been recognized as pests of cultured trout in Europe and carp in China. Recently, they have been considered a major problem for the sea-caged salmon industry. Argulus has a world-wide distribution for fishes. After attaching to fish, the argulids grow and metamorphose several times and become sexually mature in 30 to 35 days. Since their first mention in the literature, the biology of argulids and their pathological effects have attracted the attention of biologists and fishermen. With the development of intensive fish culture in many countries, the problem of controlling this group of dangerous ectoparasites has again been brought to the attention of researchers. There are two structures used directly for feeding by these organisms, the preoral spine and the mouthtube. The preoral spine punctures the host integument and injects the fish with a toxic secretion that can cause an inflammatory, hemorrhagic response. The highly adapted maxillules are the primary organs for attachment to the host and they look like a toilet plunger and provide the easiest means of identifying the genus since they are the most noticeable structures on the animals ventral surface. Argulus (fish louse), is uncommon in freshwater aquarium fish but may occur if wild or pond-raised fish are introduced into the tank. Argulus is especially common on goldfish and koi and on many wild freshwater fish. Fish can display flashing or violent erratic swimming, similar to other crustacean parasites, or other behavioral abnormalities because of the irritation caused by the parasite. Fish are damaged by the repeated piercing of the skin by the stylet or preoral spine. Also hooks and spines are on the appendages, which may cause mechanical damage. One or two parasites usually cause no clinical signs in large fish, but Argulus has a high reproductive rate thus increasing the parasite infestation. Cyprinus carpio (common carp) is a favored host for fish lice; thus Argulus are sometimes called carp-lice. Argulus has been reported in stickleback, salmonids, and white crappie. Where common sites for infection are around the gills, operculum, mouth, back, and pelvic and pectoral fins. Treatment As with other crustacean parasites, organophosphates are usually an effective treatment. Review regulations relating to the use of this chemical for fish culture. The time needed to complete the life cycle varies for Argulus; therefore, it is Aquaculture Magazine November/December 2003 6 useful to rid tanks of egg contamination by using disinfectant or by allowing the tanks to dry thoroughly preferably outside exposed to the sun for several days. Otherwise, multiple chemical treatment may be needed. Individual parasites can be removed from fish by using forceps, but this is labor intensive and does not eliminate parasites in the environment. Isopods This is a commonly overlooked group of fish parasites. There are many examples of highly modified isopods parasitic to marine fish such as the flabelliferan group. Many have yet to be recorded and described. Isopods are members of the Phylum Arthropoda, organisms with jointed appendages and usually a flattened three-part body. There has been limited research conducted on this group. Parasitic isopods, with approximately 450 described species, are fairly common crustacean ectoparasites of wild tropical marine fish. They are less common in cold marine waters and rarely found on freshwater fish. The samples recently brought to our lab were from freshwater fish in Brazil. They are rare for cultured fish, although some infestations have caused problems in sea-caged salmonids in Australia. The life cycle is simple. Most are parasitic as both juveniles and adults. There are two main groups of isopods with parasitic species; Flabellifera and Gnathiidea. The Flabellifera have a typical isopod shape and are up to 6 cm in length. Nearly all the major fish groups are represented as hosts to this group. For some only the larvae are parasitic living on the skin or gills of fish. Most of the adults are nonfeeding, live in mud tubes, and produce infective larvae. Due to their large size, single isopods, readily seen on the fish, can cause considerable damage with their biting and sucking mouthparts including pressure necrosis of gill tissue limiting respiratory surface and growth retardation. Heavy infestations of parasitic juveniles have the potential to kill small fingerlings when they attach. There are no published studies of treatments for parasitic isopods. Individuals can also be removed from fish by using forceps. Isopods are also found on coastal freshwater fishes or on brackish water fishes inhabiting freshwater. Most are associated with marine, brackish water, or euryhaline fishes. Freshwater fish isopods have been imported to North America on aquarium fishes. Thus, shipments of aquarium fish with parasites should be isolated from the other stock. Cymothoids parasitize freshwater fishes in the rivers and lakes of South America, Africa, and Asia. Many of these cymothoids are exclusively freshwater parasites. Some species burrow into the flesh of their hosts. Two examples of parasitic isopods are Nerocila and Lironeca (Livoneca) Nerocilia belongs to the family Cymothoidae, cymothoid parasites. It has a body two to three times longer than wide and a head with wide anterior margins. Trunk and tail possess numerous pointed projections. Nerocilia infests a variety of marine and brackish water fishes and is also found on coastal freshwater or euryhaline fishes. Species often show little or no host specificity attaching to any fish in the area. Most occur on the bodies and fins of their hosts; while one species infests the gill chamber. The second representative, Lironeca (Livoneca) is also part of the family Cymothoidea. It is described by a body weakly vaulted, neither flat nor highly inflated. The head not surrounded by shoulders or extensions of the body. This isopod is limited to the New World, with described species on the U.S. Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and one in the Caribbean. Lironeca occurs has been described in the gill chamber of both marine and brackish water fishes. There has been additional interest in describing and studying isopods from marine fish in Pakistan. In the December issue (1999) of Proceedings of Parasitology an article by Shireen described two new species of isopods, Cymothoa eremita and Joryma engraulidas from marine fishes off the Karachi coast in Pakistan. This has been a pattern for other issues of the Proceedings of Parasitology describing new species of this parasite. There are many parts of the world where isopods are not that well known. Considerable research has been done in India due to the interest in culturing fish. The importance of parasitic isopods has become critical due to the interest in prawn and fishes as a food source. Samples of isopods attached to the gills of freshwater fishes from Brazil were brought to my laboratory for identification. Acarina: Mites of the Phylum Arthropoda Very little is known about mite infestation in fish. There have been a few records listed in journals. The habitat and behavior of fishes are not conducive to mite infestation. Recently samples of mites were brought to our lab infesting mosquitoes not fish. It is the larval stage of the acarine mites that infests fish and other animals. The larvae are usually encapsulated with a layer of collagenous connective tissue. Most researches consider mites to be accidental parasites. Very few records exist for infestations of North American fishes. Several genera of mites have been reported from the skin, gills and esophagus of fishes in Europe and North America. Fishes can become heavily infested and damaged. In North America the mites observed in fishes have not been classified. They have been observed in the esophagus, gills, intestine and air bladder. The six-legged larvae of several genera of mites have also been reported from the skin, gills, and esophagus of fishes in Europe. As indicated above, the larvae are usually encapsulated. Even though most authors consider them accidental parasites, if they are present in large numbers in the water the fishes can become heavily infected and damaged. Phylum Mollusca Glochidia, the larval stage of freshwater bivalves, can be a major problem for fishes occupying the same habitat as the molluscan parasite. The symbiotic relationship was observed many years ago (1921) and before the use of plastics, the glochidia became a major problem for the button industry. The larvae, with exceptions, of most of the freshwater bivalves (clams) must go through a parasitic stage on the gills or fins of fishes. The invasion of larval bivalves Aquaculture Magazine November/December 2003 7 has multiple effects on the host; a) masks respiratory surfaces on the gill, b) opens the host to secondary infection and invasion, c)gains sustenance from the host, d) decreases the growth and development of the freshwater clam. References Bowen, T.A. 1996. A Fine Structure Comparison of Three Species of Argulus (Crustacea: Branchiura) Ectoparasites of Farmed and Wild Fishes. MS thesis, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah. 24 pages. Boxshall, G.A. and D. Defaye. 1993. Pathogens of Wild and Farmed Fish: Sea Lice. Ellis Horwood Limited Publisher. England. 378 pages. Bristow, G..A. & Berland, B. 1991. A report on some metazoan parasites of wild marine salmon (Salmo salar L.) from the west coast of Norway with comments on their interactions with farmed salmon. 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