ReviewArticle

PANAXGINSENGAUNIVERSALPANACEAINTHEHERBALMEDICINEWITHDIVERSE
PHARMACOLOGICALSPECTRUMAREVIEW

LAKSHMIT
1*
,ANITHAROY
1
&GEETHAR.V
2
1
DepartmentofPharmacology,SaveethaDentalCollege,Velappanchavady,Chennai,
2
DepartmentofMicrobiology,SaveethaDental
College,Velappanchavady,Chennai.

Email:[email protected]

ABSTRACT
The use of medicinal plant either as a single drug or in combination is increasing in the health care of human being. Medicinal plants can be
important source of previously unknown chemical substances with potential therapeutic effect. The herbal remedies referred to as ginseng are
derivedfromtherootsofseveralplants.OneofthemostcommonlyusedandresearchedoftheginsengisPanaxginseng,alsocalledAsianorKorean
ginseng. The main active components of Panax ginseng are ginsenosides,which have been shown to have a variety of beneficial effects, including
antiinflammatory,antioxidant,andanticancereffects.Panaxginsengalsoimprovepsychologicfunction,immunefunction,andconditionsassociated
with diabetes. This review gives a birds eye view mainly on the pharmacognostic characteristics, traditional uses, phytochemistry and
pharmacologicalactionsoftheplant.
Keywords:Panaxginseng,Pharmacologicalaction,Ginsenosides,Antioxidant,Antidiabeticactivity.

INTRODUCTION
Medicinal plants are part and parcel of human society to combat
diseases, from the dawn of civilization
1
Medicinal plants can be
important source of previously unknown chemical substances with
potentialtherapeuticeffects.
Themedicinaluseofplantsisanancienttradition,farolderthanthe
contemporary sciences of medicine, pharmacology and chemistry.
The world health organization has estimated that over 75% of the
worlds population still relies on plant derived medicines, usually
obtained from traditional healers, for its basic health care needs
2

Herbal medicines are in great demand in the developed as well as

developing countries for primary healthcare because of their wide
biological and medicinal activities, higher safety margins and lesser
costs
3
Panax ginseng belongs to the Araliaceae familyPanax is
derived from the Latin word panacea, which refers to its historical
usageformanyconditions.
Panax ginseng, used medicinally for thousands of years in China,
Korea, and Japan,
4
is well known as an adaptogen and a restorative
tonic that is widely used in traditionalChinese medicine (TCM) and
Western herbal preparations.
5,6
Eclectic uses for Panax ginseng
include infertility, liver disease, amnesia, colds, menopause,and
erectiledysfunction
.57

There are many species of Panax,which leads to some confusion in

the literature. However,the two species that have been the most
extensively researchedand used are Panax ginseng and Panax
quinquefolius. Panax ginseng is one ofthe most commonlyused and
highlyresearchedspeciesofginseng.Thisspecies,whichisnativeto
China, Korea,and Russia, has been an important herbalremedy in
traditional Chinese medicine for thousands of years, where it has
been used primarilyas a treatment for weakness and fatigue.
8
The
main active agents in Panax ginseng are ginsenosides, which are
triterpenesaponins.Ginsenghasbeenusedforavarietyofpurposes
forabout5000years.
It has been used to increase physical endurance and lessen
fatigue, to improve the ability to cope with stress, and to
improve concentration. It is also used foranemia, diabetes,
gastritis,neurasthenia,erectile dysfunction, impotence andmale
fertility, fever, hangover, andasthma. Panax ginseng is also used
for bleeding disorders, loss of appetite, vomiting, colitis,
dysentery, cancer, insomnia, neuralgia, rheumatism, dizziness,
headache, convulsions, disorders of pregnancy and childbirth,
hot flashes due to menopause, and to slow the aging process. It
mayalsoimproveyouroverallbeing.
PlantProfile
Planttaxonomy
9

Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Angiosperms
Subdivision: Eudicots
Class: Asterids
Order: Apiales
Family: Araliaceae
Subfamily: Aralioideae
Genus:
Species
Panax
Ginseng
Commonnames
10

American ginseng, Asiatic ginseng, Chinese ginseng, fivefingers,

Japanese ginseng, jintsam, Korean ginseng, ninjin, Oriental ginseng,
schinsent,sengandsang,tartarroot,Westernginseng
PlantDescriptions
Botanicaldescription
Panax ginseng belongs to the Araliaceae family and is found
throughout East Asia and Russia
.11,12
It grows natively in remote
forests of Manchuria and North Korea, but has become over
harvestedinotherpartsofAsia.
4
ItiscultivatedinKorea,China,and
Japan for export and use as a medicinal herb.Panax ginseng is a
shadeloving, deciduous perennial with fivefingered leaves, tiny
whiteflowers,redberries,andayellowishbrownroot.
57

The root is utilized medicinally, although active compounds are

presentinallotherpartsoftheplant.Therootof Panaxginsengisa
thick structure that resembles a humanlike form, which is
responsiblefor its name in Chinese,jen shen, or manroot.
5
Panax
isderivedfromtheLatinwordpanacea,whichreferstoitshistorical
usage for many conditions. There are two distinct forms of Panax
ginseng,redandwhiteginseng.
The difference is the method of processing that results in different
pigment compositions; white ginsengis produced by harvestingthe
root and drying it in the sun,
6
while red ginseng is steamed after
harvest and dried. The content of ginsenoside compounds differs
slightlybetweentheredandwhiteforms.Growingtimealsoimpacts
ginsenoside content,with roots from plants older than five years
being more potent than roots from one to twoyearold plants.
6,7

Ginseng is a perennial herb long known for the reputed medicinal

and aphrodisiac properties of its aromatic root. The genus name
Panax reflects the reputed value of various species of ginseng as a
cureallorpanacea.Theunbranchedstemis 2040cm(815in.)
Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research
Vol. 4, Suppl 1, 2011 ISSN - 0974-2441
Academic Sciences
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high and is topped by a single whorl of 1 to 5 palmately compound
leaves.Usually,threecompoundleavesareproduced,eachwith five
serrate (pointed and toothed) leaflets. The tiny flowers are produced
in a single, balllike cluster in the fork where the leaf stalks meet the
stem.
Thefivepetalledflowersarewhiteorgreenishyellowandarescented
like lilyofthevalley. They appear from late June to mid July. The
fruits,brightreddrupesonecm(0.4in.)indiameter,areeasilyseenin
thefall.(Ginsengplantslessthanthreeyearsoldusuallybearnofruit,
andittakes1822monthsbetweenthetimewhentheripefruitdrops
tothegroundandthetimetheseedwillgerminate.)

Fig.2.1:Rootofpanaxginseng

Fig.2.2:Leaves,flowersabdrootofpanaxginseng
[

Fig.2.3:Fruitofpanaxginseng
Habitat
11,12

Ginseng favors cool, welldrained soils of rich, moist deciduous

woods. It may also be found on rocky talus slopes. Among the
specific habitats in Massachusetts are a variety of rocky habitats,
including the tops of ledges, rocky talus slopes and jumbles, and
rocky rich mesic woods; along a creek at the base of a ferncovered
slope; and various rich mesic forest habitats, including ones at the
baseofa dolomiticlimestoneledgeand oneinaravine.Noneofthe
currentsitesisinfullsun
Phenology
Flowersinlatejunetomidjuly.
Propogation:Byharvestingtheroot
PartsUsed
Therootoftheplantisusedmedicinally.
Phytochemicalconstituents
614

Panax ginseng contains triterpene glycosides, or saponins,

commonly referred to as ginsenosides. Many active compounds can
be found in all parts of the plant, including amino acids, alkaloids,
phenols, proteins, polypeptides, and vitamins B1 and B2.6 Up to 40
distinct ginsenosides have been identified by thin layer
chromatography(TLC)andmethanolextractionexperiments.
6,13
The
nomenclature of ginsenosides is by the designation Rx, where x
represents the retention factor (Rf ) value from the sequence of
spots on TLC from bottom to top. The two major subtypes of
ginsenosides, protopanaxadiol and protopanaxatriol, are classified
accordingtothearrangementandnumberofsugarresiduesglucose,
rhamnose,xylose,andarabinoseontheginsenoside.Rb1,Rb2,Rc,
and Rd are examples of protopanaxadiol ginsenosides. Re, Rf, Rg1,
andRg2areexamplesofprotopanaxatriols.
57
,
13
Theseginsenosides
havevaryingconcentrationsinredandwhite Panaxginsengextracts
due to different processing methods that affect deacetylating
enzymeswithintherawplantmaterial.
14

ActiveComponents
Thetriterpenoidsaponinsreferredtocollectivelyasginsenosidesor
panaxosides.
Pharmacokinetics
15

Recent research supports the hypothesis that ginsenosides are

activated by intestinal bacteria through deglycosylation and
esterification.
15
Protopanaxadiol and protopanaxatriol glycosides
are absorbed into the blood or lymph and transported to target
tissuesforesterificationwithstearic,oleic,orpalmiticfattyacids.
The transformation into ginsenoside metabolites, M1 (20S
protopanaxadiol 20OBDglucopyranoside)and M4 (20S
protopanaxatriol)affectexcretionandutilizationofthemetabolites.
Mechanismofaction
Panaxginsengisoftenreferredtoasanadaptogen,whichsuggestsit
hasvariedactionsandeffects onthe bodythatsupport nonspecific
resistance to biochemical and physical stressors, improve vitality
and longevity, and enhance mental capacity.
3,10,11
Reviews suggest
Panax ginseng has immunomodulating activity by affecting the
hypothalamicpituitaryadrenal(HPA) axis.
6,16
In vitro experiments
reveal enhanced natural killer (NK) cell activity and increased
immunecellphagocytosisafterginsenosideexposure.
6

According to a 1999 World Health Organization review,

ginsengsaponins are thought to decrease serum prolactin, thereby
increasinglibidoinmaleimpotence.
10

Pharmacology
ThemainactiveagentsinPanaxginsengareginsenosides,whichare
triterpene saponins.The majority of published research on the
medicinal activity of Panax ginseng has focused on ginsenosides
.17

Thesearethecompoundstowhichsomeginsengproductsarenow
standardized. Research reviews postulate that extracts of Panax
ginseng affect the hypothalamuspituitaryadrenal axis and the
immune system, which could account for many of the documented
effects. Animal models and in vitro studies mentioned in these
reviews
8,18
indicate that Panax ginseng enhances phagocytosis,
natural killer cell activity, and the production of interferon;
improvesphysicalandmentalperformanceinmiceandrats;causes
vasodilation; increases resistance to exogenous stress factors; and
affectshypoglycemicactivity
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PharmacologicalActivity
Antisterilityactivity
19

A study was designed using an untreated control group found

indications thatPanax ginsengmight improve sperm count and
motility,therebyenhancingmalefertility.
Antiproliferativeactivity
20.21

Panax ginsengis also said to help preventcancerand fight chemical

dependency, but the scientific evidence for these uses is minimal at
best. Numerous in vitro and animal studies have examined the
interaction of Panax ginseng with carcinogenesis, apoptosis,
angiogenesis,andmetastasis.
13,2225

Adaptogenicactivity
Numerous studies have evaluated the effects of oralPanax
ginsengon animals under conditions of extremestress. The results
suggest that ginseng increases physical endurance and causes
physiological changes that may help the body adapt to adverse
conditions.
26,27, 28 31
In addition, studies in mice found that
consumingPanax ginsengbefore exposure to a virus significantly
increased the survival rate and the number of antibodies
produced.
32,33
However, most of these studies fall far beneath
modernscientificstandards
Treatmentforcoldandflu
A doubleblind, placebocontrolled study of 323 people found
meaningful evidence that an extract of American ginseng taken at
400mgdailymayhelppreventthecommoncold.
33
Participantswho
used the extract over 4 months experienced a reduced number of
coldsascomparedtothosetakingtheplacebo.Comparativebenefits
were also seen regarding the percentage of participants who
developed two or more colds, and the severity and duration of cold
symptoms that did develop. Similar benefits were also seen in a
study of 43 people.
34
In addition, two doubleblind, placebo
controlled studies indicate thatPanax quinquefoliusmay be able to
preventflulikeillnessinseniors.
35

A doubleblind, placebocontrolled study suggests thatPanax

ginsengcan also help prevent flulike illnesses.
36
This trial enrolled
227 participants at three medical offices in Milan, Italy. Half were
given ginseng at a dosage of 100 mg daily, the other half placebo.
Four weeks into the study, all participants received influenza
vaccine.Theresultsshowedasignificantdeclineinthefrequencyof
colds and flus in the treated group compared to the placebo group
(15 versus 42 cases). Also, antibody measurements in response to
thevaccinationrose higherinthe treatedgroup thanintheplacebo
group.
A doubleblind, placebocontrolled study found thatPanax
ginsengcan improve some aspects of mental function.
37
Over a
period of 2 months, 112 healthy, middleaged adults were given
either ginseng or placebo. The results showed that ginseng
improved abstract thinking ability. However, there was no
significant change in reaction time, memory, concentration, or
overall subjective experience between the two groups. Another
doubleblind,placebocontrolledstudyof50menfoundthat8week
treatment with aPanax ginsengextract improved ability in
completion of a detailoriented editing task.
38
Also, a doubleblind
trial of 16 healthy males found favorable changes in ability to
perform mental arithmetic in those givenPanax ginsengfor 12
weeks.
39
Memorypowerenhancingactivity
Several studies have found indications thatPanax
ginsengmightenhance mental functionMore comprehensive
benefits were seen in a doubleblind, placebocontrolled trial
involving 60 elderly people. Researchers found that 50 or 100 days
of treatment withPanax ginsengproduced improvements in
numerous measures of mental function, including memory,
attention, concentration, and ability to cope.40 Benefits were still
evidentatthe50dayfollowup.However,virtuallynoimprovement
was seen in the placebo group, a result that is highly unusual and
raisesdoubtsabouttheaccuracyofthestudy.
Sportsperformance
The evidence forPanax ginsengas asports supplementis mixed at
best.An8week,doubleblind,placebocontrolledtrialevaluatedthe
effects ofPanax ginsengwith and without exercise in 41
individuals.
41
Theparticipantsweregiveneitherginsengorplacebo,
and then underwent exercise training or remained untrained
throughout the study. The results showed that ginseng improved
aerobic capacity in individuals who did not exercise, but offered no
benefit in those who did exercise. In a 9week, doubleblind,
placebocontrolled trial of 30 highly trained athletes, treatment
withPanaxginsengaloneorincombinationwithvitaminEproduced
significant improvements in aerobic capacity.
42
Another double
blind, placebocontrolled trial of 37 individuals also found some
benefit.
43
Senseofwellbeingeffects
A doubleblind study compared the effects of a nutritional
supplement with and withoutPanax ginsengextract on the feeling
ofwellbeingin 625 people whose average age was just under 40
years old.
44
Quality of life was measured by a set of 11 questions.
People taking the ginsengcontaining supplement reported
significant improvement compared to those taking the nonginseng
supplement(the controlgroup). Similarfindingswerereported ina
doubleblind, placebocontrolled study of 36 people newly
diagnosedwithdiabetes.
45
After8weeks,participantswhohadbeen
taking 200 mg of ginseng daily reported improvements in mood,
wellbeing, vigor, and psychophysical performance that were
significantcomparedtothereportsofcontrolparticipants,
Antidiabeticactivity
EclecticmedicinetextsreferencePanaxginsengforitsbeneficialuse
in blood sugar regulation.
2
,
10
In a doubleblind RCT, Sotaniemi et al
examined the efficacy of Panax ginseng in newly diagnosed type 2
diabetics.
45
Parameters measured included physical performance,
mood, serum lipids, fasting blood glucose, hemoglobinA1c (HbA1c),
aminoterminalpropeptide(PIIINP)concentration,andbodyweight.
PIIINPserumlevelsareassociatedwithcoronaryarterydiseaseand
wereusedasasafetyparameterinthisstudy.Thestudyparticipants
(n=36) were given 100 mg ginseng extract, 200 mg ginseng extract,
orplacebodailyforeightweeks.Comparedtotheplacebogroup,the
200mg ginseng group experienced elevated mood, improved
physical performance, and reduced fasting blood glucose. The
authorsconcludedginsengwarrantsfurtherstudyasanadjuvantto
diabetes.
A doubleblind, 12week RCT examined the effect of red Panax
ginseng on HbA1c levels in 19 subjects with wellcontrolled type 2
diabetes.
46
Study participants received 2 g ginseng or placebo three
times daily before meals. Plasma glucose and insulin, insulin
sensitivity, and oral glucose tolerance were secondary measures of
efficacy, while blood pressure checks and liver and kidney function
tests assessed safety. Although no change was seen in HbA1c levels
with ginseng, the participants remained well controlled throughout
thestudywithoutpharmaceuticalinterventionwithaveragelevels
of HbA1c of 6.5 percent. A significant 8 to 11percent decrease in
glucose on the oral glucose tolerance test and 33percent decrease
inplasmainsulin (p<0.05)wasseenintheginsenggroupcompared
toplacebo.Nochangewasreportedinsafetyparametersthroughout
thestudy,whichledtheauthorstoconclude
red Panax ginseng is safe to use in the treatment of type 2 diabetes
management
Antiinflammatoryactivity
ArecentpaperproposedanantiinflammatoryroleofPanaxginseng
in the sequence of progression to promotion in a model of
carcinogenesis.
47
Panax ginseng affects multiple points within the
inflammatory cascade,including inhibition of cyclooxygenase2
(COX2),inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and nuclear factor
kappaB
48,49
In a review, Lee et al concluded Panax ginseng has a
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radioprotective effect associated with antioxidant and immune
modulationproperties
14

DrugBotanicalInteractions
According to a review by Blumenthal et al,there are no known
interactions between Panax ginseng and pharmaceuticals, as
reported by the German Commission E.
50,51
Caution is advised with
concomitant use with phenelzine, coumadin, oral hypoglycemics,
insulin,and caffeine, based on preclinical studies and proposed
mechanisms of action. A recent review by Seely et al suggests
cautious use of Panax ginseng in pregnancy and lactation, although
nospecificteratogenicorhormonedisruptingactivitywasnoted
11

SideEffectsandToxicity
Panax ginseng is associated with low toxicity;few adverse events
havebeenreportedwithproperusage
.6,50
Adverseeventshavebeen
associatedwithhighdosesandlongtermusage,producingwhathas
beencited in the literature as ginseng abuse syndrome,
8,16
although
case studies associated with ginseng abuse syndrome have been
discounted by several authors.Side effects such as hypertension,
nausea, diarrhea,headache, mastalgia, insomnia, and skin rash have
beennoted.
5,8,16

WarningsandContraindications
The German Commission E and the WorldHealth Organization
report no known contraindicationsfor Panax ginseng
.6,51
ion is
advised during pregnancyand lactation due to a lack of controlled
humanclinicalstudies.
3,8
Teratogenicityhasbeendocumentedinanin
vitro rat embryo model, but the implication for human health is
questionable due to dosages used thatexceed possible human
consumption.
52
In Asian countriesthe use of Panax ginseng in TCM
formulasiscommonthroughoutpregnancyandlactation.
5

Safetyissues
Ginseng appears to be nontoxic, both in the short and longterm,
accordingtotheresultsofstudies inmice,rats,chickens,anddwarf
pigs.
5356
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors thankfully acknowledge the keen interest and the support
offered by Dr.N,D Jaya kumar Principal.Saveetha Dental college and
Hospitals,Chennai77toprepareandpublishthemanuscript.
CONCLUSION
Medicinal plants have provided copious leads to combat diseases,
from the dawn of civilization. The extensive survey of literature
revealed that panax ginseng . is highly regarded as a universal
panacea in the herbal medicine with diverse pharmacological
activityspectrum.Thisversatilemedicinalplantistheuniquesource
of various types of chemical compounds, which are responsible of
thevariousactivitiesoftheplant.
Hence extensive investigation is needed to exploit their therapeutic
utility to combat diseases.A drug development programme should
be undertaken for the development of modern drugs with the
compounds isolated from panax ginseng As the global scenario is
now changing towards the use of nontoxic plant products having
traditionalmedicinaluse,developmentofmoderndrugsfrompanax
ginseng should be emphasized for the control of various diseases.
panax ginseng imbibing a tremendous potential deserves a special
attention of the scientific fraternity to emerge as a milestone for
medicalscienceofthismillenniumduetoitsvariousmedicinaluses.
Further evaluation needs to be carried out on panax ginseng in
order to explore the concealed areas and their practicalcinical
applications,whichcanbeusedforthewelfareofthemankind.
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