desc user_objects desc user_tables desc user_views desc user_triggers

desc user_types desc user_synonyms desc user_procedures desc user_indexes

desc user_ind_columns desc user_sequences desc user_catalog desc user_constraints
desc user_cons_columns desc user_col_comments desc user_tab_comments
desc user_col_privs_made desc user_tab_privs_made

CREATE TRIGGER comm_change BEFORE UPDATE ON emp FOR EACH ROW WHEN (NEW.job NOT IN (‘MANAGER’,
’PRESIDENT’ ))
BEGIN IF (:new.comm < 5000 ) THEN raise_application_error(-20300,‘check commission’);END IF;END;

 num_val exception; PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(num_val , -6502);

 DELETE FROM emp WHERE deptno = (SELECT MAX(deptno)+1 FROM dept ); IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20345,’No candidate with such department number’);

 TYPE type_name IS TABLE OF [NOT NULL] { column_type | variable%TYPE | table.column % TYPE } [ INDEX BY
BINARY_INTEGER ] ;
identifier type_name ;
 EXISTS(n) true if nth element in a PL/SQL table exists COUNT the number of elements of table
 FIRST smallest index number in a table LAST largest index number in a table
 PRIOR(n) index number that precedes index n NEXT(n) index number that succeeds index n
 TRIM removes one element from the end of table TRIM (n) n elements from end of table are removed
 DELETE removes all elements from table DELETE(m) mth element is removed from table
 DELETE(m,n) all elements in range m..n are removed from table
Procedure/Function
Execute as a PL/SQL statement Invoke as part of an expression
Do not contain RETURN clause in the header Must contain a RETURN clause in the header
Can contain a RETURN statement Must contain at least one RETURN statement
Can return none, one, or more values Must return a single value

DECLARE CURSOR dept_cursor IS SELECT * FROM dept ; dept_record dept_cursor % ROWTYPE ;

BEGIN OPEN dept_cursor ; LOOP FETCH dept_cursor INTO dept_record ;EXIT WHEN dept_cursor % NOTFOUND ;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(dept_record .dname || ‘location :’ || dept_record.loc) ;
END LOOP ;
CLOSE dept_cursor ;
END ;

Execute ins_emp(123, ‘sunil’ , 20); -- positional parameters

Execute ins_emp(empno =>123 , empname => ‘srikanth’ , deptno =>20 ); -- named parameters
Execute ins_emp(123, ‘pramode’ ,deptno => 10 ) ; -- mixed
CREATE SEQUENCE sequence_name
[ INCREMENT BY n ]
[ START WITH n ]
[ { MAXVALUE n | NOMAXVALUE } ]
[ { MINVALUE n | NOMINVALUE } ]
[ { CYCLE | NOCYCLE } ]
[ { CACHE | NOCACHE }] ;
• ALTER SEQUENCE dept_deptid_seq
INCREMENT BY 20
MAXVALUE 999999
NOCACHE
NOCYCLE ;

 CREATE [PUBLIC] SYNONYM synonym FOR object;

 CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW empvu20

 AS SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEES
 WHERE department_id=20
 WITH CHECK OPTION CONSTRAINT empvu20_ck;

• Top-n-anlysis SELECT ROWNUM as Rank, last_name, salary FROM ( SELECT last_name,salary FROM employees ORDER BY salary DESC) WHERE
ROWNUM <=3;
select * from emp e where 1 = (select count(distinct salary) from emp e1 where e1.salary >=e.salary)

join SELECT e.ename,e.sal,d.deptno,d.dname FROM emp e LEFT OUTER JOIN dept d

ON (e.deptno = d.deptno) ;

External table
CREATE TABLE emp_ext
( empcode NUMBER(4), empname VARCHAR2(25),
job VARCHAR2(25))
ORGANIZATION EXTERNAL
( TYPE ORACLE_LOADER
DEFAULT DIRECTORY personnel
 ACCESS PARAMETERS
( RECORDS DELIMITED BY NEWLINE
FIELDS TERMINATED BY ‘,’)
LOCATION ('emp.txt') )
REJECT LIMIT UNLIMITED;

NOT NULL : The column can’t contain a null value

UNIQUE : Specifies column(s) whose values must be unique for all rows in the table.
Null values are allowed
PRIMARY KEY : Uniquely identifies each row of the table
FOREIGN KEY : Establishes and enforces a foreign key relationshipbetween the column and a
column of referenced table
CHECK : Specifies a condition that must be true

SELECT [column, ] group_function(column), ….

FROM table
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY column]
[HAVING group_condition]
[ORDER BY column] ;
Function Description
AVG([DISTINCT|ALL] n) Average value of n
COUNT( Number of rows where expr evaluates to not
{ *| [DISTINCT|ALL] expr } ) null.
For *, including duplicates and rows with nulls
also
MAX( [DISTINCT|ALL] expr ) Maximum value of expr
MIN( [DISTINCT|ALL] expr) Minimum value of expr
STDDEV( [DISTINCT|ALL] x) Standard deviation of n
SUM ( [DISTINCT|ALL] n) Sum values of n
VARIANCE( [DISTINCT|ALL]x) Variance of n
• SELECT e.ename FROM emp e WHERE e.empno NOT IN (SELECT NVL(m.mgr,0) FROM emp m );

• ADD_MONTHS(dt, n)
• LAST_DAY(d)
• MONTHS_BETWEEN(d1, d2)
• NEW_TIME(d, z1, z2) -- PST, AST, etc.
• NEXT_DAY(d, dayname)
• ROUND(d, fmt) -- century, year etc.
• SYSDATE
• TRUNC(d, fmt) -- century, year, etc.

Object Privilege Table View Sequence Procedure

ALTER      
DELETE      
EXECUTE       
INDEX       
INSERT      
REFERENCES      
SELECT     
UPDATE      
Data Type Description

VARCAHR2(size) Variable length character data

CHAR(size) Fixed-length character data
NUMBER(p,s) Variable length numeric data
DATE Date and Time values
LONG Variable length character data up to 2 GB
CLOB Character data up to 4 GB
RAW & LONG RAW Raw binary data
ROWID A 64 base number system representing unique
address of a row in its table

MERGE INTO dest_tab d

USING source_tab s ON (s.no=d.no)
WHEN MATCHED THEN
UPDATE SET
d.name=s.name,
d.address=s.address
d.salary=s.salary
WHEN NOT MATCHED THEN
INSERT (d.name,d.address,d.salary)
VALUES(s.name,s.address,s.salary) ;

LOWER UPPER INITCAP CONCAT SUBSTR LENGTH INSTR LPAD | RPAD TRIM REPLACE
• NVL( expr1, expr2)
• NVL2(expr1, expr2, expr3)
• NULLIF(expr1, expr2)
• COALESCE(expr1, expr2,…..,exprn)

• SELECT CASE ‘a’ WHEN ‘b’ THEN ‘hello b’ WHEN ‘a’ THEN ‘hello a’ ELSE ‘hello somebody’ END hello FROM DUAL;
• SELECT DECODE(‘A’,’B’,’HELLO B’,’A’,’HELLO A’,’HELLO X’) HELLO FROM DUAL;

Create External Table

CREATE TABLE emp_ext
( empcode NUMBER(4), empname VARCHAR2(25),
job VARCHAR2(25))
ORGANIZATION EXTERNAL
( TYPE ORACLE_LOADER
DEFAULT DIRECTORY personnel
ACCESS PARAMETERS
( RECORDS DELIMITED BY NEWLINE
FIELDS TERMINATED BY ‘,’)
LOCATION ('emp.txt') )
REJECT LIMIT UNLIMITED;
• CREATE USER user IDENTIFIED BY password; GRANT privileges [, privileges..] TO user [,user/role, PUBLIC…] ;
• CREATE ROLE manager GRANT create table,create view TO manager; GRANT manager TO scott

create or replace procedure update_rows (p_tab varchar2,p_col varchar2,p_val varchar2) IS

cursor_name integer;
no_of_rows integer;
stmt varchar2(100);
begin
stmt := 'update '||p_Tab ||' set '|| p_col||'='||p_val ;
cursor_name := dbms_sql.open_cursor ;
dbms_sql.parse(cursor_name ,stmt,DBMS_SQL.NATIVE);
no_of_rows := dbms_sql.execute(cursor_name);
dbms_output.put_line(no_of_rows||'rows updated');
end;

• LOB s are used to store large unstructured data such as text, graphic images, films, and sound waveforms.
• There are four large object data types :
- BLOB Binary large object video clip
- CLOB Character large object large text
- NCLOB Multi byte character large object
- BFILE Binary file Movie
• They are characterized
- According to interpretation character, binary
- According to storage aspects internal, external

select 1,2,3 from dual;

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Oracle Concepts and Architecture Database Structures.
1. What are the components of Physical database structure of Oracle Database?.
ORACLE database is comprised of three types of files. One or more Data files, two are more Redo Log files, and one or
more Control files.
2. What are the components of Logical database structure of ORACLE database?
Tablespaces and the Database's Schema Objects.
3. What is a Tablespace?
A database is divided into Logical Storage Unit called tablespaces. A tablespace is used to grouped related logical
structures together.
4. What is SYSTEM tablespace and When is it Created?
Every ORACLE database contains a tablespace named SYSTEM, which is automatically created when the database is
created. The SYSTEM tablespace always contains the data dictionary tables for the entire database.
5. Explain the relationship among Database, Tablespace and Data file.
Each databases logically divided into one or more tablespaces One or more data files are explicitly created for each
tablespace.
6. What is schema?
A schema is collection of database objects of a User.
7. What are Schema Objects ?
Schema objects are the logical structures that directly refer to the database's data. Schema objects include tables, views,
sequences, synonyms, indexes, clusters, database triggers, procedures, functions packages anddatabase links.
8. Can objects of the same Schema reside in different tablespaces.?
Yes.
9. Can a Tablespace hold objects from different Schemes ?
Yes.
10. what is Table ?
A table is the basic unit of data storage in an ORACLE database. The tables of a database hold all of the user accessible
data. Table data is stored in rows and columns.
11. What is a View ?
A view is a virtual table. Every view has a Query attached to it. (The Query is a SELECT statement that identifies the
columns and rows of the table(s) the view uses.)
12. Do View contain Data ?
Views do not contain or store data.
13. Can a View based on another View ?
Yes.
14. What are the advantages of Views ?
Provide an additional level of table security, by restricting access to a predetermined set of rows and columns of a table.
Hide data complexity.
Simplify commands for the user.
Present the data in a different perpecetive from that of the base table.
Store complex queries.
15. What is a Sequence ?
A sequence generates a serial list of unique numbers for numerical columns of a database's tables.
16. What is a Synonym ?
A synonym is an alias for a table, view, sequence or program unit.
17. What are the type of Synonyms?
There are two types of Synonyms Private and Public.
18. What is a Private Synonyms ?
A Private Synonyms can be accessed only by the owner.
19. What is a Public Synonyms ?
A Public synonyms can be accessed by any user on the database.
20. What are synonyms used for ?
Synonyms are used to : Mask the real name and owner of an object.
Provide public access to an object
Provide location transparency for tables,views or program units of a remote database.
Simplify the SQL statements for database users.

21. What is an Index ?

An Index is an optional structure associated with a table to have direct access to rows,which can be created to increase
the performance of data retrieval. Index can be created on one or more columns of a table.
22. How are Indexes Update ?
Indexes are automatically maintained and used by ORACLE. Changes to table data are automatically incorporated into
all relevant indexes.
23. What are Clusters ?
Clusters are groups of one or more tables physically stores together to share common columns and are often used
together.
24. What is cluster Key ?
The related columns of the tables in a cluster is called the Cluster Key.
25. What is Index Cluster ?
A Cluster with an index on the Cluster Key.
26. What is Hash Cluster ?
A row is stored in a hash cluster based on the result of applying a hash function to the row's cluster key value. All rows
with the same hash key value are stores together on disk.
27. When can Hash Cluster used ?
Hash clusters are better choice when a table is often queried with equality queries. For such queries the specified cluster
key value is hashed. The resulting hash key value points directly to the area on disk that stores the specified rows.
28. What is Database Link ?
A database link is a named object that describes a "path" from one database to another.
29. What are the types of Database Links ?
Private Database Link, Public Database Link & Network Database Link.
30. What is Private Database Link ?
Private database link is created on behalf of a specific user. A private database link can be used only when the owner of
the link specifies a global object name in a SQL statement or in the definition of the owner's views or procedures.
31. What is Public Database Link ?
Public database link is created for the special user group PUBLIC. A public database link can be used when any user in
the associated database specifies a global object name in a SQL statement or object definition.
3
2. What is Network Database link ?
Network database link is created and managed by a network domain service. A network database link can be used when
any user of any database in the network specifies a global object name in a SQL statement or object definition.
33. What is Data Block ?
ORACLE database's data is stored in data blocks. One data block corresponds to a specific number of bytes of physical
database space on disk.
34. How to define Data Block size ?
A data block size is specified for each ORACLE database when the database is created. A database users and allocated
free database space in ORACLE datablocks. Block size is specified in INIT.ORA file and cann't be changed latter.
35. What is Row Chaining ?
In Circumstances, all of the data for a row in a table may not be able to fit in the same data block. When this occurs , the
data for the row is stored in a chain of data block (one or more) reserved for that segment.
36. What is an Extent ?
An Extent is a specific number of contiguous data blocks, obtained in a single allocation, used to store a specific type of
information.
37. What is a Segment ?
A segment is a set of extents allocated for a certain logical structure.
38. What are the different type of Segments ?
Data Segment, Index Segment, Rollback Segment and Temporary Segment.
39. What is a Data Segment ?
Each Non-clustered table has a data segment. All of the table's data is stored in the extents of its data segment. Each
cluster has a data segment. The data of every table in the cluster is stored in the cluster's data segment.
40. What is an Index Segment ?
Each Index has an Index segment that stores all of its data.
41. What is Rollback Segment ?
A Database contains one or more Rollback Segments to temporarily store "undo" information.
42. What are the uses of Rollback Segment ?
Rollback Segments are used :
To generate read-consistent database information during database recovery to rollback uncommitted transactions for
users.
43. What is a Temporary Segment ?
Temporary segments are created by ORACLE when a SQL statement needs a temporary work area to complete
execution. When the statement finishes execution, the temporary segment extents are released to the system for future
use.
44. What is a Data File ?
Every ORACLE database has one or more physical data files. A database's data files contain all the database data. The
data of logical database structures such as tables and indexes is physically stored in the data files allocated for a database.
45. What are the Characteristics of Data Files ?
A data file can be associated with only one database.Once created a data file can't change size.
One or more data files form a logical unit of database storage called a tablespace.
46. What is a Redo Log ?
The set of Redo Log files for a database is collectively known as the database's redo log.
47. What is the function of Redo Log ?
The Primary function of the redo log is to record all changes made to data.
48. What is the use of Redo Log Information ?
The Information in a redo log file is used only to recover the database from a system or media failure prevents database
data from being written to a database's data files.
49. What does a Control file Contain ?
A Control file records the physical structure of the database. It contains the following information.
Database Name
Names and locations of a database's files and redolog files.
Time stamp of database creation.
50. What is the use of Control File ?
When an instance of an ORACLE database is started, its control file is used to identify the database and redo log files
that must be opened for database operation to proceed. It is also used in database recovery.
51. What is a Data Dictionary ?
The data dictionary of an ORACLE database is a set of tables and views that are used as a read-only reference about the
database.
It stores information about both the logical and physical structure of the database, the valid users of an ORACLE
database, integrity constraints defined for tables in the database and space allocated for a schema object and how much of
it is being used.
52. What is an Integrity Constrains ?
An integrity constraint is a declarative way to define a business rule for a column of a table.
53. Can an Integrity Constraint be enforced on a table if some existing table data does not satisfy the constraint ?
No.
54. Describe the different type of Integrity Constraints supported by ORACLE ?
NOT NULL Constraint - Disallows NULLs in a table's column.
UNIQUE Constraint - Disallows duplicate values in a column or set of columns.
PRIMARY KEY Constraint - Disallows duplicate values and NULLs in a column or set of columns.
FOREIGN KEY Constrain - Require each value in a column or set of columns match a value in a related table's UNIQUE
or PRIMARY KEY.
CHECK Constraint - Disallows values that do not satisfy the logical expression of the constraint.
55. What is difference between UNIQUE constraint and PRIMARY KEY constraint ?
A column defined as UNIQUE can contain NULLs while a column defined as PRIMARY KEY can't contain Nulls.
56. Describe Referential Integrity ?
A rule defined on a column (or set of columns) in one table that allows the insert or update of a row only if the value for
the column or set of columns (the dependent value) matches a value in a column of a related table (the referenced value).
It also specifies the type of data manipulation allowed on referenced data and the action to be performed on dependent
data as a result of any action on referenced data.
57. What are the Referential actions supported by FOREIGN KEY integrity constraint ?
UPDATE and DELETE Restrict - A referential integrity rule that disallows the update or deletion of referenced data.
DELETE Cascade - When a referenced row is deleted all associated dependent rows are deleted.
58. What is self-referential integrity constraint ?
If a foreign key reference a parent key of the same table is called self-referential integrity constraint.
59. What are the Limitations of a CHECK Constraint ?
The condition must be a Boolean expression evaluated using the values in the row being inserted or updated and can't
contain subqueries, sequence, the SYSDATE,UID,USER or USERENV SQL functions, or the pseudo columns LEVEL
or ROWNUM.
60. What is the maximum number of CHECK constraints that can be defined on a column ?
No Limit.

select empno,ename,sal,rownum from (select empno,ename,sal from emp order by sal desc)
where rownum < 5;